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Chapter 1: Introduction/ Research Design

1.0 Research Context and Research problem

Educators that implement arts based Pedagogies and elicit creativity from their students

have documented substantial achievement gains. People who take part in the creative arts tend to

be “happier, achieve more, receive more awards, are more likely than their peers to attain

leadership positions later in life” (Haanstra, 2000, p 32). However, in the hierarchy of education,

math and language sit at the top and the creative arts at the bottom. Regardless of the benefits,

creative methods of teaching have fallen by the wayside as schools focus on ensuring that all

their students meet curriculum standards (Halverson, Lowenhaupt & Kalaitzidis, 2015). When

schools do embrace you peoples’ creative arts production, it is often romanticized by teachers;

they hesitate to do more than praise young people for being creative for fear that we will be

criticizing students themselves (Sefton-Green & Sinker, 2000)

Researchers have documented that educators do not prioritize the development of student

creativity (Dacey & Lennon, 1998; Gowan, Khatena, & Torrance, 1981; Grigorenko &

Sternberg, 1997; Nickerson, 1984; Torrance, 1976, 1995). This is not only due to the obvious

demand to meet curriculum standards; it is in large part because educators do not feel that they

are equipped with the ability to “initiate, conduct, or evaluate creativity themselves” (Schacter,

Thum, & Zifkin, 2006, p. 62). In one research study many educators indicated that standards and

assessments dictate what and how they teach. This causes them to focus on the tested standards

and devote little or no time to any subjects or teaching strategies that are not included in the

standardized assessments. That same study found that this reasoning is flawed because teaching

for the standards and using the creative arts do not need to be separate when they can be

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complimentary. Therefore, educators should expand their strategies to include creative teaching

techniques in the everyday classroom (Torrence, 1995).

While the research has shown that teachers and educational institutions generally have a

negative effect on student creativity, there are some exemplary accounts of educators that have

been successful in implementing an arts-based approach to education (Amabile, 1996;

Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Gardner, 1993; Guilford, 1975; Nickerson, 1984; Sternberg, 1985,

1996; Torrance, 1976, 1995). Students that are taught using an arts-based approach are “more

motivated, engage in more thinking and problem solving and simply enjoy class more”

(Schacter, Thum, & Zifkin, 2006, p. 48). These are contributing factors for the development of

leadership skills in students.

Some philosophers, artists, and art educators believe or have believed that the creative

arts can aid in developing leaders that can create positive change in the world using new and

innovative ideas (Nietzsche, 1872/86; Dewey, 1916, 1934; Read, 1943, 1950; Beuys, 1973).

Read (1943) echoing Dewey (1934) argues that by educating young people in and through art

they could be led away from the conformity and competition fostered by traditional “teacher-

centered” pedagogies and move towards embracing the subversive nature of the creative arts

(Florida, 2002, p 315).

Arts-based education teaches students how to interpret, criticize, and use visual

information, and how to make choices based on it. When children are encouraged to express

themselves and take risks in creating art, they develop a sense of innovation and ingenuity that

will be important in developing future leaders (Gibson, 2010)

1.2 Purpose of the Study

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The purpose of this qualitative research study is to learn how a sample of elementary

teachers is implementing arts based pedagogy and to learn what outcomes they observe for

students leadership development.

1.3 Research Questions (Main)

How is a small sample of elementary school teachers designing lessons that integrate the

creative arts across the curriculum?

What outcomes do they observe for student leadership in schools?

How are educators currently fostering leadership skills in their students?

What challenges do they encounter when implementing a creative arts pedagogical

approach?

1.4 Background of the Researcher/Reflexive Positioning Statement

I approach the research from a number of perspectives due to the variety of roles I

currently balance in my career. Among my many personal and professional roles, I include artist,

teacher, and researcher. I will briefly consider how each of these roles provides a different lens

through which I engage in this work.

There are times when I identify as an artist, as I do manage to create a piece or two a year

while working full-time and studying part-time. I paint and I work with canvases, sometimes in

conjunction with painting with crayon wax. In the past, I was quite productive in my art making,

particularly while undertaking art in high school. Currently, art making takes a back seat to

teaching and research. In addition, I spent five years taking part in theatre and drama. I excelled

in musical theatre specifically. Throughout high school I noticed the arts curriculum slowly

disappearing. The year before I had enrolled in high school (grade eight), my oldest sister took

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part in a class called “musical theatre”. I was so excited that this class was offered because my

parents could not afford to send me to an arts school. Grade nine came along and the program

was no longer being offered. My experiences as an artist shapes my thinking about the arts

curriculum and what topics I chose to explore in my research.

I identify as a teacher perhaps more than I do as an artist but it is my passion for the arts

that guided my decision to pursue research in the area of the arts. When I began teaching at a

Cooperative Preschool in Southern Ontario, I was quite surprised by my level of autonomy. I

was largely in control of how and what curriculum was delivered. While there were visits to my

classroom from a range of school ministry personnel, I was rarely questioned about my

pedagogy or curriculum by any of these visitors. Nevertheless, as a novice teacher, I was eager to

continue to learn and improve through professional development opportunities. This is why I

decided to go back to school and get my Maters of Teaching at the University of Toronto. These

experiences, as a teacher and student, brought me to this research. Since beginning my Master’s

journey, I have come to identify myself as a researcher.

Where do I situate myself and my work, and what assumptions led me there? I believe

that we live in societies of fluid, shifting language, meanings and positionalities and I am more

inclined to move about, favouring the subjective side of the continuum. I consider reality as

temporal, situational, and socially constructed. I believe that while we are influenced by societal

conditions, we are not completely determined by our environments, as we each have some

measure of free will or agency. We live in a world of ever changing social structures, however

subtle, and these changes necessitate reconstruction of knowledge and beliefs over time. My

experiences have brought me to this research and provide me with multiple lenses reflective of

my roles of artist, teacher, and researcher.

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1.5 Overview/Preview of Whole

To respond to the research questions I will be conducting a qualitative research study

using purposeful sampling to interview 3 teachers about their instructional strategies and

implementation of arts based pedagogy and the effect on students leadership. More specifically I

will be looking at student leadership development in elementary schools. In chapter 2 I review

the literature on the definition of the terms “creativity” and “leadership” and how the creative

arts have been viewed historically. Furthermore, I look at the significance of arts based pedagogy

as stated in The Ontario Arts Curriculum (2009), as practiced in current art based pedagogies,

and the significance of arts-based pedagogies. Finally, I consider the challenges faced when

implementing a curriculum using an arts-based pedagogy. Those challenges include the

subversive nature of the arts, the stigma attached to documenting the creative process of and the

ways in which it can be time consuming. Next, in chapter 3, I elaborate on the research design. In

chapter 4 I report my research findings and discuss their significance in light of the existing

research literature, and in chapter 5 I identify the implications of the research findings for my

own teacher identity and practice, and for the educational research community more broadly. I

also articulate a series of questions raised by the research findings, and point to areas for future

research.

Key Concepts for Conducting Searches

Key words/concepts (for Searching) Related Terms/ Synonyms

Arts Based Pedagogy

Leadership Skills

Creativity

Imagination

Expression

Development

Chapter 2: The Literature review

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2.0 Introduction

In this chapter I review the literature in the areas of elementary students, implementation

of arts based pedagogy in elementary schools, leadership skills, and the Ontario Arts Curriculum.

More specifically I will be looking at student leadership development in elementary schools. I

start by reviewing the literature on the definition of the terms “creativity” and “leadership” and

how the creative arts have been viewed historically. Furthermore, I look at the significance of

arts based pedagogy as stated in The Ontario Arts Curriculum (2009), as practiced in current art

based pedagogies, and the significance of arts-based pedagogies. Finally, I consider the

challenges faced when implementing a curriculum using an arts-based pedagogy. Those

challenges include the subversive nature of the arts, the stigma attached to documenting the

creative process of and the ways in which it can be time consuming.

2.1.2 Background

There have been fundamental changes in the way that the creative arts are being

practiced. This change that was brought about by industrialism. Understanding this change is

crucial to understanding how creativity and the arts in education have developed a unique and

somewhat wayward position in the curriculum. The current education system is predicated on the

idea of academic ability. The reason for this is because hit was created to meet the needs of

industrialism in the 18th and 19th century (Robinson, 2006). Williams (1988) defined an artist as a

person who has the “ability to work with imagination and from within a tradition of

representation that was afforded intellectual credibility” (p 44). He associated the distinction

with industrialization. In the context of “capitalist commodity production”. He noted that the

purpose of skill in general was to maintain power relations between the bourgeoisie and the

aristocracy as well as the emergent urban working class.

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The Arts curriculum in The National Course of Instruction (1852), coordinated by Henry

Cole, was divided between a program where working class students (mostly boys) were required

to develop proficiency in mechanical drawing so that they could to enrol with the necessary

foundational skills for the schools of design (where they had to sign an agreement that they

would not pursue the fine arts) and courses of cultural enrichment where the copying of elevated

exemplars instilled good taste in the middle classes (mostly girls) and potentially enabled

candidates to follow a career in fine art (mostly boys). This served a utilitarian function that

required accuracy not creativity. This model Served to teach by frequent repetitions and regulate

behaviours of production and consumption and to produce the ‘docile body’ (Foucault, 1977)

The Art Teacher’s Guild (1900) stated that art education was evidently a historical

necessity that could transform the nation. This could be achieved because, in childhood,

creativity is natural and is the source of change therefore, it is the responsibility of educators

alone to develop this natural proclivity rather than suppress it (Dalton, 2001, p 62 - 86) Dalton

suggests that we should allow children to be free with creativity when they are young and then

slowly introduce art conventions as to not stifle their natural creativity. In this model each person

is a unique and separate being whose inner self, or ‘mental construct’, is separate from social

interaction. In addition there is no gender bias in this model unlike that of The Arts curriculum in

The National Course of Instruction (1852).

Intellectuals have argued that the western concept of art is a primary means for

reinforcing and consolidating existing power relations (Bourdieu, 1984) creating a distinction

and separates those that have knowledge and taste from those that do not. This is a social process

that perpetuates class privileges. Baudrillard (2005) believed that art can be used as an

accomplice to power because it is one way to create a spectacle and spread myths. Creativity can

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also be seen as subversive as it “disturbs and disrupts existing patterns of thought” (Florida,

2002). This would have been looked at as an attempt to undermine authority. There has been a

shift in the way that western society views subversive nature of the creative arts. Some

philosophers, artists, and art educators believe or have believed that the creative arts can aid in

developing leaders that can create positive change in the world using new and innovative ideas

(Nietzsche, 1872/86; Dewey, 1916, 1934; Read, 1943, 1950; Beuys, 1973). Read (1943) echoing

Dewey (1934) argues that by educating young people in and through art they could be led away

from the conformity and competition fostered by traditional “teacher-centered” pedagogies and

move towards embracing the subversive nature of the creative arts (Florida, 2002, p 315).

2.1.1 Creativity Defined

Issues can arise when defining the creative arts because this is an issue that is multi-

faceted and can often have very contradictory definitions. Words have specific meanings, yet

people often use one word when they mean another and this can significantly weaken attempts to

communicate certain topics. It is important to define the creative arts because when this term is

used incorrectly, it is often romanticized by educators. There is a tendency to hesitate to do more

than praise students for being creative for the fear of criticizing the students themselves (Sefton-

Green & Sinker, 2000). If we cannot provide critique for the creative work, art making can be

viewed as “non-rigorous and non-serious” which would marginalize the experience in regards to

accountability (Halverson, 2015).

The Ontario Arts Curriculum (2009) organizes the creative arts into four different strands:

Dance, Drama, Music, and Visual Arts. Through the curriculum, students are expected to take

part in the “creative arts” through their interactions with various modes of artistic expressions,

such as, dance, drama, music, and visual arts, including multimedia art works. The pieces that

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are created can also be called artistic “texts” such as modern dance, sculptures, shadow plays,

songs. These “texts” carry meaning from the artist and for the audience. These texts require

analysis, interpretation, and understanding of their context, for example, how and why the work

is created and viewed. This analysis is where the creative arts and education merge. Therefore,

students are not only doing art for art’s sake but also lo assessing and answering the questions:

why and how?

Psychologists have argued that that creative abilities are found in nearly everyone, and that

creativity can be enhanced (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996; Gardner, 1993; Guilford, 1975; Sternberg,

1985; Ward, Saunders, & Dodds, 1999). Picasso also held this belief, which was proven when he

said that “all children are born artists, the problem is to remain an artist as we grow up”. Ken

Robinson (2006) defines creative arts as “the process of having original ideas that have value”.

Ken would argue that the creative arts are equally as important in education as literacy and math

and should be treated with the same status because they promote innovation. Children need

opportunities to be creative and make mistakes. Therefore, all people are capable of being

creative but that is not the same as producing creative art. The first aspect of creative arts is that

it involves two   processes: thinking, then producing.   If you have ideas, but don’t act on them, you

are imaginative but not taking part in the creative arts. Creativity is the act of turning new and

imaginative ideas into reality (Koestler, 1964, p120).

2.1.2 Creative Teaching

Creative teaching has not always been a priority of educators. Instead of increasing

student creativity, educational institutions are more likely to stifle children’s creativity and

suppress their ability to be subversive or “defy the status quo” (Schacter, J., Thum, Y. M., &

Zifkin, D, 2006, p 47). How do educators go about fostering creativity in their classrooms? How

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can they create an environment where creativity can thrive? The educational environment plays

an integral role in helping to develop children’s ability to express themselves creatively

(Csikszentmihalyi, 1988). An environment that helps foster creativity values student input, and

challenges them. Creative teaching is necessary when offering students more opportunities to

explore their creativity as well as the way in which they think, without formal assessments and

modes of learning (Simon & Hicks, 2004).

Creative teaching is not an easy task for educators due to the fact that it is not the way

that most teachers were educated themselves. Therefore educators must be willing to take risks

and be flexible, spontaneous and open-minded (Ewing & Gibson, 2007). Amabile’s (1983) work

on creative teaching highlights the importance of providing students with as much freedom as

possible with their classroom endeavors because then individuals will be motivated by personal

commitment instead of “extrinsic rewards”.

An educational institution that positively contributes to students’ creative potential would

encourage risk-taking, allow for mistakes, looking at multiple perspectives, question

assumptions, identify interest and issues, metacognition and provide adequate time for the

creative process (Sternberg & Williams, 1996). Cornish (2007) writes that “we need to design

learning activities that are supported by instruction and modelling, that include a collaborative

and problem solving element that are engaging and relevant and that require both reflection and

articulation of that reflection” (p. 4). This approach is not restricted to the learning activities but

also to the assessment methods. One way to empower students is to allow them to negotiate their

curriculum and their modes of assessment. Initially students feel discomfort with this method

because they have been through a system that rewards conformity and diminishes creativity

(Gibson, 2010).

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2.1.3 Leadership

Leadership development is a major field of academic study and set of organizational

practices (Day, Fleenor, Atwater, Sturm, & McKee, 2014; Kempster & Stewart, 2010).

Researchers and practitioners have begun to question how different organizations develop

leaders. First, there was an emphasis on what type of mind-set was needed to be a successful

leader. The mind-set or characteristics that I am going to focus on are emotional intelligence,

leader identity, openness to experience and feedback orientation. These characteristics can be

taught and can enhance the effectiveness of a leader (Krasman, 2010). Next, there was a look at

how the arts-based methods can help improve these leadership skills.

The first aspect, emotional intelligence, is integral to effective leadership. It is argued that

the reason to develop this mind-set is related to the ways in which a leader influences their

followers. Taking part in arts-based experiences can help “trigger emotions and emotions can

enhance learning” (Taylor & Ladkin, 2009, p. 20). Leaders need to be aware of their own

emotions, as well as other people’s emotions, in order to know the effect that they are having or

that they could have. Next, developing a strong leader identity allows a leader to make decisions

with more confidence because they are looked up to and they know that their decisions matter.

(Day, Fleenor, Atwater, Sturm, & McKee, 2014; Kempster & Stewart, 2010). Third, having an

openness to experience displays individual’s curiosity, imagination as well as their ability to be

original (McCrae, 1987). The rational as to why these qualities are important is because of the

implications, leaders show a preference for new and different experiences as well as an openness

to listening to others. Leaders that are open to experiences are more open to challenging

activities that help them self-develop (Reichard & Johnson, 2011). Lastly, feedback orientation is

in regards to how receptive a person is to feedback. This includes: being at ease receiving

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feedback, seeking and processing feedback mindfully, acting on the feedback in order to improve

performance (Ashford & Cummings, 1983)

2.2.0 Ontario Arts Curriculum

Education in Canada is regulated by the provincial government. The Ontario Ministry of

Education (OME, 2011) determines the curriculum for each subject at every grade level. The

Ministry publishes revised curriculum documents for a number of grades and subjects, around

every seven years, reflecting changes in pedagogical theory, knowledge, and current political

ideology. The development of these new documents at the Ministry level, and the

implementation of the new curriculum at the school level, is typically the result of a lengthy

process of consultation with multiple stakeholders, including but not limited to: faculties of

education, parents, students, and other Ministries. The latest revised arts curriculum document

details expectations for dance, drama, integrated arts, media arts, music, and visual arts. These

documents were distributed to Ontario classrooms in September of 2010 and made available on

the Ministry’s website. The curriculum documents are prefaced with a lengthy section designed

to explain the importance of the arts, roles and responsibilities, the creative and critical analysis

processes, considerations for assessment and evaluation, and program planning.

The approaches to education in the arts that are briefly discussed below are based on the

ideas underlying the Ontario arts curriculum (2009). Learning experiences in the arts include

aesthetic experiences, creative engagement, and development of skills of expressive

participation, as well as acquisition of knowledge and skills related to specific arts. Learning

experiences in the arts provide opportunities for learning that involve the whole person, and

provides a context for making wide-ranging and personal connections. In arts education, this is

often referred to as “learning in the arts”. Analysis, criticism, and appreciation are integral

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aspects of an arts program that is concerned with understanding the meaning and “language” of

art forms, contemporary and historical artistic products. In arts education, this is often referred to

as “learning about the arts”. Various aspects of the arts can also be used to illuminate other

aspects of the school curriculum or to help develop students’ skills in other subjects. Through

integration of the arts with other subjects, students can also develop broader abilities such as,

communication skills. In arts education, this is often referred to as “learning through the arts”.

Although the arts are a required subject in elementary school, and Ontario has an

extensive arts curriculum, there is no specific funding for arts programs or specialists and

because many schools rely on fees and fundraising to support the arts, there is no guarantee that

all students will have access to arts programs or enrichment. As schools are pressured to perform

well in literacy and numeracy, time, support, and resources are stripped from many arts

programs, resulting in funding cuts and a devaluation of the arts. In some cases, this reduction in

support results in the hiring of less expensive and less qualified “teaching artists” in the place of

qualified teachers (Beveridge, 2010). With these cuts to funding, scheduling, and support, some

arts educators feel that the arts are not respected as disciplines. In some schools, the arts are

marginalized in the curriculum, treated as fun time or peripheral to “core” or “academic”

subjects, which perceivably undermines the professionalism of art and art teachers (Herne, 2000;

Manzo, 2002; Walling, 2001; Young & Adams, 1991)

2.2.1 Current Arts Based Pedagogies

Traditionally, teachers have focused on imparting content knowledge rather than on

considering how different students learn and which strategies might in fact, promote that

learning. (Gibson, 2010). Teaching for creativity has fallen by the way side as schools focus on

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ensuring that their students meet content standards and that all their teachers provide added value

to students in achieving learning gains. (Halverson, 2015)

The Studio Thinking Project (2013) documented the instructional routines of visual arts

teachers in classrooms and how these routines result in learning outcomes that promote creativity

such as developing craft, extended engagement and persistence, and envisioning possibilities.

Their work is the first step to seeing art making as a serious instructional endeavor (Halverson,

2015). The study concluded that the average teacher implemented hardly any teaching behaviors

that increased student creativity. Furthermore, in the rare instances when a teacher did elicit

student creativity, the teaching strategy was not aligned with the lesson objective, was not

explained or elaborated, and the purpose was not made clear to students (Schacter, Thum, &

Zifkin, 2006).

An environment that supports creativity is one that encourages risk taking, independence,

and flexibility. This has significant implications for pedagogy (Haring-Smith, 2006) since for

many years the education enterprise has been criticized for dampening creativity rather than

fostering it (Gibson, 2010). In an educational setting, an environment that contributes positively

to the development of creative potential is likely to include adequate time for creative thinking,

rewarding creative ideas, thoughts and products; encouraging risk taking; allowing mistakes;

imagining from various perspectives; questioning assumptions. (Sternberg, 1995); identifying

interests and problems; generating multiple hypotheses; focusing on broad ideas rather than

narrow facts, and metacognition. Competition, restricted choices, conforming pressures,

evaluation, frequent failures and rote learning can destroy creativity in any educational setting

(Gibson, 2010)

2.2.2 Significance of Arts Based Pedagogy

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There is a large amount of research done on the significance of arts based pedagogy. Some

notable scholarship in this area has been developed by Atkinson (2002), Dewey (1980), Green

(1995), (Rex) Jung (2014), Robinson, K (2006) and Vygotsky (2004 ). There are many benefits

to adopting an arts based pedagogy within a classroom setting. Participation in the arts

contributes in important ways to students’ lives and learning (Boden, 1990). The arts are a way

of knowing that provides ways of perceiving, interpreting, organizing, and questioning various

aspects of our world through exploration and experimentation. Artistic expression involves

clarifying and restructuring personal ideas and experiences (Boden, 1990). The arts enable

individuals and groups to create ideas and images that reflect, communicate, and change their

views of the world. The arts help us understand what it is that makes us human by validating our

commonalities and celebrating our differences. (Halverson, 2015).

Participation in arts activities helps students develop their ability to listen and observe,

and enables them to become more self-aware and self-confident (Boden, 1990). It encourages

risk taking, creative problem solving, and draws on resourcefulness to build on new ideas. As

well, study of the arts expands the ways in which students can express their ideas, feelings,

beliefs, and values, as well as their understanding of those of others (Halverson et al, 2015). It

encourages innovative thinking, spontaneity, intuition, divergent thinking, and improvisation.

Such learning is vital for communication, understanding, and intellectual and emotional growth.

It is also necessary for critically analysing and selecting information in an age when a plethora of

information is available instantaneously. The knowledge and skills developed in the study of the

arts can therefore be applied in many other endeavours (Gibson, 2009).

Arts-based education teaches students how to interpret, criticize, and use visual

information, and how to make choices based on it. When children are encouraged to express

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themselves and take risks in creating art, they develop a sense of innovation and ingenuity that

will be important in developing future leaders. Lastly, as we live in an increasingly diverse

society, art is one medium that can be used to create conversations about differences. Teaching

children to recognize the choices an artist or designer makes in portraying a subject helps kids

understand the concept that what they see may be someone’s interpretation of reality (Gibson,

2010). This can be very important for the future leaders to understand that there are many

different ways to look at one thing. Understanding diversity is a very important skill, especially

in this increasingly diverse society that we live in.

Boden (1990), in the Creative Mind, states that creativity “involves not only a passionate

interest but self-confidence too”. A person needs a healthy self-respect to pursue novel ideas and

to make mistakes; despite the criticism from others. Creative Teaching results in deeper

understanding among learners (Bereiter, 2002; Sawyer, 2004).

2.3.0 Creativity is Subversive

One challenge faced when promoting an arts based pedagogy is that creativity can be and

was often viewed as a subversive act (Florida, 2002), promoting opposition. Read (1943) and

Dewey (1934) argue that by educating young people in and though art they could be led away

from the conformity that is fostered by traditional pedagogies. Cochrane & Cockett (2007) state

that creativity is an “essential capacity for preparation for the complexities and challenges of 21st

century living, the pace of change and a range of employment beyond the creative industries per

se does not appear” (28). Thus, it is necessary to move away from conformity in preparation for

the rapidly changing world.

Robinson (2006) said that “all kids have tremendous talents. And we squander them, pretty

ruthlessly”. The “we” that he spoke about is educational institutions. Over the past 50 years,

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researchers have consistently documented that developing student creativity is not a priority of

American teachers (Dacey & Lennon, 1998; Gowan, Khatena, & Torrance, 1981; Grigorenko &

Sternberg, 1997; Nickerson, 1984; Torrance, 1976, 1995; Torrance & Safter, 1986). In fact,

scholars indicate that American teachers suppress children’s ability to imagine and to defy the

status quo (Gowan & Olson, 1979; Parkhurst, 1999). Instead of increasing student creativity,

teachers appear to stifle it (Grigorenko & Sternberg, 1997; Torrance & Safter, 1986). Torrance

and Safter’s (1986) stated that teachers are not equipped to meet the needs of students in terms of

creativity, because teachers do not appear to know how to initiate, conduct, or evaluate creativity

themselves.

2.3.1 Documenting the Arts

Dean and Smith (2009) argued that documenting or theorising about the process in which

people create art can risk “subduing the creative fire or reducing the range of responses to their

work” (p. 123). Some artists want interpretations of their piece to be authentic and not influenced

by their own. If this were a widely held belief, that documenting the creative process makes the

experience less authentic, then there would an obstacle for arts based research. Although an

inauthentic experience is a concern for some, there have been many examples of influential

people who have described their thinking; artists, painters, writers, composers. This suggests that

the combination of documentation and theorization of a piece of art and the creative practice can

be beneficial.

Currently there is an increasing trend towards documentation and self-description of

creative work – as well as growing recognition of the self-critical awareness which is always part

of creating an art work – whether or not it is externalised. Nevertheless, there may be certain

aspects of the work that practitioners do not want to talk about, such possible interpretations of it,

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and the role of the practitioner in these respects remains distinct from that of the critic (Dean &

Smith, 2009). Creative practitioners have sometimes argued that theorisation or documentation

of the creative process risks subduing the creative fire or reducing the range of responses to their

work. But such arguments reinforce the mystification of the creative artists and romantic ideas

about the spontaneity of the creative process. All of this suggests that there is not necessary

contradiction between theorisation and creative practice, but rather that the combination can be

valuable (Bolt, 2007).

2.3.2 Creativity is Time-Consuming

An educational setting that positively contributes and supports the development of

creative potential is likely to include “adequate time for creative thinking” (Gibson, 2010, p

610). Due to this developing and implementing arts-based pedagogies in the classroom can be

considered time consuming and educators may fear that in order to incorporate it institutions may

need to extend school hours. One solution to this would be to make use of peer assessment which

offers more time and space to actually get to know their class. Students rarely get to play a role

in determining how they will be assessed, assessment is rarely integrated into the learning

process. (Ewing and Gibson 2009). The manner in which the assessment task can be delivered

written, electronic, performance or visual modes is also negotiated. I argue that such an approach

is essential, even though peer-assessment in the arts is something of a minefield because of the

highly subjective element in judging artistic work to be greeted with contempt and scorn rather

than praise.

Amabile (1983) argued that people who immerse themselves in the creative arts

“experience and often cultivate a blurring of time”. Artists, musicians, writers, scientists,

inventors and many creative students have erratic and irregular schedules, working at home and

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seemingly playing at work (Florida, 2002) Creativity cannot be turned on and off at

predetermined times – it does not always fit neatly into an educational institutions timetable.

This can be seen as highly problematic with the strict duties of a teacher stating that they must

provide parents and/or guardians with written feedback on the progress of each student. This is

where, again, educators must get creative with the mode of assessment in order to find the one

that compliments each student’s unique way of learning. The process of creative teaching is

characterised by experimenting and making mistake; letting go of the control and planning new

tasks and assessments; and most of all being creative. This means that the possibilities are

endless. So, how can we persuade educators that this process is worthwhile?

Conclusion

To conclude, what sort of people and future leaders are we constructing via the arts

curriculum? The curriculum is supposed to be a reflection of the types of leaders that educators

wish to create. While trying to reduce chaos, risk, and conflict we are excluding creativity and

innovation. By fostering creativity in our students, we also earn about our own teaching and

ultimately become more creative teachers. It seems clear that if we hope to produce leaders who

will succeed in our complex and rapidly changing world, the focus must remain firmly on

creativity as an essential capacity. One that must be nurtured, valued and acknowledged as the

key to our future!

References

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Amabile, T. (1996). Creativity in context. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

MACLEAN p. 20

Ashford, S. J., & Cummings, L. L. (1983). Feedback as an individual resource: Personal

strategies for creating information. Organizational Behaviour and Human Performance.

32, 370-398.

Atkinson, D. (2002). Art in education: Identity and practice (Vol. 1). Springer Science &

Business Media.

Beveridge, T. (2010). No child left behind and fine arts classes. Arts Education Policy

Review, 111(1), 4-7. doi:10.1080/10632910903228090.

Boden, M. (1990). The creative mind: myths and mechanisms. New York. Basic Books.

Bolt, B. (2007). The magic is in handling. Practice as research: Approaches to creative arts

enquiry, London: I.B.

Cochrane, P. and Cockett, M. (2007). Building a creative school: a dynamic approach to school

development. Stoke-on- Trent: Trentham Books.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1988). Society, culture, and person: A systems view of creativity. In The

nature of creativity, 325-329. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity, flow and the psychology of discovery and invention.

New York. Harper-Collins.

Dacey, J. S., & Lennon, K. H. (1998). Understanding creativity: The interplay of biological,

psychological, and social factors. San Fransisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Dalton, P. (2001). The gendering of art education: Modernism, identity and critical feminism.

Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.

MACLEAN p. 21

Day, D. V., Fleenor, J. W., Atwater, L. E., Sturm, R. E., & McKee, R. A. (2014). Advances in

leader and leadership development: A review of 25 years of research and theory. The

Leadership Quarterly, 25, 63-82.

Dean, R., & Smith, H. (2009) Introduction: practice-led research, research-led practice – towards

the iterative cyclic web. Practice-led research, research-led practice in the creative arts.

Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press

Dewey, J. (1980) Art as experience, New York, Free Press.

Ewing, R., & Gibson, R. (2007). Creative teaching or teaching creatively? Waikato Journal of

Education. 13 (1), 161-179.

Foucault, M. (1977) Discipline and punish. Sheridan. New York, Vintage.

Florida, R. (2002). The rise of the creative class. And how it's transforming work, leisure and

everyday life. New York: Basic Books.

Garavan, T. N., McGarry, A., Watson, S., D'Annunzio-Green, N., & O'Brian, F. (2015). The

Impact of Arts-Based Leadership Development on Leader Mind-Set: A field

Experiement. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 17 (3), 391-407.

Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York. Basics Books.

Gibson, R. (2010). The ‘art’ of creative teaching: implications for higher education. Teaching in

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MACLEAN p. 22

Greene, M. (1995). Releasing the imagination: Essays on Education, the Arts, and Social

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Young, J., & Adams, R. (1991). Discipline-based art education: Can it save art in our schools?

The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 65(2), 99-

101.

Chapter 3 – Research Methodology

3.0 Introduction

MACLEAN p. 26

In this chapter I explain the research methodology, identifying the methodological

decisions that I have made, and my rationale for these choices. I begin with a review of the

research approach and procedure that I used, then I describe the instrument of data collection. I

then identify the recruitment methods and the participants of the study, listing the sampling

criteria, describing the sampling procedures, and providing some information on the participants.

I then, explain my data analysis procedures, before identifying relevant ethical issues that are

relevant to my study. Finally, I speak to some of the methodological limitations of the study,

while also highlighting and acknowledging the strengths. I conclude the chapter with a brief

summary of key methodological decisions and my rationale for these decisions given the

research purpose and questions.

3.1 Research approach/Procedures

The study will be conducted using a qualitative research study approach, including a

review of the existing literature relevant to the research questions and purpose of the study, as

well as a semi-structured interviews with two to three teachers. Broadly, all qualitative research

can be explores meaning and understanding (Merriam, 2002). Meaning is constructed by the

social interaction a person has with their world, a reality that is not a fixed, agreed upon

phenomenon that is needed for quantitative research (Creswell, 2013).

Qualitative research relies on detailed responses involving interpretations and reflections

of experiences (Jackson II et. al., 2007). Therefore, given my research purpose and the questions

that I have, a qualitative research study is the suitable approach for me, as it provides me with a

platform to inquire into the elementary educators lived experiences with art-based education.

Furthermore, I will not only be looking at how a sample of elementary teachers are utilizing the

MACLEAN p. 27

creative arts every day, in their classrooms, but also if the teachers who are successfully

implementing an arts pedagogy have noticed any effect on their student’s leadership skills.

3.2 Instruments of Data Collection

Semi-structured interviews include a set of pre-determined questions, but allow for

additional questions to emerge during the interview (Cresswell, 2013). This could be beneficial

as it may bring up information that not anticipated. I will therefore be prepared for some possible

deviations from the planned protocol if the questions are not eliciting the required information. I

will organize my protocol (located in Appendix B) into 5 sections, beginning with the

participant’s background information, followed by questions about their perspectives and beliefs

related to arts education, next teacher’s practices, then I will be asking questions regarding

challenges encountered and concluding next steps for teachers.

3.3 Participants

Here, I review the sampling criteria I established for participant recruitment, and I review

a range of possible avenues for teacher recruitment. Below I address all methodological

decisions related to the research participants.

3.3.1 Sampling Criteria

The following criteria will be applied to teacher participants:

1. Teachers will have five or more years working experience in the field of education.

2. Teachers will have experience implementing an arts based pedagogy.

3. Teachers will have demonstrated leadership in the area of integrating the arts into their

daily program planning.

MACLEAN p. 28

4. Teachers will be working in the Greater Toronto Area.

5. There will be both male and female participants.

In order to address the main research question, the participants that I will interview will

have experienced some degree of arts based pedagogy in schools. Additionally, participating

teachers will ideally have been working in the field of Education for five or more years. This is

because I am interested in learning about the potential changes in their experiences over time.

Furthermore, to explore the impact of arts based pedagogy on student leadership skills. In order

to maintain a geographical focus, teachers will be employed within the Greater Toronto Area.

Lastly, I will be working with both male and female participants, varying in age and teaching

specialty, in order to increase the potential richness of the data obtained from this small sample.

3.3.2 Recruitment

The strategy employed in recruiting participants for a study depends on the aim of the

research and questions being answered. The three over-arching methods to selecting a sample for

a qualitative study include convenience, purposeful, and theoretical sampling. Purposeful

sampling seeks out the most productive participants that are likely to provide deeper insight and

understanding to a subject. Convenience sampling refers to selecting the most accessible

participants, and is the least challenging technique of the three (Marshall, 1996).

I will be employing a combination of both convenience and purposeful sampling. The

sampling procedure will be purposeful in that participants of this small sample will need to meet

a set of defined criteria in order to provide the richest possible data. Convenience sampling will

also be employed as participants will be obtained through connecting with associate teachers that

MACLEAN p. 29

I have come across in practicum, and working teachers within the region. I will also be going

online to look for more leaders on the arts in education.

3.3.3 Participant Bios

To be completed at a later date.

3.4 Data analysis

Data analysis is a way in which data is arranged, conceptualized, refined, and understood

(Thorne, 2000). During data analysis, researchers begin with a unit of data such as a word, or

phrase, which is then compared to other units of data, considering any common patterns

throughout (Merriam, 2002). During the analysis I will be drawing on this procedure, which will

involve transcribing interviews and coding the data, as it relates to my research purpose and

questions. Next, I will identify and categorize any themes or discrepancies in the findings.

3.5 Ethical Review Procedure

There are no known risks to participation in this research study. According to Orb,

Eisenhauer, and Wynaden (2000), ethical issues exist in any form of research. DiCicco-Bloom

& Crabtree (2006) discuss four ethical issues associated with the interview process, including

decreasing the risk of unforeseen harm, safeguarding participants’ information, appropriately

informing participants about the study, and decreasing the risk of exploitation.

I will inform participants before beginning, and throughout the duration of the study, that

they have the right to refuse to answer any questions that they do not feel comfortable with, and

can remove themselves from participation at any point. This results in the establishment of a safe

environment for the participant to discuss their attitudes and experiences genuinely (Creswell,

MACLEAN p. 30

2013). Participants will be provided with pseudonyms and any identifying indicators will not be

released. Data will remain on a private, password protected external hard-drive and will be

erased after five years.

Participants will be appropriately informed of the study in person and/or written

documentation. Interviewees will also be provided with a summary of the purpose of the study,

the associated ethical implications, and the expectations of participants, within a consent form in

which they will be granting permission to be interviewed and audio recorded (located in

Appendix A).

3.6 Methodological Limitations and Strengths

The largest disadvantage to using this type of study is that the data will not be

generalizable to the population due to the limited number of participants (Jackson II et. al.,

2007). Specifically, the ethical parameters of the study allow me to interview teachers and obtain

first-hard accounts which limits my participants to teachers. Consequently, it is not possible to

interview students or parents. As I will be conducting interviews at a pre-determined time and

location, the risk is minimized.

As the researcher plays a key, interpretative role in a qualitative it may result in biases

within the data (Merriam, 2002). However rather than attempting to remove these subjectivities,

it is more valuable to be able to identify and monitor the ways in which they may be influencing

the data collection and interpretation. Interviewing teachers creates a space for teachers to speak

about what matters most to them. In this way interviews validate teacher’s voice and experience.

Interviews also give teachers a chance to reflect on their own practices.

3.7 Conclusion

MACLEAN p. 31

In this chapter I explained the research methodology. I began with a discussion of the

research approach and procedure, delving into the significance of qualitative research. I then

described the instruments of data collection, identifying interviews as the primary source of data.

I explored the benefits of semi-structured interviews. I then identified the criteria for the

participants of the study. I also described recruitment procedures which entailed purposive

sampling, and convenience sampling due to the scope of the research study. I proceeded to

describe how I have analyzed the data, examining interviews, looking for common patterns and

themes. Ethical issues such as consent, risks of participation, right to withdraw, and data storage

were considered, and ways to address these potential issues. Lastly, I discussed the

methodological limitations of the study, such as the biases of the researcher, while also

highlighting some of the strengths, such as first-hand accounts with teachers. In the next chapter,

I report on the findings of the research.

References

MACLEAN p. 32

Cresswell, J. (2013) Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five

Approaches, Third Edition. London: Sage.

DiCicco-Bloom, B., & Crabtree, B. F. (2006, April). The qualitative research interview. Medical

Education, 40(4), 314-321. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2006.02418.x

Jackson II, R. L., Drummond, D. K., & Camara, S. (2007). What Is qualitative research?

Qualitative Research Reports in Communication, 8(1), 21-28.

doi:10.1080/17459430701617879

Marshall, M. N. (1996). Sampling for qualitative research. Family Practice, 13(6), 522-526.

doi:10.1093/fampra/13.6.522

Merriam, S. (2002). Qualitative Research in Practice: Examples for Discussion and Analysis

(pp. 3-17). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Orb, A., Eisenhauer, L., & Wynaden, D. (2000). Ethics in qualitative research. Journal of

Nursing Scholarship, 33(1), 93-96. Retrieved from ProQuest (236346302).

Thorne, S. (2015, July). Data analysis in qualitative research. Evidence Based Nursing, 3, 68-70.

doi:10.1136/ebn.3.3.68

Appendix A: Letter of Consent for Interviews

MACLEAN p. 33

Date:

Dear _______________________________,

My Name is Christina MacLean and I am a student in the Master of Teaching program at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education at the University of Toronto (OISE/UT). A component of this degree program involves conducting a small-scale qualitative research study. My research will focus on the way that educators are integrating the arts into daily program planning and the effects that they have noticed in regards to their students’ leadership skills. I am interested in interviewing teachers who have successfully integrated the creative arts into their daily programs. I think that your knowledge and experience will provide insights into this topic.

Your participation in this research will involve one 45-60 minute interview, which will be transcribed and audio-recorded. I would be grateful if you would allow me to interview you at a place and time convenient for you, outside of school time. The contents of this interview will be used for my research project, which will include a final paper, as well as informal presentations to my classmates. I may also present my research findings via conference presentations and/or through publication. You will be assigned a pseudonym to maintain your anonymity and I will not use your name or any other content that might identify you in my written work, oral presentations, or publications. This information will remain confidential. Any information that identifies your school or students will also be excluded. The interview data will be stored on my password-protected computer and the only person who will have access to the research data will be my course instructor Angela MacDonald-Vemic. You are free to change your mind about your participation at any time, and to withdraw even after you have consented to participate. You may also choose to decline to answer any specific question during the interview. I will destroy the audio recording after the paper has been presented and/or published, which may take up to a maximum of five years after the data has been collected. There are no known risks to participation, and I will share a copy of the transcript with you shortly after the interview to ensure accuracy.

Please sign this consent form, if you agree to be interviewed. The second copy is for your records. I am very grateful for your participation.

Sincerely,

Christina MacLean

647-215-2615

Christina.maclean@outlook.com

MACLEAN p. 34

Course Instructor’s Name: Angela MacDonald-Vemic

Contact Info: angela.macdonald@utoronto.ca

Consent Form

I acknowledge that the topic of this interview has been explained to me and that any questions that I have asked have been answered to my satisfaction. I understand that I can withdraw from this research study at any time without penalty.

I have read the letter provided to me by Christina and agree to participate in an interview for the purposes described. I agree to have the interview audio-recorded.

Signature: ________________________________________

Name: (printed) _______________________________________________

Date: ______________________________________

Appendix B: Interview Protocol

MACLEAN p. 35

Introductory Script: Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research study, and for making time to be interviewed today. This research study aims to learn about the ways in which educators are integrating the arts into daily program planning and the effects that they have noticed in regards to their students’ leadership skills for the purpose of learning how a sample of elementary teachers is implementing arts based pedagogy and to learn what outcomes they observe for students leadership development.

This interview will last approximately 45-60 minutes, and I will ask you a series of questions focused on your background information, your perspectives and beliefs, supports and challenges and the next steps in education. I want to remind you that you may refrain from answering any question, and you have the right to withdraw your participation from the study at any time. As I explained in the consent letter, this interview will be audio recorded. Do you have any questions before we begin?

Background Information

1) How long have you been an educator?

2) What grade and subject area do you currently teach?

3) What grades have you previously taught?

4) Can you tell me about the demographics of your school?

5) What formal opportunities have you had with arts-based education?

6) Can you tell me about your philosophy of education in regards to the use of the arts across the curriculum?

Teacher Perspectives/Beliefs

1) How would you describe an exemplary use of the arts in education?

2) What benefits do you believe an arts-based pedagogical approach could have?

3) What are some of the possible negative effects of an arts based pedagogical approach?

4) Why do you think some educators might be apprehensive about using the arts in multiple subject areas?

5) How can an arts-based pedagogy look or be applied to multiple subject areas?

Teacher Practices

MACLEAN p. 36

1) Can you provide examples of strategies that you have used that have had success using an arts based pedagogical approach?

a) What subject/grade were you teaching?

b) What were your learning goals, success criteria, and learning objectives?

c) What outcomes did you observe from your students?

2) Are there any strategies that you have heard of that you would like to try in the future?

a) If yes; what are they?

3) What resources did you use to compliment an art-based pedagogical approach?

4) How did you use the arts as a learning tool?

a) Did you set any rules?

b) If yes; what are they and what was your rationale for choosing them?

Challenges

1) What kind of challenges do you encounter when using an arts based pedagogy?

2) More specifically, have there been any challenges to assigning a grade to the arts creations?

3) How do you respond to these challenges and why?

Next Steps

1) How do you see the arts being utilized in the future of education?

2) What advice would you give to educators who are new in the field that are interested in taking on an arts-based pedagogical approach?

Thank you for your participation in this research study

Appendix B: Interview Protocol

MACLEAN p. 37

Introductory Script: Thank you for agreeing to participate in this research study, and for making time to be interviewed today. This research study aims to learn about the ways in which educators are integrating the arts into daily program planning and the effects that they have noticed in regards to their students’ leadership skills for the purpose of learning how a sample of elementary teachers is implementing arts based pedagogy and to learn what outcomes they observe for students leadership development.

This interview will last approximately 45-60 minutes, and I will ask you a series of questions focused on your background information, your perspectives and beliefs, supports and challenges and the next steps in education. I want to remind you that you may refrain from answering any question, and you have the right to withdraw your participation from the study at any time. As I explained in the consent letter, this interview will be audio recorded. Do you have any questions before we begin?

Background Information

1) How long have you been an educator?

2) What grade and subject area do you currently teach?

3) What grades have you previously taught?

4) Can you tell me about the demographics of your school?

5) What formal opportunities have you had with arts-based education?

6) Can you tell me about your philosophy of education in regards to the use of the arts across the curriculum?

Teacher Perspectives/Beliefs

1) How would you describe an exemplary use of the arts in education?

2) What benefits do you believe an arts-based pedagogical approach could have?

3) What are some of the possible negative effects of an arts based pedagogical approach?

4) Why do you think some educators might be apprehensive about using the arts in multiple subject areas?

5) How can an arts-based pedagogy look or be applied to multiple subject areas?

Teacher Practices

MACLEAN p. 38

1) Can you provide examples of strategies that you have used that have had success using an arts based pedagogical approach?

a) What subject/grade were you teaching?

b) What were your learning goals, success criteria, and learning objectives?

c) What outcomes did you observe from your students?

2) Are there any strategies that you have heard of that you would like to try in the future?

a) If yes; what are they?

3) What resources did you use to compliment an art-based pedagogical approach?

4) How did you use the arts as a learning tool?

a) Did you set any rules?

b) If yes; what are they and what was your rationale for choosing them?

Challenges

1) What kind of challenges do you encounter when using an arts based pedagogy?

2) More specifically, have there been any challenges to assigning a grade to the arts creations?

3) How do you respond to these challenges and why?

Next Steps

1) How do you see the arts being utilized in the future of education?

2) What advice would you give to educators who are new in the field that are interested in taking on an arts-based pedagogical approach?

Thank you for your participation in this research study

.