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Dedication

For Suzanne and Georges-Eric, on a far d~stnnt shore Iho~aqh west- ward rather than easterly.

Publisher's note

Readers may wish to study this 11lle m coniuncl~or~ w ~ t h Ihe lollawing Osprey publicat ronsn

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Campatgn 19 Hartrn 1187

Warr~or 1 0 Saracen Farrs 1050-7250 no

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any hooks on the Crusacles assume that the Crr~sacler statrs in the Middle East were sh;~do~vs of their former sclvcs fnllot\.irsg Saladin's great victory at the battle of Mattin in 118T.Outr-cme~;

;\s ~t~eclie\al westcrners called the remaining tatin or Gatl~olic e~lcla\.r+s in t l~c eastern .Ueditcrmnean, was no lotlgrr a threat to Islam and their military elitcs generally preferred to livc in peace, focusing on tracle as much as the dcfencc of Chrisrenclorn's holy pfaccs. Ftdlalvin;~ thc Cntsade of t 2.1941 the Kingdom ofJerusalem expantled ag~in , hut rllen fell hack following the bartFe OF LT Forbie in 1244 - n rlisast~r in that it was mnre final than Hattin. TF~ereafter fear o f an alliance I~enveen the G.t~saclers anri the Mongol inrsdcrs convinced the Ma~nlnks to dcstl-ov rhe Latin stales once and for all. But the fall of Acre in 3291 was not the cntl of the stnry. The hmcnian Kingdom of Cilicia survi\*ccl Cr>r alntost a centrity ~vllile the Crusaclcr ECingdnrn of Cyprus outlaster1 the h-liddlc Ages. Another Outremcr had meanwhile Exen created nroz~ntl the Aegean arid cventuaIly into the Rlack Sea following the Fourth Crusade of 1204. In fact Ourremer only survived hecause Europeans dominated the seas while its gradual colIapse usually resulted from insufficient manpower to hold fortified places. Nevertheless this fa11 still came as a zerrible shock to CI~rhistendorn.

1 f 87 Muslims reconquer almost all the Kingdom ofJerusalem and other Cru,mder stares.

11 89 Kingdom of Jerusalem begins counter-attack. 1 I92 Richard I of England conquers Cyprus from Byzantines. 1204 Fourth Crusade captures Byantine capital of Constantinople

(Istanbul); establishment of the tatin Empire of Romania. 1229-33 Civil war in Latin IGngdom oFCyprus. I244 hluslims (Khwarazmian freebooters) retake Jerusalem; defeat of

Kingdom ofJerusalem at battle of La Forbie. 125658 Civil trar in Kingdom ofJerusalem (War of St Sabas). 126 l Byantines retake Constantinople (Istanbul) and much OF southern

Greece. l!M Mamluks conquer htioch,Jaffi and other parts of the Crumder states.

.C -. . 1271 Charles of Anjou, King of Naples and Sicily, recognized aq Kr~g'of

Albania.

1277-78 Charles of 11n.jou buys I<ingclonl of Jcri~salctn ancl c;ikes over Latin Principality of Acliaea.

1282 Invasion of Sicily by Aragonesc; start of ilnge~-in-Ne;lpolitari and Aragonese rivalry in eastern hlecliterrancan.

1286 I<ingdom ofJerus:ilem untlcr Icing of Cyprus. 1291 Muslims conquer rlcre, end of I<ingtlom of.Jerusalem. 131 1 Catalzin freebooters conquer Principality of Athens. 1334 Crr~sader League clefeats Turks in Gulf of Edremit. 1344 Crusader League seizes Izmir from Turks.

Crusaders and residents European knights had been taught to despise their h,luslim foes as cowards who fought from a dist;~nce;supposedly because they had so little blood in their veins that they feared getting hltrt. Such ludicrous propaganda clecreased in tlie 13th century as tlie Church, and tlie more educated knights, came to see their enemies as heretics rather than pagans. Moral doubts prompted by contact \\rith Islamic ci\ilization were also expressecl bv a certain Ricoldus around 1294 when lie wrote: 'We have been amazed that amongst the follo~\-ers of so perfidious a law, deecls of so great perfection are to be found.' R4eanr\lhiIe anti-Byzantine prejuclice increased; Orthodox Greeks being portrayed as devious, colv;irtlly and effete. Tliougli tlie appeal of Crusading was fading fast, many knights remained a warlike breed. As the southern French trou- badour Pierre de Dergerac sang ;u-ound 1204:

I like to h ~ o r the rnttling Of ihr hozrberk (rgai~tst thr sniilr-Dozu

A71i to hrclr the tinlzling and jingling of the hnrness Dells, Tften I rush for~unrd clni see pou~poinfs nnd gn~nbrsons

Tlzrol~m on tq/) of arm0tcr.r. The rustling of thr pennons I i f r s nty sj~irifs .

I know that IzatrO~rks and h e k n ~ k and shirkis llrill /lave thPir iq soon,

And horses and lances nnd szuords And good vassals from this time on.

Annales de Genes, late 12thlearly 13th century. (Bib. Nat., Ms. Lat. 101 34, Paris) BELOW LEFT Tho-masted merchant ship of the type which carried Crusaders and supplies to the eastern' Mediterranean. BELOW War-galley or perhaps a horse-transport tarida with its mast and sail removed.

T l ~ r fitct tll:~t lt~:~ri?* c:~rly IC: l i i+ i~~i ;zu s;lilltx I1:ztl hcr.11 strlrlir-1-s i l l 11ii-

I<(IIII:III A I I I I ~ ~ I ~ ~ C Q ; I I C - C I 1 lit- ~ I I it$ rly c l i ~ s s 1tv11 icli : ~ i l o p ~ ~ d t i ~ t ~ ~ 1 I ikt. 51 (irtrt-gc :!ntl St >l;~tlricr :IS thrkir parrcltl s:lilatu. r I ' l ~ c . cr~lt of St C:rv>t-sr* ~ v ; ~ s si~liil;~rly r1ico11ragec1 l ~ y 1 1 1 ~ I< ingcI~~~~l O~'J~-B~~IY:II<~III I > ~ G I I I S ~ t hv sair~t's crltltrc of pily-inrnge was a t I.ydrI;~, ~ c c ~ s t o[ ]c r~ l r ; l l c~~~. AS r;lrlv :IS ~ l l r 121h crntIiry [he 111or:ilist S t ~ p t l t ' ~ ~ of hlrlt-rt ~ t - i v r l trt <Ira1 witti 11ic pt-u131~111s \ v i ~ i c l ~ rarctl ;I gnarl knight rvllr, W ; I ~ in r l~c avrvict. of n I m c l l o ~ + c l aurl wrote: 'Ez s Iln\cs arlmir-ahlc kna~\~Ictlqc anrl is WI-v plcilsi ng to C;od \vhrn 3 I I M ~ \\+I111 is i~~vc~lvetl in nn c\il cntrrprisc rr'stl-ai nq hin~sc-If' li-0111 r-141. t t rail I)e clone likr this, If ;I k n i ~ i l t is s r ~ t i n g o t e t 011 arl csprclitiot~ fi>r r F ~ t .

sitkc of I ~ i s ~ ~ ~ 1 1 1 ; 1 1 ' lord. tn \ c l ln~~t IIC c;tn~iut I-c'i*itsr- cll~r.(lice~cc, if 111.

wi41es to he fairllT111 t o C'.nd Ic[ l i i~n first sprak ~ I I I I S i l l 111s hc.:tr-1. 1.01.tl Gc~rl. I ~ r - i l l go c l ~ r t h i ~ eupetlition hilt I prntl~ise tFl:~t I ~t-ill l)c y n ~ t ~ ' kl~iglit ~ h r r e , w ~ ~ t i n g 11r)thing i l l i t esrt-pt o l ~ c r l i c ~ ~ c r t o yoit, to eliinie~atc evil ; I I I ~ 1n srek alrer n.l-r;ir is gotld ill cvcry orrasion :IS ~ l r r l r l l as I ran.'

Tt io~~gh them I-lnly I,;IIIC~ 1%';1s S P ~ ? ? as ' ~ I I c atpreme religiuris relic lo hc dcfrndetl againlit hluslirn t-cconqllrst. thr cntasrroplkic failzirc nf silr- crq5it.c C:l-rrsndcs ~~ntlcrmirrerl rntll~~l;E:~s~n 11;lck in Etrlmpe. Rv rhr n1id-l:3th centtiry leatlirlg C111tr.ch t l ~ i ~ ~ k r r s l ike Htrnll~err of Romans n o rerl th;~t ~ I I O J C : 1v11o ])r~;tcE~t'd t !I t' C:I=IIS;IC~C I\,CI+C 0frr11 ITIPT i r ~ i t11 ~nnckrr? rvhilc tliosc wl lo sigticrl 1111 i f~r l r rlicl so 1\.11c.u drtbnk. 0tlrt.l-s \r7cnr 011 Crusarle ro will a place in Ilca~cr~ despite their sin.; l ~ y ohtilining ;\II ind~ilgence. in rezzlrn for ~vllicIi :I 131;111 agreed tn scrve fol- ;i spccifietl pericl<l rlr-prntling nn i t is prc.\.Eous I\-ickedness.

BELOW Archetypal Crusader

'battle arrays (ex A. Von- Pawllkowskl-Cholewal A: Early perlod: 1 - Cavalry; 2 - Squires; 3 - Cmssbowmen and archers; 4 - Close-weapon Infantry; 5 - Baggage. B: Late perlod: 1 - Infantry; 2 - Cavalry

By the 13th centt~t-y the knightly class oS Outrerncr- 11;ltl l>rcr>~ne ;I city basecl coastal Elite wl~ile the wallecl cities Ejllctl zip ;IS i~ t l ;~n<l trrt-ikory was lost, thus the pop~zl;~tior~ of [he Latin states dicl not stirink ns fast as iu size. A witlesprcad belief t11at the kilights of O u t ~ e ~ n r t - Ili~d I > C C O I I I ~ rlegener;lte w ; ~ , however, unfout~decl. hlany 11;1d slip~rcrl i r1 to pnvcrty E-mt in hattle they still f011ght hard, 0 1 1 tlre o t l i ~ r II;IIIC~ ~rlilitary leadership became confiasecl as political authority Frqmcntz-d.

The sit~~ation in the Coltnty c ~ f Tripoli was similii~. ;111$1 in 1 2X9 some of the city's ilite consicIerecl putting tl~emscl\.es ~tnrlcr PllamFuk ps*

tection as a wav of ; ~ ~ o i d i n g GPIIC)PSL' ( l o l t ~ i ~ ~ ; ~ ~ i ~ t l . thrlugh this was thwar-~cd l,v the t';ia~atical Tcmplars. Antioch's sitt~aticm was comp;~rable tho11g81 there hati also I~ren rfforu to r~rlify Antioch ancl Cilician Armenia, all of wltich failetl.

;I rcast~lt Cilician rtrtnrlli;~ tot\^ had scver-;11 Ii.;~turcs in cotrlrtlorl ~vith its C r ~ l s ; ~ d r r r~cighl>or~rs. Mramvhile the Crr~sadrr Kingrlorn or Cypl-us au-vivccl for the s i~nplc ica;lsrHI [hat i t W;IS ;1n ~SI;IFI<I, The Latin status ust;~hlisliccl ; ~ r o t ~ n d the Aegean in the wake or the Fo t~ r th Cri~sade in I203 also existed in a state o f ; h o s t pern3;lnent war, thcir foes being Orthodox Cl~ristiati Byzantines and Bulgarians. rt. partly Catholic, partly Orthotlox Kil~gcloln of Alballia \u;ls set tip bv tlle F~-ench-~~ngc\*in rttl~1.s of so11 t l~rrn Italy frtm 1272 to 1286, and again from 1304 until it was conquered by the Serl>s in the 1340s.

Italian pirates infested the Aegean even before the Fourth Crusade anrl afterw;~rds t he snlaller

Ae~t 'nn i4;lnilr I~t'carne meeting piaces for- pirates of all wigins esrepr lluqlilns. ;\!any of tl~nsc iil\.nlivcr1 wcrc of kniglltlv n n k chile ~roc~ps whc, gar-"-isonctl li>l>c.ti;tn ;tor! Gcnnese ellclaves I~;CI-C al~nost ~rltil*cly I t a l i ; ~ ~ ~ in origin, Ry t l~is rime, Iia~t~cvcr, rhc knight]!! elites o i Italy ancl of the Itali:ua c.ncla\*c*s i l l O r ~ t ~ - r r ~ ~ e r were very different rr-on1 those of most of Il'estel-n Europe, H e r e r\,arf;~rc U:IS srcn 3s a husines? where victory meant prof t ;~nd defr;~t lws, with little room for abstract ideas of glory. Tl~enretically t h e defence of the KingiInrn of Jerusalem \\.as the joint

responsihiliry of :IIF C:hrE.iti;ln rulers hzit fro111 the mid-13th centurJ* on\i*;trcls the 1t;lli;ln merchant rep~~hl ics exerciser1 a virr~~al protectorate ovpr the Crusaclcr st;itcs, tlra~uing Outremer into the hitter rivalry of* Irenice and C;enoa, Rv the second half of the 13th century the Latin stiites ofJel-us;~lrrn, Tripoli and Antioch had, however, lost so much ter- ritory that they had to hc supplied by sea with every~hing, evcn Food. In remrn they solcl 3iuslin1 sIa\.es and Ituxury gootls in trxnsit from the Middle East, 11irli:t or China.

Fortttir?d towns and citics

A: Acre: 1 - Ho-pitoElrr I 'Q; 2 - G~noesc quartcr; 3 - Venetian quartcr; 4 - Templar castle; 5 - Outcr harbour; 6 - Pisan quarter; 7 - hlarseillcse

qualtcr; 8 - fnontrnusard suburb: 9 - lnncr harbour; f Q - Harbour chain F3. Tortosa (Tartus): 1 -. Keep; 2 - Chavcl; 3 - Cathedral: 4 - Citadcl C' Caesama: 1 - Citadel; 2 - Cathedral D: 'Atlit: 1 - North harbour; 2 - South harbour; 3 - Bath-hor!se; 4 - Chumh: 5 - Stables; 6 - Spring E Sis (in CiIIcIa): 1 - Steep slope; 2 - Edge at escarpment F: Famagusla: T - Cttadcl: 2 -Harbour chain; 3 - Latin Cathedral; 4 - Orthodox

Cathedral; 5 - Arsenal G Katla In the 18th century. The fortiff-

cations and main structures wen! virtually unchanged fmm the 14th century: 1 - Castle;

2 - Citadel; 3 - Suburbs; 4 - Warehouses

THE KNIGHT IN OUTREMER

Western feut1;ilism evol\.ccl in a sit~lation of manpower surplli~s, but the opposite was the case in the Crusader states. In fact the conquest of western Syria and Palestine probablv Ied to a general fall in population, just as happened when Spain, Portugal anrl Sicilv fell to Christian

ABOVE Paetlally defaced Patriarchal Cross from the keystone of an arch In the chapel of Ww'aira castle in Jordan, probably cawed shortly before

SaladFn" victory at the batt!e a l

Hattin In 11 87. (Author's bh& tograph)

reconquest. As a result the knightly 6lite of Outremer was not only few The south-eastem comer of the

in number but held fiefs with an inadequate number of peasants. Most fortified medieval city of Gibelet

of the elite were also of modest origins. Of almost 70 identifiable ("OW Jubai"* the lordship in the County of Tripoli.

seigneurial families the great majority came from France, wit11 a smaller (Author,s photograph) number from the German Empire, the Norman kingdonis, Italy, Cilician Armenia and Latin Cyprus.

The acute shortage of manpower also led to a relaxation of the rules for knighthood to encourage pilgrims to settle. Such pilgrims came from as far afield as Iceland and Ethiopia. The Fourth Crusade led to another wave of settlement, though largely in the new Latin states around the Aegean. Knights 1\.11o lived permanently in Outremer called themselves chertnliers de la terre, or 'knights of the land'. Those of mixed origin descended from a European father and a Middle Eastern mother, were called poulnins or polnins by Westerners, possibly meaning colts or runts.

Another characteristic of Outrerner, particularly in the 13th century, was the fact that most knights supported themselves with Jigs en be.~snnts, or 'money fiefs', rather than landed estates as in France; some drawing money from market tolls, industrial production or the sale of specific vegetables. A shortage of resident troops, combined with a relative abundance of cash, also led to a widespread use of mercenaries while the powerful Military Orders and urban communes also provided troops with knights. The nature of these 13thcentury forces was changing, with the rising power of rich Italian merchants and knightly families being seen as a threat to the existing French-speaking knightly 6lite. For example, a Genoese knight of the Gatiluxius family and his four sons arrived in 1251, along with their weapons, horses and some followers aboard a merchant ship and a galley. Detailed information about others survives in a legal document dating from St Louis IX's Crusade a year earlier. The good ship St Victor had 453 Crusaders on board, eight of the ten leading passengers being knights together with a total of 90 retainers. Amongst them was Oliver de Termes, a southern French

Universal History of William of knight ~ v h o hat1 forliicl himself on the \\.rang side clt~ring the ~\lbigcnsian Antiochl second half of the (:~IIS;ICIC. Once in Ot~trerncl: lio~\.evc~: Ile car~ccl out a nc\v career ancl

13th century. (Bib. Apost., Ms. sose to commantl the Clite 'French Regiment' of kniglits and cross- Pal. Lat. 1963, Rome) ABOVE LEFT 'Crusader army', I~o\\.men. Other 1e;lclel-s also hrouglit troops to Outreiiier; Fi1;lngiel.i'~ showing a knight with an early so~lthcrn Italian canli-y, Philip of Nowra's mixed force and the X~lgeviii form of great-helm. (f. 31v) king of soutllern Italy's French, Provenqal :tntl Catalan cavalry. MIDDLE 'Crusader siege of

Antioch.' If. 40r) RIGHT 'Bohemond entrusts Tancred

with the government of Antioch and sails back to Italy.' In the upper register Bohemond gives Tancred his sword when handing

over authority. (f.100r)

Wall-painting in the Templar

Church at Cressac, western France, mid-late 12th century.

(Author's photographs) Top: 'Crusaders emerge from their castle.' Below: Paintings on the

lower register at Cressac are in a

different, perhaps southern French, style.

Interior of the hall of the fortress Follo\ving ;I scl-ic.s of \l;lmlttk \.ictol.ic.s i l l t l i e ' I;llc-l :it11 (.c'111111~\~. 111;111\. . . and hospital at Aqua Bella ("ow 1i11l1ilic.s t-c-.;~lizctl that tl1ct.c. \\.;IS n o li~t~tt.c. i l l S\.ri;l 01- I';~l(.stitlc. ;111tl so c n ~ i - Khirbat 'lqbala) just west of gl-;~tc.tl. 0thc.l.s llctl \\.hen tllc fitl;~l coll;~l,sc. c;~ti~c-, I ) r ~ t o t i I \ . tliosc \\.it11 Jerusalem, mid-1 2th century.

(Photograph D. Pringle) ~ i i o ~ i c ~ > . l i ; ~ t l this o p t i o ~ ~ . . \ I ; I I I~ scttlc.tl i t 1 ( ;> .~I . I I s , sit~ct, tlic.\, 1 1 0 l o~ ig (*~ . l ~ ; ~ t l co~ i~ ic -c t io~ l s in il'c~stc*r~i EIII-OI)~., \\.l~ile otllc-1.s \~.c*tlt t o t l i c ~ 1,:11i11 stateb 01' C;~-cc.cc%. '-1 lk\\, i11;ly c ~ . c ~ i li;~\.e: g o 1 1 ~ t o (:iIici;tti ;11.11ic.t1i;1. 111 filct t l ~ c - nr~~libet-s of k~iights i l l <:!.p~-its il~ct-t.;~sc.tl tlt-;t~~t;ttic.;~ll~. ;IS ( : I - I I S ; I ~ ~ C I -

fi)~.tltncs ehlwd else\vhe~.c., incliitli~lg / ) o l r l t r i t ~ s 01' 1i1isc.tl or igi~i . scvc.1.;11 .-\r.meni;~il ;incl 1I;lronite colonies tllotlgI1 not of' 1101)lc rank. 'I'lit- l.;rtiti states of'tlie Aegean \\.el-r. often short of t~.ool,s, sot1tlic.1.11 (;t-t~c.cc. Ilavitig I ~ e e n conquerccl b!, a mcrc 100 knights ;ltitl ;1t.ot111tl 300 sc.1-gc;r~lts. .\lost c;tmc fi-on1 (:h;~lnpagne ;111t1 R~irgt tnt l~; I;i~.gc.ly I~ci t ig of' ~llitltllc 01, Io\\.r-~. ~111king ~ l o b l e origin \\.it11 a h;~ndfitl f i . 0 ~ 1 tlic. grc.;it I , ;~~-oni;~l I';~lllilic.s. T h e F~-;lnco-B~~~-g~~ntli;~~i kniglltly aristocl.;~c)i. of . . \ ~ l i e ~ ~ s \\.;IS t l i c ~ ~ i \\.ipetl o t t t 11y the conquering Catalans in IS 1 1. l'lic < : ; I I ; I ~ L I I ~ S tlic.~ilselvcs tlif'Serecl fi-on1 previous settlers, the rn;!jol-ity I ~ c i n g light infiintry \\.it11 ;I

sinall number o f knights let1 by a Iiighl~. etlt~catctl Clitc ~chicli inc111tlc.tl tlie architect Ionnes Per;llta. H e repail-ecl tlie d o m e of S;rnta Sofia i l l

(;onst;~ntinopIe follo\\~ing an earthquake i l l 134i . 1le;11i\\.l1ile, ;ill the I.;~ti~l states of O t ~ t r e r n e ~ . s~tSfe~-etl the same tlt.sl>el-;~te sliortnge of' sill-- vi\.ing male of'cspring, r\.ith many settler Siiniilie~s cI\.ing o r l t completel!. ;ificr only two genel-ations.

rlfter the Latin settlers in Greece lost tliost of tlie intc.t.ior to B\.zantine cor~nter-attack they ilgain 1,ec;tnie all ul-1);111 coastal Clite, n process reinforced t h e art-i\.al of Italiztn fitmilies ~ v l l o g~-;ttltt;~ll!~ came t o t lo~ilinate the Frencli. In fact ul;lny of tlic.sc I t ; ~ l i ; l ~ i knights reg:irtletl

their Greck fiefs as a form of linancial investment while the chiv;\lric society of the e;\rly 13th century gave way to one basetl tlpon tracle. Of' course not all nel\rcolncrs were l~usinessnlen, 800 French knights invading northern Greece on behalf of the Angevins in 1331. Nevertheless it was the Italians who hacl the greatest influen&. One way or another knights from a wriety of I>ackgrouncls servecl in the arrnies of the southern Balkans.

The knights of the Aegean Crusacler states seem to have been more ~villing to assimilate existing Slav military Clites, ancl indeed to welcome Turkish settlers if they converted t6 C11risti;unit). than the larger Greek military elite known as ccrrl~o~ts. But as the years passed and the Crusaders' shortage of manpo\ver 1,ec;une acute, some nrrl~ons were knighted and given heredit;\ry fiefs despite remaining Orthodox Christians. To the north, in Epirus and Albania, the spreacl of. Latin Christianity lecl to the emergence of two rival commtmities, the Catholic A1l)onenses and the Orthodox Grnen'. During the 14th century the Albanian military Plite was also feuclalizecl, its forces included large numbers of light ci~valry apparently let1 by local 101-CIS with the often unofficial status of knights.

Italian mercantile outposts in Outre~ner tcere largely clefencfecl by troops of'It;~lian origin, in sonle cases assisted 11y loc;~ls. hlost of the latter were Greek I ~ u t in hlalta, Gozo and Pantelleria the inhal~itants.~cere of Arab origin and many were still Aluslini. hlalta, in fact, sel-ved as a base from \\.hich the Italian corsair Enrico Pescatore attempted to conquer Crete at the start of the 13th century. Other pirates were also noble~nen, Rolancl of Pisa being kno~vn as 'The Knight of Thessaloniki'. hiore famous was Licario, a poor knight from Vicenza who fled the Venetian islancl of Euboea following an unsuccessf~ll love affair ancl entered Byzantine service in 1271. He then reconquered various Aegean islands for the Byzantine Emperor. Other pirate knights served Venice o r Genoa, amongst the most successful being the Zaccaria brothers who controlled several ports along with the iital alum mines of the Anatolian coast, built a for- midable fleet and in 1304 seized the ~vealthy island of Chios in the name of Genoa. The Crimean peninsula in the Black Sea was, however, the jewel of Genoese Outremer. Most of these little Genoese outposts were governed by associ- ations of weal thy shipowners known as mnhonesi, some of knightly rank, who \con the support of local military Clites by allolving them a share in their huge profits. Amongst these mahon~si were men of extraordinary geographical knowledge. Tedisio d'Orio of Kaffa in the Crimea was said to be interested in opening a trade route to China by travelling westwards, having learned what so many Arab geographers already knew - that the world was round a full 200 years before Christopher Columbus.

'Christ before Pilate'; wall- painting c. AD 1200 in the Hermitage of St Neophytos, Enkleistra. Though made when

Cyprus was ruled by western Crusaders, the arms and armour of Pilate's guards are in purely Byzantine style.

ABOVE cr%e d e s c~variers (now Oi~c of the most notable ch;~ractcrinics of the knightly class of Hlan 81-Akrad) In western Syria O r ~ t r c m ~ r in the 13th a t ~ d 1 Jrh centr~ries w ; ~ s their r\+illingnrss to fight was too expenslva lor the secular authorIttes to garrtson Tor a remarkable c~r i e ty of Icaclcrs. The knights of Outrt*mcl; in hct,

and sa was handed aver to the Fnnnerl a pool of h i ~ h l v expel-iencetl rncrccnarics frlr the C>\thnlic and . . " Milbay Ordam. (AMhorh photo- Ortl~orlox Christian i-irrni~s ni' the Xlidtllc East ant1 S O ~ I ~ I I - ~ ~ S . ~ Europe. graph) The role of knights frotii O~ttrcmcr in Mtrdim armies ~ ~ a s t~ntttrall~ morc

'Crudem massacre the Musllm population of Antloch'; Universal History or Willlam ol. nm, Acre, ad 1280-9t. The Ieadlng knights carry owal shlelds ehrractsristlc of many tmape dufing the Rnal years of the Crusader states. {Bib. Caurenzlena, Ms. Rlut. UI. 10, LEOv, Florence)

controversial. 11 large ntiml>c~* of trnops fi-orn tire L71in states in Syria ant1 Patrsrine, incllrrling some knights, wc-nt over to Islam follo~ving the t i i s - astl-oua hnrtle of I-lattin in 1187 atiri rherc wcrc also rererences to "Frankish' troops lighting for the Ayyzbids against rim! hfuslim rulers, some pl-ohably being lnercenaries Trc,n~ the L;rtin statcs. h Sew members nFthe €;ttin elite also stayed Sollorvir~g [he collapse of the Crusarler states, even holding fiefs uncler Slarnluk ov~rlordship for ;l decaclr or so, X rntlcl~ p-eater nurnbcr of kni~hts from Outremer and e l s c r r h ~ e cer- tnirlly scsvcd in the Saljuq Turkish arniics in Anatofia, even having their own zn'ht, o r leader, in the first half of the 13th century.

Motirat ion and pay Religion wxs the main moti~atinn hehincl the f.:rusadcs and the Cht~rch tried to maintain s t~ch fanalicism by proclaiming Muslims to lx sztmmfl rulJlnbitis - the 'most hlamtn\,nrtliy' people. Even though religious rnoti- vatim~ ha4 declined by the 13th century a knight cauId \sin great prestige by serving in the I-loly Land. A poem by Ruteheuf in praise of GenFfrw cle Sergines, commanrler of the Frtncl~ Regiment in Acre, shows tile mixrut-e of religion and glory tvtrich motivated later 13th- centllry knights:

ntfm I ratrldfh isk l~l l ing oJ his grml r~almls and rimlh, Ifis g o d h e d i n g n nd p o d .rmse, if r r m l t i be zmrkorn~ I ~h ink .

HP hehi his l i v lord so dmr khnt h~ nmt riilh him lo nrwngP T;od shnmr Imond I ~ P ~ m , I':rlsi(~ hr nn'!! pnr rrthnl AP OTMS Cod,

conccrncd, thc chiv;ili-ic Inrv of ni-TIIS orlly scrvcd as ;I restraining pril~cil>lc if l>otI~ s i d v s ;qi-ccrl. C:onscq~~c~>tl\; conlhat ;ig;tinst I I O ~ I -

C:hrisrians or- t l a ~ l - ~ o l ~ l t . itlf'an11-y r)r i n ;\rr.;~s n.11~1-c tlre ancient code nf vclltlutra took p~.ccciIruct: c)i.ri- th t - nr.wcr ct,t~cr.pt of chi\-alr!; cot~ld a11 s i c - t i t I - I - i s . 1 - i c it i l l t i 1 Donor figure end hi* horse an

Icon of St NIcholns from the 3 ~ - ~ l i g i o ~ n ~envrl - ; tllr oI(1 pr;~ctice of a llricst hlcssing a new knight's

Church of St Nicholas tls Steyis, o i l t r o c t i t i t t I I I p I to I I t Ka+opetrla, Crusader Kingdom c I I I I > I I ~ $ I ~ cvrrilloel?: r\t thy S;IIIIC: ti111e t l i ~ r ~ II*c~.~* CIC;II- rlifft.1-c1lct.s in the Cyprus, rate 131h century. T ~ I S ; t r t i l ~~dc -s of' l~or th Eut-011~~i11-1 k11i~11ts ant1 rhrir sot~tE~~r-t l ( I I ~ c ~ ~ ~ z c I - - knight is in purely western

~ ; I I I ~ ; I I I ) C O I I ~ I tcr11;irts. F I ' F ~ ~ ~ ~ \\-yi-c ~.cfl~'ctt*d i 11 O~tt-CIIIOI. \%,IICI-C equipment while fmnt-onty

t-~ortl~cr-11 idc;~!s p~.r.clolnirl;laetl ill earlier clecarlcq, soutllern i l l Iatcl- caparison of hls horse is in a Mediterranean style assoclated

?c>;~~+s. SOII~I I~*I 11c.1 s I-;II .~I?* tc)13k knighting cc~rr . i~~o~i ics ; ~ n d chi\.alric iclr.11~ with and Spain. 50 <crin~~l;Iv, nor clicl tllel; glorify \\-;irfi~r-c ajlcl t l ~ rnilit;~l+y lit'e to tllc ~ l t l c Museum, Archbishop Makarios 111 uatclut. 1 1 1 ~ ~ r f ) a t ~ i / c t l It;l!! tllca 'gil-dlc of kniglirl~nr>d' !\+as c\.en givc!~ to Foundation, Nicosia)

yolung men r,T bourgeois or- 1%-orking-cFass origin, pr(~\'irlrtl tfic.il= fil11lilic.u ~ i ~ r i ' c 1-ic11 cnot~gh to yrovicie the expensive oquipnlenz clc~r~ancl~cl of a ca\;~Iryma~l.

Nuwi-lhc*lcw, ~ori:~E slat115 rctnaincd itnpol-tant in the Cr115ader states, the 1 Sth-centl~~+y Kingclot11 of Jcrusalcni continrrally rewriting its l;n\-s to preserve a feudal structure which no Iongcl. I~arl much meaning. Money was esscn~ial ED the knightly Clite whether serving as rnerccnai-ies or in a feudal array. 1% fief worth 1)00 to 1,000 lirsflnts I I

a years was thought necessary to s1zppol.t a knight in the east, many being moncv fiefs. Yet knights could nor always rely on income frorn f efs or from employment as mercenaries, one report telling of an Italian who had to p;iutn his dagger; shield and armour, thoz~gh notably not his m\,orcl: and horse, when h e fell into debt. Meanir~hile, tile system of r ~ d o r meant that the King of-lerusalern paid for Iasses of horses or military equipment when his knights scrvcd outsirk the Kingrlnm. Pay varied considerahlv across Outretner I~ut in general a

Book of Psalms, Acre or Antioch, late 13th century. 'King David plays his harp' and 'David beheads Goliath'. King David plays an unusual instrument with a handle at the top. Several eastern musical influences reached Western Europe via the/ Crusader states. (Bib. Antoniana, Ms. C.12, f.lv, Padua)

III(-IXX.II:II .!~ k11ig111 ~.c(x-i\.c(l t\vicc% 01. t111.c(. ti111c-s ;IS

11111e11 ;IS ;I C I . ~ S S ~ ) ~ \ \ ~ I I I ; \ I I . tllis ~.(-fl(*(.ti~ig t I1(*

k11igIlt.s s111)cl.iol. SI;IIIIS ;11i(I tlic cost of. llis ;II.II~S. ;Il~lllolll~ ; l l l ( l llol~s(~s. r l . / l ( ~ 0 1 7 I l l / ~ t / ~ / ~ of ' \ ! i ~ 0 / / l . S (113

. / o i t t 7 - i / l o ( I 323-5) t~.i(%(l to fix t l ~ c - p;~y fi)r C;I\,;III.~ i ~ i t11c I , ; ~ t i l l I'~.i~icip;llit!~ of. ; \ ~ I I ; I ~ ; I ;I[ SO0 l t ? / ) ~ ~ t / ) ( , t ~ , . v

fi)r ;I !,c;ir's sc.~.vicc I>\ . ;I knigllt ~.ccl-r~i!c.tl o\.c*~.sc;~s, (i00 / ty / ) (>t / ) r r (> ,s if ~ . c c ~ - ~ ~ i t c ( l loc;~ll>., \\,it11 400 ;111(l :300 / I Y / ) B I / ) P I ~ ~ . S , I Y ' S I ) C ' C I ~ V C ~ ~ , fi)r sq~~i rcs .

I-1orsc.s \\,ere tlie most exl~cnsivc item tllat ;I

kniglit ncctlccl. They \\.ere ;\lso alnongst the ~iiost i11111ol.tii1it booty, \vl~icli in tr1r11 led t o ;III i11Sr1sio11 of sul)c.~.iol oric.nt;~l equinc genes into Europc. ;~~~ l~lootlstock. 111 tlic (:r~rs;~cler st;~tcs, ;IS elsr~vlicrc. tlif'fc~~-cnt hol-ses \\.rhrca ~rsotl Sor tlil'fcrcnt pi~~-l>oses, fi.onl t l e s / t . i r ~ . ~\.;~~-lio~.ses t o tllc filicst Tr11.com;in tr;~\.clling lio~.scs, ort l in;~~-y / ) ( t l p . q riding horses, 1.itling ~i i r~lcs ;IIICI . s r t t ~ t / ) / n s o r pack-horses. <:oul-;~gc ;lntl s t ;~~ l l in ;~ \vcrc, ~vllat ;I knight req11i1-etl of his \\.;~r-lio~.sc, t l ~ c innate aggression of stallions c ~ ~ ~ ; ~ l > l i ~ ~ g tIic*111 to ig11o1-c- s~~pcrf ic i ;~l \\,o1111els r111tiI

;i I>;\trlc \\.;IS ovrr. Ol'co~lrsc. not ;I\\ ;~liim;\ls \\.we o f top <111;1lit!,, rlic micl-I3tl~-cc1it111~y I < t t / r ~ of /It(>

7 i , t t t / ) l ( t t : v tlcsc~.il>i~ig inf'c.1-iol- I~orscs ;IS ~~rlll(-rs. stol)lx-~.s 01- ~ll~-o\\.cl.s. I ) ( . .v / t . in :v \\.c.~.c only ricltl(.n in I~;~tt lc. c\.cli tIic11 \\.;liking l)c,fi)~.c c-;~~itc~.i~ig into tlic fi1i;11 cl1;11-gc. *l .~.ott i~~g \V;IS so ~ ~ ~ ~ c o ~ i ~ f o r t ; ~ l > l c ~ fi)r ; I I ~ ;~~.rnor~lx~cl 1n;lli t l i ; ~ t i t \\.;IS conil~~only r~sccl ;IS ;I form of' ~>~~l l ishnic~nt , \\.bile g;~lloping \\.ol~ltl

Ii;i\.c I)~.okcn 111) tlic close-l);ickc.tl t n t ~ t - o i . ~ f i)~.n~;~tion o n \\.liicli ;I knightly c11al.g~ tlc.l,c.~itlctl tlpon fi)r its sl~ccess.

\\~liel.c;~s rlic L.;~tin sr;~tcs of ;\ege;i~l O11trenic.r I;~ckecl troops ~ i t l i c r than lio~.ses. tlic I,atin states of tht, I-Iol! 1,antl \\,cre not so Ihrtunate. Mere t1iel.c \\.;is 11ot only ;I shol-tagc. of I-cmor~nts b r~ t ;~lso ;lcute ~\ . ;~st ;~gc i l l 1);lttle since .\luslim lio~.se-21-chers trietl to r~nliorse their formitl;tl~lc foes. I'rices \.ariccl hugel!. ;tccortling to qrl;ility ancl a\.;iilal~ilit>.. I\ gootl st:~llion \\.as nol.mi~lly ten timcs the \;due o f a Iiiarc, the bcst liorscs bcing t~vicc! as cspcnsivc again ~\.liilc tlic cost of ;I ~.c;lsonal>le \\r;~r-liorse \\.;IS ;1roi1ncl the same as a !.car's I-eve~lue fro111 a normal fief.

Contrary to pop t~ la~ . opinion. (.lire h,lusli~n ca\.alrymen probably rode larger horses than those of the average c:rusaclc~-. For this reason tlie hest ~\.:ir-horses of 13th-cen tury l\'estcrn Eilrol>e \\.ere raised in areas \\91iicli had close tratling links \\.it11 both Or~tremer and the hlr~slim \corlcl; for example Sicily and southern Italy, \\.here improving breeds ant1 espol-ting horses \\.ere major intlustries. The Latin states of the Aegean ant1 of the Holy 1,and both importetl great nrlmbers of animals as \\.ell ;IS

high-usage items like horseshoes, the majority prohahly fi-orn so~rthern Italy. Along \\.ith cloctors ancl engineers ~vliicli the Angevin rulers of this area sent easn\.arcl, there m;iy 1i;tve Ixen \.ets since soutliern Italy \\.as already proclr~cing some of the earliest European I~ooks on veterinary science. \VIiere feecling \\.as conccrnerl, the Crrlsacler states used \\.hatever \\.as a\,ailal)le. This \.arietl ;~ccor<ling to circu~nst;~nce and an

ABOVE Ceramlc plate shawlnn a f3th century transport ship from Corhth. Such vessel% provided a Illellno whtch anublod tho Isolated Latin stetes of Ovtremer to survlve. (Cerlnth Museum; Amerlean School el Classical Studies phota-graph)

RELOW The ruins OF a lawe medievat rottress overla~king Filipl in northern Oreeco. Many isolated towers dating from the Zalin Crusader oeeupation am dotted across Greece, mostly In the sovlh, (Author's photograph)

& . " I (Bib. Munlc., Ms. 562, Dijon) tvc.a~.iug r;tl)t~~~.r.tl ~ T l 2 l i l l t ~ p I I 1 : 'I3i1t the Ilc'ilrPI. 11le\- nppronclirrl tlir rnr11-r. Top: 'Story 01 Troy.' The guard an the lefl has one of the earliest

itnlike Frr-l~c-llii~cn ~hc-!. .;rrn~t*rl, t i ~ t l ~ y rn;~l-rl~ctl hu~-~-ictlly ant1 in rlir;-

illudratlans 0, basilad daqqer ~ i ~ i I t ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 r r n ~ d c . i111rl F lf~pc.rl tiieir- S I I irltE~ ir-r-cg~~la~*I!:, rn t rre ;~f~ei- I hc - - In western art, (f .89~) Below: n1:lnllc.r r ) t ' S:lr-;lct.ns 111;lrl of Fr.erlcll." 'Wooden Worse taken into Tmy.' lnfo~-m;i l io~~ hn1t1 I!IP lF~~\;Jillt S E C ~ ;llsc) 5 h t 8 t \ ~ 3il~ht nn C!-rzsackr skills. , . Infantry in the loweWright 'Orner FOI r.s;ln~plr. ;I 1;ltr. 13lthccnttir!. tr:~iniili IH:IIIII;LI (Ie~criIws ~lifri-i-ent are repmsentive of those tmops who defended the Latln states in

II.:IIS of' t~%iilx :I I:~IIw, atnt)ngsI !\+IiiclI It'iIq ;1i1 i ~ ~ c ~ i v i ( ~ ~ ~ a l C I I ~ I V ~ C d01\7l Ihr

1 Syrfa durrnn d-ades. 1t.1-I s i c k of 311 c q)p , ~ i e t~ t ki ) t r\\n ;IS T l i v S\-ri;ll> ;\lf ack'. F r Icns nserE by

ABOVE 'The Rand to Calvary," on a marble tympanum from Parnaca. Cyprus, nri 1200-50. Two soldters wear full mail-

armour but no sureoals Ln a very rare piece of Crusatler art from

the firs; half of the 13th century.

(V & A Museum, Inv. 6.2-19R2, London: author's photograph)

BELOW South-wcstern redoubt of Patras castle. The Tortmss is a

mixture of Byznntlnc. Crusodcr, Venetian and Ottoman Turkish eonstrucl~on. (Photogmph A. Bon)

wsorrthel-11 I;l;~ncr. Olivcr ~ms also renowrtctl l i ~ r thc care he took of his men and his willingl~ers In retreat rr.ithor~t Icr-ling p,rzlilty nlmrit it. Ncn.t-I-thclcss the knigl~ts or O ~ ~ t r c ~ m e r were rrcqttentlv I r ~ l r t l , ambtlsFlrrl anti n~~+rclunrlerl by 'tmth Mt~slim ;tntl

Rpnnlinc foes. In 129 1, men tllc Angel-in king c ~ f '

r;sr~lthern ltiily, C:li;~i.tes I?. wrote that ttlc M;lmluks rcmained 'mnre clcwr and more nclrnit 111;ln

C:liristians in war'.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE - -- -

The Latin Glites retained an enormous senw of [heir awn superiority over the indigenous peoples, giving them confidence long aftc-1- tllcir military dr,ti~iriance had hcen lost. Thnllgh thcl-e haci Iwcn an increase in class consc l o t~~ness amongst the ari~rncnr?~ of Outlrmer since 111e later 1 9 1 1 ccetltury the declining ~vealth of many knights rnaclr i t rlirficult for zhcm to marl-? n~~tsirle the Cr~rs;~rlet starrs. C:onscquen~ly the Pnpe ~ m s oftct~ nskrcl for speci;~l t1inpens;lrion so thar hlnocl rrl:~ri\-cs co~llrt ~vrr l . In~crnlarr-iagr nit11 Orttlorlox Clrt-isri;r~rs was resisted and i r l s o r ~ ~ u cases h;ln~lt=d. Pt~nislrments atso reflected this rigid class structure: rebel knights in Iknrrtian Ct.ete losing their fiefs ar~rl nnn-nahfe Latins t l ~ ~ i r assets, ~vhilc Gweks lost iI hand or foot.

Thr pl-imal-v role of the knighrs of Outrcmt-r reniaincrl military even rhor~gh their way of IEfc reflecrctl that of ~lrhanisecl ItaIs rather than r~~r ; l l France. I11 the Kingdom nf Jerl~salern the remaining r u ~ a l fiefs were largelv hdd by a city- haserl aristocncy wllose representative gxthered rtavenues from village leadcrs much as hacl been rlnne hrfrjre the C:rzas;lrlers arrived. A similar ??tern prohahly operated in Latin Cyprus and, to ;1 Icsser exrcnr, Larin Greece. The castles and tnmors of O~ltrerner ~ r i e c f considerably, recent dctailcd archaco8ogical research having shown nlrac there \mr no such thing as a specifict?lty Crusader style castle. Here the {my of Iife retlectecl. that of solithern Europe. The cellars were the

ABOVE RIGHT Knightly tombs In the Crussdar a M e s were generally marked with lnctesd ntaba rather than thrw-. dlrnenmlonel atngfms; A-;R Members of the Luslgnun family, Ida 13th m t u y (Clrnassol Museum). C: Slr Aelmont Dodour, Ids f3thfemrly 14th centur)*. {Arab Ahmel Mosqua, Ntcosla). D: Raoul ds la Blanehegards, late 13thlearly 14th century (Aya Sona Mosque, Mlcorla) E: Sir Ballan Lsnbs~. d. *9 1357

(Armmlun Church. NimFs). F: Sir Pkrm Lmlrwns, d. *o 130 (Arab Ahmet Masque, ffkosia). 6: Johan Tanourl, d. rrr 134 (Emaqhteh Mosque, Nicosia). H: Sit laq d'Brirun, earliy-mtd 14th century (Aya Sona Wosque, Nlcosla). I. Ths Prwwt af

Cyprus, mld-14th eanluty (Emerghleh Mosque, Mlcosla). J. Slr Phellpa de Mllmam, mld-14th cantury (Emerghleh Mosque, Nlcwla). K Sibylla Crceon, d. A e 1233,frorn the Kozan area (Arch8eologicat Museum, Adana)

o l ' . \ t I ~ r ~ i ~ . +\ I iii-\t [II(* ~ t i i l i ~ ; ~ r v i+klict- t d ' i l l (* l ' i - i~ t t* i l~ : t ! i~v tbI ' : \ i . l i :~~-:~ t t ~ ~ i c l ~ ~ c l BELOW 'Tower of Babel', ~nfvers.41 story af ~ i ~ l i a r n of tivt. ~ I I i\t)E,uc.rl i ~ l o r ~ ~ ~ t ; t i r ~ t c ~ l ) c . ;~ut l t 'q :tii(I s l ~ . r ~ ~ g l \ ' f i ) i + ~ i i i t . r l 111;111oi.-

m, Aem, tsta-~ath century. The ! I ~ ~ I ~ w ~ , t ~ t i t i ! 1 1 1 ~ t * t ~ l : ~ l i ~ i t t - i - i t ~ r I\*:IS I ( - i * o ~ ~ ( l t ~ t = r ( ~ I I)v 1 1 1 ~ I3y/;11itit1v\. l:i~jtmr

l ab0ure~ wear c ~ o t h s s In a i - ~ ; r ~ ~ i p ! r s 0 1 : ~ r c - l ~ i ~ t * c t ~ ~ t - i t l i l t - c - i ~ r : t ~ i o t t l't.0111 1 .:ifin ( ; i - t * c ~ ~ m ~ l i o ~ \ * l s l : i ~ i l i ( -

mixture of weatern, Byrantlne I .i!11i~1* 1 11a1i l{y/;1111 i!1tn i ~ l l l t b r k l t v. x i t g g t q \ l i i i g 1!i;1l ; i ~ . c ~ l i ! [ ~ Y - R S ~ I I C ~ ~ i t , ~ x i ~ i i \ end ls lamlc s t y l e s while building

\\.r-ll :I\ L t i i g l ~ r ~ fI{.c[ to ( ; l - c ~ . t t - I I 1 r 1 1 1 1 l ~ t - t l t b c l i i i i r ~ ~ ( : i - ~ ~ ~ : ~ t l t . r - \t.htra\ ot techniques Include a typical Middle ,or making 3s i i : ~ i111tI I',tl<-\t ill[..

unbaked mud-btleks. (Bib. I t t 1 1 1 ~ 1.;11 IT k ~ ~ i x l i r . ; [ i ) l l l l t l tli;k! l i \ i i l q ; ~ l l l o k l ~ , r ~ ~ tlltml-c l l ; l l l t c ;III(I

Munic., Ms. 582, Oijon, L9r) ( ~ l ~ l l l l 1 l 0 t l t ' l ~ ~ it1 tilt' I ' I ' O I ~ + I I V ( I ~ i l i t ' ~ ( ) l l t l.tmltlc-l. c;!ll~vrl ' i t l ~ i ; l l ~ l l ~ 0 \ 1 4 ~ l l l < .

I O I I ' : 1 1 t 1 i t I , I 1 ; 1 ~ 1 .

LJI-OIIII(YI Inv t w i g i 11. ~ u k t ~ I . ; I ~ c - [ k t = t I , I< \ . t , ;~ ( . l i

' ~ ~ : i , i ~ b ~ ~ ; t l ' x i 0 1 1 p !I;,\ i i i c its OI \ I I ~ X I L I - C I ~ I S ; I~ I I I ;1,1<1

, I ! t 11111 c ! I \\ I ~ i b t - I I M * > ~ r t - t ~ i - l ~ l : ~ ~ ~ \ l ; t rgc-lv ~ . t ~ ~ i ~ ; ~ i i ~ [ - ( l

~ l ~ ~ r + c . \ \ * l i i c l ~ 11;lcI c-uixtc.cl I ' i~t . c t . t ~ ~ t ~ ~ . i c . \ . 2:111.

t ' x ; t l l l l ~ l ( ' /rrllllr'(t 1~,1111.lli1l1~l'< l\'C'1.(' IIII'!.c'~\. 1 l l ~ ' t l l ( l

8 1!11*lii11 I I ~ ~ I I I I ~ I ~ I I J I ~ , 111t- t i ~ : i t * k ( ~ ~ s l ~ t ~ i i i g ~ ~ t ~ r l ~ ; ~ t i g r < i

t t - l ~ i l t . 1nilt17 c 11111 c 1 1 ~ - 5 Ii,l(l 011c.1- 1 ~ ~ ~ 1 1 ~ i ~ i ~ s q t l r c .

\I;III! It-c.<fc-t.rtr.lh\ I)c.lit.tc.tl t l l i ~ l r l i e 3 l i t l r l l r* i<;..lfa

111 o ~ t ~ f ~ t t ~ l t I i s t - , ~ w ; I I I(I 11i:ht i t 5 I i<*a t : i t ~ c i N ~ I I V 1?1:1(lt*

~ r i i - 1 1 'ri1;1{1 t l i rmr l clr=;\tl ' . Sc.vc.~.tllc-l( ' \c. tllc- c l i t t ~ \ 111

ill<* I l t ) ! ~ L>IIICI i l t lc l [> lq l lx ~ 1 ~ 1 0 ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ ( 1 ~ t ~ v c ~ l ~ ~ ~ l + I . k 1 > P C [ >

I ) I l i ~ c , i l c1it.t ~ I I C I ~ v ; i y < t d ~ 6 ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 1 ~ ~ v i t l i thC ~ I ~ I I I ; I I T . T I i r lrc,~nt.s or II.~.;IE t I]? f i i r n i l i r s c \ . r l l in C : \ ~ I % I ~ S

t ' e r e ~ ~ i l , l e r l t l i t r s c (>r rllc llr~sfims. 11;iving n sol-L of' pri \ ; t~c h;rr c111 liw the ~ t + t l t ~ ~ c n tillk. I.irt lr is ~ ~ I D I C I I

; i I > o ~ ~ t 1101 tv8s in I ~ I I I - C C ~ I ~ I I I - v , \ c r ~ . t ~ t t a ~ . r r t i ; l r k a h l y rlrt;tilrtl dc<criptic>n or a c - o ~ n p ; ~ r - a h l t x

r i~ i< l t l l c -c !aw I l r l ~ l ~ c in 1 2 t h - c c n t 1 1 1 ~ v ( X I - c l s l i t - v i v m

in ;1 t l r l r ~ ~ r r ~ e ~ ~ l \vliit.11 w;rtl% likc ~ I I cst;ltt5 i~gcnt's i ~ d t . t ~ r ~ i s r i ~ ~ r . ~ i t . I'lris n~oricst liottse f if lrcl part ol ;I sp; tcr . l , e i \ \ - c c ~ l thrrr. \ t l - r c t x I t h ; ~ r l a n ~ ; l i n dr)c)~. ant1 s 'secr-c.t t l o i ~ r ' c r f f i t % cbnclosr.cl c o t ~ i . t \ n r r l , p l t~? ; Fcpar;ltca \ c c ) ~ n c . n ' s ~ , j t t ; ~ r t r r s 311tl a cattle pen. 'C'nlikc ;I prol>rr-t\w a r r . t > s s thc slrchct i t rtid t ic l t l~a\.e i ts 0n.n \ec-ll (>I- tr*;-ttrbr ~ v l ~ e ~ l . 1x11 (lid i r l c l l t d e ;4

kitchen a t i r l :I ~ c i t ~ t l - t t r ~ \ - c r ro l* 1 - e n r i l a t ion. Thr f i r , r ~ t r 1 o r ~ - rvix.; c ~ i ' tinc wood. the c n t l ; m t e hall p:n'ul ~ \ - i th i n a r a h l r anrt rllet-c I\-CI-~ 1>c11cl~es for t i s i t o r $ . Nrst C.;IIII(* ;I c t r r . r . ido~ . 11 ie t l two l-cceprion I - ~ O I I I \ faring u:lcE~ ot11r.r. ear11 tcitF1 c;ll .~t.cl Polding doors. Ont. i.rrt-pt ion 1i:111 I i i ~ < l rarvctl u+r>oil~r~ p;u~ell ing, ;I I ; l r g . c . ; ih inc t ; ~ l l c l r11e n - i ~ l t I c a t c l ~ i n g

I c l l t i l ; ~ t i c l t ~ irncr.1- \ \ - i rh i t s cncn r;lr\rtt r l o r ~ l . s , p111$ :r g i l t l i a t [ \ \ . i ~ \ I i - I > i i ~ i i ~ i i i ! ' iv) t~t hvlii1c. I IW rc-t 01 thr

Guest-house and irrigation dam I I below Montfort Castle,

13th century northern Palestine (from BSAJ Survey 1982) A: Guest-house B: Dam across the Wadi al-Qarn, now largely destroyed C: Section across guest-hall and undercroft D: Section along guest-hall and undercroft, including a tower which collapsed in 1940-42

BELOW 'Abraham' cawed wooden capital from Calabria or I

Sicily, AD 11 50-1 200. Like much art from southern Italy, this \\.ails and floor were covered in mari>le an<! the ceilinr nlas r~ainted 'in oil

t ,

includes Byzantine influence and accorcli~~g to the Syrian fashion'. X second reception room !tias similar probably mirrors the lost art of late 12th century Outremer. (V except that its wash-basin was of m~~lticoloured marble. The t ~ r o covered and A Museum, inv. 26gb-1886, sofas or benches ~vere prol~ably in these reception rooms. The courtyard London; author's photograph) had a marble fou~ltain while the floor ant1 ~valls were again panelled ~vith

marble. Small rooms lecl off this courtyarct, each with carvecl wooden doors. The kitchen and a bathroom paved in marble and roofed with a carved plaster dome were also off the courtyard from ~vliich nvo balconies were reached by a stone staircase. Above was a carved plaster gallery the upper floor being reached by a stone staircase in a small corridor. This upper floor consisted of three apartments, each with their own doors, wash-rooms and 'other facilities'. The roof had a parapet plus a wooden railing around the top of the staircase, while the house had its own rights to water from the city's canalisation system. If ordinary knightly or middle-class houses in Acre were anything like this, then it is small wonder that European visitors were amazed by the apparent luxury of life in Outremer.

By the end of the 13th century there was con- siderable comfort even in castles, let alone the houses of the urban-based military elite, with carpets on the floors of the main rooms, flowery patterns painted on the walls and some rooms sprayed with eastern perfumes. Bathingcwas as much a source of pleasure as of cleanliness, which

ITY ig11t CXII!:I~II 111e CIIIII-CII'~ d i s t r t ~ s ~ o f [hi.; eastern Il;~l~it. It1 011trclncr. si ngirlg ant1 rtitrsic-rtinkiny: Sormetl an rssr.t~ti;tl part nl' cittcrtairirnr~~t, I V I I ~ I C ill C;~tin Grcerr die Creeks wwc shockctl hy ~ I I C Latins' 11;tbit of rlririkitl~ ~ ~ n ~ ~ ~ a r c r e r l wine with their ineals, FI t i ~ e re;tsts wel-e supposedly ch;lmcteristic of the kni;~Iitl!t way of lire, b t ~ t such it~dulgence w n s not an rvcrytlav thing, and hy r l~r end of the 13th century m~tcll of the rrr11gee elire of Orrrre~ner was so poor t l lat lhc Angcvin king or southern Italv sent anntt ;~! shipments of gr;lin for thc timilirn oi' nrrtlv knights.

l\?icrc thc costt~n~c of the kniglltfy class 152s cnncel.nrd there. was lcss castcrrl i r~fl~lencc than somerimcs thottgl~t. Despite the farr [hilt \\'illbmntl c~f Olrlen btiq drscrihecl ~ l i c rlrcs?; o f tllc I,-~tin di te of Ch11rlts as 'sIi;~l>l>v' in F 'I 1 I , lich oriental hlx-ics a t ~ d minor aspects of eastern fashion Irere acloptcd dtiring 1 [he 13111 century. L~;lrgc h;~rs wrrc r~sctl it1 high summer when, parattoxically, c!ot't~cs seem to hnvc 't~cct~ nlorc A serlea of windows In Chames

it-estcrti than in ~vitltel- ~r - l~en .Fur-t i ned eastern t~~atlrles we1.e worn. Thc Cathedral podray leaders of St

J4ilira1-y Orders rclr.h;lcIe Il~xlirio~rii i!cms of costumr 3s a tllrr;lt to t l l ~ i r " where most of them were captured.

puritanical cnrle. Tliesr: incltcrletl poirtted hnts called cf~nrrsrm rn~nnlj~ies, Hem (A) a nobfemen baarlng the - calourrtl coifs. ~vhcsc;~s ort1i11a1-y ones wcre i\+llire, and shoes caller1 .,, ,, Dreur loses his swarrl - gdor/ t?~.s;~s nppnsetl ttr ~r 'di~l;~r'y snli~rx Othrl- prohibitions from particlilal- the onty flgure to do so. Same

\cars inclutletl ;III embroidrrr't turha 11 callrrl a tnniIFon wrfinmrrk which Years ago an enam*&d swt'd-

~ L I I I ~ to the waist in l"l2, l o r ~ ~ coats called Irnlptrs in E2R8, ;1 sltnrt cote pornme' up In Damascus and fs now In tha Metropolitan

hnrdir coat with lacing points in 1300, and sandals calletl plntzmtrs in Musmm Art, New On 130'1. In 1295 Members of the Hospitallers hrerc, hcr~r-e\-er, prrmi ttecl to side ( ~ 1 beam the blue and wear a white -IIP/ or nuraillipr form or headto\-ering \t*hicIl covers their ears. JIeanrvhile in Cyprus and Greece the Latin Elite took pains to dif- ferentiate iwelf from the Greek m;ljoriym with 1a1t.s sr~pporting [hem in this effort, status being d ~ o ~ v n hy wearing the syrnlmFs of kr~iglltliood, c l o t h a f ~ o l d , sptrrs, nvnrtl and a n\-cwcl-heIt.

'I$%ile t h e literaztlre nf O~ttrerner natunllv portrayed the Latin military Olite in a Favot~wble light, an interesting alternative exists in medieval Arabic 1 itrmture. Here popular stories nrock tlte \t7csterners ss sn~pid and primitive, the Crusaders being comp;lrahle to the Red Indians portrayed in old cowboy movies. European cities are dcscrihcd as exciting dens of vice, gambling and drunkenness like rnetlievnl versions of LIS j'egas. Ilkstel-n men were portrayed as d i l . ~ i p o f i ~ n t and prerniscuous hut also hnve and ssrrong, while western \rromen were seen xa no use Tar anything?

Religion rernainerl the main cliticie Ilenveen the military elites of Outrerner and those they ruled, though many L t i n settler fi~rnilics were eventually ahsorkcl in to Qrthoclox C:F~ristian Ryl~ndnc s o c f e ~ . Hrfore that. I~cn\-ever, thc 13th-centclry Clites of Outremer rolltnvec1 the irlcas of

. . gold arms of breux quartered with the ermlne of Brittany. On the other {C) It has a Crusader's red cross on a green ground dec- orated with vines. It Is almost certainly the pommel of Count Peter's sword c a p t u d at el- Mannurah, but what w8a the forgotten 8tory behind the sword on the etalned-glass window?

1';lrjs ;IS clnsrly :IS t11c .1~ C ( U I ] ~ . ~ , i ! cmt+ ;~ tb~ t+( - . t * p ; ~ ! l - ~ ~ : ~ i ~ ~ t i ~ ~ g s ; I I I C ~ sot-i:~l c8vtmt~ts like t o t ~ t - ~ ~ a ~ ~ l ~ n l l i :ill l~rlp~<E tllt'nl 10 ~ C P I I in tn11c11 ~ v i t l i [he latest fils'tiiolls. The art ;~ntl ;~r.cl~itt.ttti~.c~ o f r l l r b C:l-k~sarlcr st;ltrs 1r;15. howe\-er, p i m i t i w cornpard t c l rhar oI'its sctl)histic;~trtI nc.i~l,rht>o~~r-s. QII~IP ;I l n t of* wall paitlril~gs wlrivi~e wliilc r,rll(.rs wrrr cErsc.ril)ctl in literary sottrces. Tlie s i ~ ~ c nT Troy zt;rs ;t f;n.r~t~re<l rhvnlc i l l I :r-11sar1c.r C;rhvuce. rcliile tlle castle rjf's~. OII~CI' ;at 'Sllc.hes \rm:!s dt~cor;itt-tl t\*ifh flirt tlr.rs or the ( : I - I IS~C~PI-

conquest trf Syria; its artists prrh;lps 31;1\+illg rtjltle rrr~r~r :\l~tiocll ilwlf t r ~ i t l ~ rhe LS~lke's witir. T l ~ ~ u g h t t~ert. wrrc- p l r * ~ ~ t y of frntrl~trlorrr. p.Sr,rmls 111ovi11x at-ot~ncl 011tremr1; thc qurstio~l of original l iterary pmr2ucrion is more dirlirltl t . For csnn~plc, 7 ' f t ~ DIrl Fr~rrrlr (:~-rcsnrl~ .I++, based on legeti tls ;ISFOC~;~F~CI f v i t h t h ~ First I :I-IIs~IcI~, 1)1'(11);1111!' C O ~ I I ~ ~ ~ I I S ~ectiotis ~vrittrn in Orhtremr*r. Stol-irs : ~ l > o ~ i t ;\ticit-t~t <;~-r.rk Elct-oss ~vrl-e illso pclpttl:;lr, par- tlc111;wly t11c)sr ~~~~~~~~~~ittg Ix1tt1r.s :q;linst fc~r~illc :\~~i;~irrms. 'I'11c S;IIIIV ~c;ls ~rr ic t r f the stor? ol'thc l'l.qj;~tt \\':11; \vhilr lit(-~-att~r+r i t1 htin Gl-ercc. 1~;15

s i ~ ~ i l i ~ l - It, that c~f Fr~rncl~-cE~~r~ri~~;~~ccl st>~lrl~ct+n I t ;~ ly , 1;ilr.s nf k r i g s\l-thtu.

Other Chris tian states , - - I * . Main trade routes 'vlVenet ian (a Genoese

1

Chapel of Marqeb castle, norlh- western Syria, late ltthlearly

d3th centuries, of black uoteanlt melt decorated with white

limestone, The best dornestlc buildings In the Prfncipolkty of Antloch were probably made In

the same manner,

Ilcing w r y pc~prili~~: Not ~tnril t l ~ c . 1-It11 rcnttlrlD clirl 1taIi:i~i c l i ~ ! l c ~ ~ p - I~ri*ncl~ AS t11v I : I I I ~ L I ; I K ~ * 01- t l ~ e i,litr in Latin I;rt*ccc.

Tlw iclc:tl of.c<~t~r[l \~ low also l ~eg;~n ti) appr ;~r in ll3tl1qcnt11rv Z i t ~ ~ ~ t l ~ t + r , C ' ~ C O I I I + ~ I ~ C ~ I 13v 1; t t l i rn and thcir 1ninstrc.1~. I t !\.as 1~;1srti I I IXJI I r\~;il>-

hlusliin collccpts ot' rotnntlcr, as ol)l)rrsetl to rile chd C;r;lr.rr+Kotn:~ri rt~ipll;~sis on scs~i;ll appctitr. Cm;Ir~nIly i t ch;znge:c.rl rltc ~\.clmct~ ot' t l ~ c : k n i g l ~ t l ~ rlasr T~.onr ~nlt~alhc* posscssic~ns ot. r'cl>iclcs Sor political a1lia11r.e~ allnost into eqt~ i~ l s of theira mrnfnlk. Xlrat~rvhilr the irle;~ls of knightly I>elra\.io\~r carlic to ilrclr~rlr tlre ~ ~ l f l ~ ~ ~ < i : t s t i c ~ > u ~ - s u i ~ of s ~ x t ~ n l $a~our.r. Strangrlv ctir,uglr tho -. I c m ~ l a r r r;lmr to 11I:ty a p r o r ~ i i n c ~ ~ t rote in

literary I.onrance. 'rlncr reasons arc col~tllles Iwr pclrl~aps tht- 'lPmpl;~rs' ct>~~nt*cfio!~ wirh 'Soirrmon's E'alaccYin ~t.rusnIcm (acrnallv rllc al-t\qs;t 5Ioqut.) ctmtr.ih~~rcrl to tlie idea, Fiing Solomon ha\-inji I~i~nsclf I~arl a ii)i-ni i(l;il>ltm ~ ~ l > t l t ; ~ t ioli as a lo\'er.

- ON CAMPAlGN -

n u l - i n ~ thr I :lrh cc~lt~rt-y tllc mili t a r ~ rqt;1hli41rn~11 t or 1!1c C T I I S ~ ~ P I . St i l l e~ IV;IS <lomi nntetl Fw t11c klvlili tar): 01-clers, 1rali;irl mcrclt: i~~t ct,nllliranc-s :wd the I I ~ . ~ ) ; I I I !)inlt.geosie. Kcvrstfrclrcs thr olt! ofTiccl-r; of state p1i1vr.d a pr-oininr~~r 1-01c for as lor^^ as rt,yil ~ I ~ ~ ~ I C ) I * ~ I T sur\.i\*crl. For t l ~ c kuig l~u, rllc nio~lt in~pnrr;lur rjlKct-r rvas t l~r .~I:nPit~nl it1 cli;~rgr ol castlps irtld 01' t l~r imilir 01. r~~ ler s ' military reprr.stwtati~r?i. He roulc1 c l i a n ~ c gi~t-ri?;ons but not the el~nfrini?t~ in c~rnrnan~!. Xext came thc mw- wr'mhlr arm!. c t > m ~ t ~ ; ~ ~ ~ t l r r whn ~lrganised n l i l i tnr~ formations, allocated

tluties, clleckccl nren's competenke and kit atlrl

'Kfng Nlnus and hls Retinue', Wnlveraal HEstory of William of

vre. Acm, late 13th century. [Bib. Munlc., Ms. 582, Dijon. f.14r)

I d pt-ima1.v rcspnc-~sihility filr t he knigt~ts, The ~nnl-drj~nl seconcl - incornma tld orsaniscd t h e army, rccruitcd mercenaries, checker1 their eq~iiprnent and org;rniserl srtpplies i~~cltrrling horses ant1 l~aggagc arlimals. The ~nnrirlrrrl was also responsible for cliscipline, though he was nnt pcr- mitred to strike anyone of knFgI~rl?~ r:lnk. T11c five grrtnrl s ~ r , q ~ . n n l s or main -oTticcrs of stqtr in C:rus;lder Cyprlls ivere similar. 12 coniparal~le military struclrlrr rxistcd in ~fcgcan Outrcmcr \\-here. hot\-evcr. tllc feudal I ~ i e ~ ~ r c l i y simplrr t l m t in I\i>stern Ertropc. Things rl~;~ngc.d \vl~cn the Drrchy of ~Zrhens fell r~rldcr Catalan rule; the main offjcrrs ncnr: bring n poli~ir;ll rlirnr gmml ant1 a military mnnhn? who ~ ~ a ( ; al\\+a;\!.s selcct~rl frcm the lcnigltts o f the Cntalan Granrl Compat~!'. After tire Catalans acceptrcl the nvrrlr~rtlsliip elf ~ h c Angnnese king of Sicily carh rlictricr hat1 its own poliric;lf r)WrPr (vicar) : ~ r l t l ~nilitnry rtl.rlclL~no crr captain.

Icon of St Serglus, late 13th century, Crusader states. Whlle the Saint Is portrayed as a light cavalry Curropofe. the donor is a Latin woman weerlng the long

black vell adopted by the ladles of Outremer. (St Catherlne's

Monastery, 31nal)

tlr.lx~tirlrtl O I I r l ~ t . q~i:tntilz. :111r! r l t r :~ l i~v r ~ l ' i rs p rc~v i r i c~ t~u of \r;lic.;~t, I I~TI~..

i r t~ t i , SICY-I ; I I I C I Ic*;~thrr, i S i ~ r i i ~ g 1 1 1 ~ - ~I:II , gatt-% ivc-rta 11ori11:11!~ g ~ i : ~ r r l ~ ( l IIY ktligltts cttA c ~ I v I ~ ~ ; I I ' ; ~ ~ ~ < ~ ~ i > < ~ i I - ~ h t - i t ~ I ? I S ; I I I C ~ \\.rrtS ~ ~ i ' t t ~ ~ ~ ! ~ ~ ~ <fit17 :tt c n ~ t ~ p ~ i ~ ~ t ~ , 1 I L;wt I-t.1 i i j r ~ ~ w \(,I.\ i r t b ( ) I ' t 1 1 ~ ~ I ~ I V . I i f ~ i g l i ~ s I i ) i -~~w=( l , j ~ i c ~ ~ N T I - :I (11 ircl td' 11ic- c;~\.al~-\. ill itlost c.;~.;~lt-c 411' 011 t r . c - i i l c -1 : !~c ,~ . . i r~nc. r~ I~rirrg ;11>r)11t a thil-tl ot'

t11t. t ~ b l i 1 1 f igl i~i t~g 1i11 .<-c~ \ t . l i i < - l ~ ~ ; i s ill 1111-ii ;II- t ~ I I I I ~ it CIII ; I I .~CT (>f the* t f ~ [ i ~ I

i iill:ll>it;~~~r'i. Si mc' 1t;tli;t11 tl.it~litig o l ~ l l > t r \ l s 01' f S t ~ t l = t * ~ l ~ t ' i H * ~ - I c- rlr-ic~irlctl tjr i-r*sti;t~+k;\l~li. g;~r~l'i*;cu~$. tliortgl~ rllcb ~tiost i ~ ~ i p o r t ; l l ~ t C;er~orst. set -

~ l t ~ ~ t i t - i i ~ ~ {lid l1;11,t- t l ~ t - i i - own ~ ~ i i ! i t ; ~ r ~ ~ l ~ ~ $ i f x in c!i;t~.gi- t ) f d c f t ~ ~ i c ~ . 'I'lir* I : I . I IF ; I~CI- pi-owl-11 t l ~ ; ~ t ';I cnqtle tlestr-ny~cl \\,a4 a casrlc hatr huilt'

tlicl 1101 Ilvlp r v l ~ c l ~ C)tlIl.tbtllrl'1t';s;l~ so ~ l r~pera te lv sl~nrt of troops. In many C; IW~ ;I qt11;ill VIIVITIV ~ O I - C P c < > I I I ~ \ > I O C ~ ; I C I C a C~SKIC - iI l ~ : ~ n i l f t ~ l o f .~tt.wkers ~ c ; ~ t c l i i t i g n li;ultlfi~l of' rlr-ft'rit1r1.s. Knixllts .of' t l~c Crl~sarlrr liitigclr)ni r~f=Jcnr<;tEc~n were ~l~rra+eric; l l lv rxrttsrrf co~nhat nn fnot <Ir~l-ing \it.qc~ t \ . ;~ l -Ltrr . l ) r ~ t i l l ~.e;lliry rl~r!. pl;t~t.tI ;I pron~inent role; filr cxatiiplc. clc*ti.i~rli~~y: cicgr.-ctltjl~ea frotn rnorrly mitls at niglit. A poem hv the rarly I : Z t l ~ < t - ~ t t ~I I -? . l : r r t~c l~ p o c h t l3rr11;it , , \ r t ~ a ~ ~ t clc ~IOI ICI IC I ) C I ~ V S his dcligli L

in >it-xi- \varI:tt?. ; ~ i i < l t h e w is 110 r . ~ ; l s t ) ~ ~ t r ~ suppose attitudes ~cri-e clif- ic.l-erlr in Or~rt-r~ner-:

'TII~. kriiglits ( > I * Clutretncr I ~ T I . ~ alst, invcd\.etT in rnv;t~ing rnemv ter- I i toi-v 01- tr\.irlg IO : I I I I ! I I IT~I ~ = ~ ~ I I I V nlirl*. I-lcl-c t11c 111ain 1-01t- of* ktligfitlv

Hfstory of Outremer, French early 14th CQnfu~. [Bib. N-t., MS. Fr.

9081. Paris] TCP A man Is murdered while playEng backgammon, a game popular with the knightly Plifc, tf.1 SOr)

fiP0VE Religious and fealty for- malttles, lncludtng the ceremonial handlng over of a glove by a ruler, (f.174) ,

I i Ruins of the norlh-castcrn lower

, and inner w ~ l l 01 the castle of

Saranda Kolanes which rrlso included a sugar-processing plant. (Cyprus Ministry ot Antiquities photograph)

BELOW A crude carving believed

t i 1 % * i i t l i t i i t v i i I S I t I I 1 I 1 1 to possibly made by a local Greck or Latin 1)1.1irt ;~ticI hi~Fil \ .clct-ortlrrbrl f l t . l l ltt-111% t,rrr)~l~iltg ('0111111011 i l l 111th I;ITC. I2111 artist dudrig the reign of Prince

r.cqelllvv. I;i~.ct. p ; n - i l i r ~ ~ ~ ~ I)cing rict.11 l'l.ot11 the- I;ttt- E :\I It r -c .~~tz~ i . r . ~II\\':II.I~'~. ,, of Aehala. ,,,, l I l ~ l I t l I I l ~ l I t l ~ O t l ; l \ ~ l O l t \ i l l H~ubeollanneaS(klotes.pamrl,

The fortified peninsula of Skopa figs ;11icl \\.ill(% ( . o ~ ~ l ( l Ile ~,t~~.cliasetl along the \\.;I!.. In winter tlic fi-i~gile war- in Kotronas bay in southern galleys \\.el.c t;lkc.11 0111 of' the i\.atcr, pl;~cccl tlnclcr covcr and gu;lrclccl by Greece, an ideal position for a ;I 1c)c;tI %~r~ . i so~ i . 11 is also \ \ .o~ . t l i ~ i o t i ~ i g t l i ; ~ t g ;~~~cy-s~ ;~vcs ~ ; I c I ~ i o t 11ec1i garrison depending on Italian t~setl silicc tlic fi~ll of tlie Koninn Eliipil-c. R!.z;lntinc ant1 l lus l i~n n;n.ies control of the sea. (Photograph A. Bon) ~~e l l l ; l i~ ic t~ \.oll~~ltc'e~.s c ~ c c p t li)r t l i ~ ' I I ~ I - S O I ~ ; ~ ~ SCI . \ . ; I I~~S of sc~iior ol'licers

tlil-ouglio~~t tlic \Iitltllc ;\gcas ; ~ ~ i t l i t \\.as 111~- I Iospit;~llcrs of Rliotlcs \\.lie ~~c. i~l t~-o( l t~ce( l ~ ; ~ l l c ~ ~ - s l ; ~ v c ~ s or, ~ i i o ~ . c ; ~ c c ~ ~ r ; ~ t e l ~ - , 'galley-srrf's' to the \lctlitc.r-t.;~~ic;l~~.

:\t sea c.rossl)o\vliicn fi)rmctl tlie 11i;iin tlcfe~ice \\,bile marines. iliclutling kknigllts. ;~ttc.mptetl to 11o;lrtl cnemy ~.esscls. R~iiglits were more i~nlx)~-t ; t~it i l l tllo n;~\.;~l lantlings \\.hicIi often invol\.ecl tntir1n.r. ;I spccialisetl Ilo~.se-transl~orting g;~lle!. of' X~.;ll) origin i l l ~\.hicIi the ;i~li~nals stootl in stalls tlo~vn the ccntrc of tlic vessel. By using its oars n lnritln co~lltl back on to ;I bc.acI1 ancl tlisgorgc its troops clirectl!. into battle like rnot1e1.n landing c~.;lft. \lcan\\.liile. Iiirger sl~ips stootl offshore, unloacling tlieir cargoes of men, Iiorscs ancl supplies into sm;~ll hoats. One ~nici-12th centilry account clcscril)ccl silcli ;I clesccnt upon ;In cncm!. coast: 'First tlie archers tlise~n- I);II-ketl, e;~cli \\.it11 his l>o\\. I)ent, his quiver and bo\\,case Iii~nging at his side, the kniglits cliseml,arking anti forming up on shore once tlie heach la.; seclu-c.' occasion all^, ft~lly armotlretl kniglits attacked tlie eneliiy first, tliougli \vlictlicr [lie!. I-otlc out of tlieir sliips or led their Iiorscs into rllc sliallo\\.s ~.c:lii;~ins ;I ~n!.ste~-y Given the size of ~nedie\.al h4eclite1-rane;ln sliips i t is more likrly to Iiave I~een the latter.

Batt le and it's a f termath ;\ltliougli filll-sc;~le I);~ttles for~iicd a minor part of warfare in Oi~tremel; they arc often tlcscl-il~ctl in tlctail. Leac1cl.s strengtlienecl the mol-alc of' tliosc i~ivolvctl \\.i~h 1,t.c-l~attle sl)ccclics. The k~iights fi)~-met1 r ~ p l~cliintl tlieir tat,l-oi.s Ixtn~le~-s ; l~ l t l once figliting started they listeneel for the tt-t~nil)ctw\,liich \\-ere 11setl ro restore ortlc~; rally o r s1rlnlnoli troops. \\'l~ctlicr knights 1ccl.e Iiiore Searlitl of close coml);lt with otlicl. ca~111.y or of' ;~rro\\.s is t~nk~io\ \ -n , 1,111 the li,rrne~ ~ ) r o l ~ ; ~ l , l ~ c : ~ ~ ~ s c t l nlo1.c 1io1.1-ific

Kiiiglirq \cc=rr t d t t ' i i IISC'II 10 str~iigtl~etl root Icon of SI George. 13th century, At!ici-s. AI=lir l<iigli~li C : ~ + I I s ; I c I ~ * I - King, l < i ~ l ~ ; ~ r c l thv 1 . i t )~III~*;II-I is ; i l x o

atate of Crem*. *eflectlng <-~-rcli rt-cl u-i 1 11 T!K- t;~ctic;~l i t~no\:~ti i~~i c i ~ . : ~ t v i t t ~ r u t ) i 11 C I I I I ~ \ ~ ~ s - i ~ l i ;I ri-ot~ 1 17 I

mixed MI) k {PI' 1~it.11 kt\i tig t hcii- q)c-;irs ;IS pikrs :III<I ( l ~ { ~ i i * 1;11*gt- ~I~icIih :IS p;lvisr%, developed In Aegean Outremer. [Inu. a9. Bwantine Museum. 1 1 1 1 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ - t ~ t t ~ c t i ~ ~ ~ ;I c ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ t ~ t ~ * ~ ~ ~ a i ~ :i11(1 1f1;itIc.i~ I \+IH) \toi)cl t~rlti11~1 e;icli nm . - Athens; author's photograph) st~ielcl-l)(-:~rc't-s: 1 1 1 ~ ' \ \ - i i t 111- fi~t.lll;llioll 13rillg SI ifVfr.tlc*d 11~ armrutred

'LnIus and Joca5tn llnrling Ocdlpus'. Univcrsnl History of William of nre, Acre, late 13th century. This gruesoma little picture may illustrate the barbaric punishments meted out

to malelactots and eflernics.

(Bib. Munic., Ms. 562, f.65v,

ailon)

BELOW Fragment of an Aldrevmdini-style anarncllcd glass beaker found in London.

from Oulremer or Venice, late 13thlearly 74th cen!urles. It illustrates a horseman with s

H~;IG si jni I ; i i~l \ . s ~ I - I I ( . ~ hv i i ~ * i - i n t . s Iiit* ~ i t i ~ t - s . 11i5 I~ol+rt* 1kr1 l<*ss !li,111 1.;. ;II I I I ~ . lance, a large shield and plumes

I I - i i I I I l o I o i l i I - I 1 1 - 1 1 1 ,,,. clnv, 1551190.1982.

rSle Arrenal Blble, Aem, late 13th century, perhaps the most

Byzantine-Influenced manuncrlpt

from the Crusader states. (Ms. Am. 621 1, Bib. de I'Arsenal,

Parfs) 1 F-Tr 'The Army of Hololwrnes.' (1.330) Er:;liT 'Pharoahqs army In the Rod

Sea.' tr.2931

TOP The Mafn chapel OI Cme dea Chevaliers was mriglnally dec- orated with wall palntings.

fragments of which suwlue. (Syrian Dept. of d~tiquit le8 pho-

tograph) APOE Small donor figure in a walk-pakntlng from

Crac des Chevaliers. H i s clothtng appears to be looser than that normally worn in Eumpe.

(Archaeolagkcal Museum, fartus; Syrian Dept. 01 Antlquitles pho-

tograph)

1 c-i,~ot~t- ;Is is p ; ~ i ~ ~ t r t l on IIIP - ----- - -- 1 I .;llielct, :lltel [llc pcirncln ntl

' '. I - - . . L- -. - - - - . . . - - - -- _ _. - - _ - - . ,---A th<* !;itlc<b ill l l l c a ~ ~ 1 1 1 ~ ~ N 3 V .

E 1;n.c- a p;~ck-liot-sc to can.!. Wall painting, 14th century, ~ I V I I ! (It ) i l l ) l t2 (1 1l;lll t1t~1.k ;111d voitr t\ntm:lpt~tl~ ~ l ~ ~ ~ f ~ higll sf) 111;tt tIlcv ;lpptb;lr possibly showlng 'The child 1l l ru . r - \ l> l t - i l t l i t l . ;113rl ;il~v;rvh Ir;lt.r them %c/rbil.ca2 rlofc. I,? ~ o t l . ' Jesus being presented et the I a t t . I 21 Il-c. t~l1 !ill-1 l C * I l P i 1~1-1 > I l l c ) t t l l . ~ - ~ l k t - t + ~ t l ~ l l ;is t<41.5 ( :?14~l i /q ;1!50 Temple.Vhe arms & armaur

Byzantine and ~ i t t ~ t ~ i i i j ~ ~ :b ( / ~ t t v t i ~ # t~ r (*k- ;~ i+~i to t~~* ~v l i i r l~ !$.;I\ p~.td~;tl~ly quil~rcl. 11. l i k r tl~e might mflett the N ~ F ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ used 111:liI ~!~<t t i \ \ r \ ~ ~ I - O ~ C T I i11g 1 1 1 1 - l<-p. i\*il\ p t ~ t o t t I > c * ~ o ~ T 111~. ! I ; I ~ I I W ~ . Tlirn in the Crusader stetas of Greece. t ' ; ~ l t l c . 1 l1cm w \ . o I . ~ ~ . F\I- . .PII - [~-~w'~ 1. ) t t r ~ 7 * i f ~ 1 t 7 / ~ t1;lqgrr 1r.hir11 Irt-cotllc pop1ll;br in

sltu* the Cathedral- Salerno; (Ira t rc.inc.1- I ) r k f r ~ i - t - t\+c-rft-i.ti I ~ I I I - ~ I ~ ) ~ - . ilnrl li11;111~ i t ~l~ielrl ;lr~rl 1;ulce. T l ~ r s r author's photograph)

\ t - ~ - \ t - \ i r i r l i c ~ ; ~ ~ c - that I I H - 113;tiI c-s)it- i111d r ~ t ~ ~ ~ f r f i / I V V I - ~ still ]mi-t (>I' 1 1 1 ~

II:~III>~-I-L, ;111cl t I L I I [Ilr ci~if' i ~ ~ r l ~ ~ d r r l k : ~ t Itcr l i i i i t ~ g ; I I I ~ pr011;ddy i i ~ ~ c g r ~ l lx~f l ( I i~~g . ' l ' l i r - \ii~iil:tr!v c l ; t t rA (:rt~s;ttirr 1>twBtn ~ ~ t ~ ~ t O ~ . v ; ~ ~ l t l s ~ ~ I I - ~ I I c I - de~ailq~ ~t-ft-t+t+i!ig i t ) %!~i r l c l% will1 I ) ( ~ S S C ~ S , ~ I ~ ~ ~ B I I ~ ~ s 111ild~ C I ~ l?>llI- ' ~ I I ~ ~ ~ ~ c T s ' , f / ! f l t ~ ~ ~ ~ v

l~riiic I i ~ n ~ c l t ~ i tht- lrg\. ;I t t ~ ~ r i o ~ ~ r ! (-I'i~~-c-ifit*~l) cc)ii'~vl~icli : I I I I I ( J ~ ~ ccrrail~lv nic-;i~i I I !);it i t \ th;~5 p:~tlrlv(l ~ I I I C I ~ iv tvi :I clt*coi-;~fivr c l o ~ l ~ . TIINP I V P ~ C also ~ ; ~ c l t I l t - ~ 1t.i [ 11 i\.ol-v dr(-c>t-;htit i i i ;III{I i i - I t 1 ~ 1 r I c l ills p l t ~ rich L~I>ric ~ O I ~ I ~ ~ I I ~ P T

Iiw 111r- I1or - \ c~5 . ' l ' h r ~ knight tcac tllcr~ arlviw-cl to riartk that his feet 1S-m-e

lii-~~llv i 11 his qii.~+l~ps. ~t.Ilicli \C:IS 110r ~til-prising \\.hen a 1 Ptit- t t ~ 14th- c.rnlrlt-v hnl111r1-k ~ c c i ~ h e r l ; ir(~ll~ld 2.3 kiIog1:1111s. OH the other hilild

tilt lrlrrt~ r.xpcr-i~~ic.si l.; .ilirtt\. t l i i i t s t ~ r i l iirrnoltr \\-;IS rrei~her ririr~g nar IIIIL-~ ~ ~ ~ ~ f i i t - t a l ) ! ~ tA\.cll in l ~ n t ~~~car11cr. C ; r r t a i ~ ~ ~ l c c c ) ~ ~ t i v ~ ~ l e ~ n c t ~ IS alw I)t.x;in tr, ; I ~ > I > C ' ; I ~ i t1 1;11~'r E ~ ~ I I - C C S I tury i l r ~ ~ r ~ s o ~ t s rir g ~ r t ~ , iincl~ttling thc s ~ t ~ - c c ~ i ~ t i 1 1 1 ~ l ;I clot11 ? V S / P ~ o r .iril' l i d arot~ncl [IIC l ~ e l r t ~ c ~ .

'!YIP 1~'rih r ~ [ [ / t ~ ~ ~ , I I I / J / ~ I ~ i ~ ~ ; ~ i r ! 111-ovidrs tlrt:iilrrl ilIf(1r111;l~iorI fnr 13th- cwlrr1l.y O r ~ ~ i . e ~ i ~ r r . I-ICI-c tllc knight's r q ~ ~ i p t i t * t ~ t was ;t h;tt~bc.rk, iton rltrd tr\u-r, lit-ltnrt o t + 3ightc.r war-lr;lt, rrf>rrlii.w fiw the sl~oulclers, snkrrfpfr for r l ~ c * 1iv.t. 13;tclrlcd , ~ ~ / / I M I F I ~ f i t r l n r r (f'l-oln t l ~ r - Tl~~-cr~-:\r;~l~ir jrtblwrh quiltetl ; I I - I I I O ~ I I - ) t t ) hi- tt.or11 11(~11r;ith 111e ha~~lx- rk , ~ r - 1 1 ~ l ~ i e l ~ l , I : I I I C ~ , su-nr(1, " [ = t ~ i i i ~ l ~ 111;tw'. ;IIIC! cott!~(t~t d ; t r ~ t ~ ~ ~ c!x~gc~r. TIw rest or I I I C kit i m s it rl;h~gcl; ;I knifi* f i ~ r 1,rc;ld. a tllil-rl %mall knifi.. ! \ reo shirts, tl\,r, PR/~F of hrc.c~c11rs. 2 \ t n ( 3 I I ; ~ ~ I * S of' !105(3. a sin;lll hc11 iitr his sliil-I, :\ ~111;111 s:lck fnr liis t~igl i~s i i i r~ , ; I I I O ~ I I V ~ s~ti ;~ll <:irk for 11is qtiiltvd sc)I 't-;~rtt~o~~r~ ;I 1v;i~lirr s;~rk

11l:lit 1 1 1 ~ r t t r + ( * \ . :I I ) i . i i ~ ~ i i ~ ~ ~ c ! \ \ . : t ~ - l ~ ; ~ t . c,II~I.:I<~ 01. htr~ti i ' t~ '~ ~'ii1*1v Litr~il'r (11'1>!;11<.- Lafo medieval strcet in the old

;I 1 1 t I 1 i l l i f i t 1 I I . I r I t ~ r / t i r 1 . Arab quafler of Jaws, St.\.r.itrcr-i~ ti..^^..; t.1rt.i ;I XI ti.\ iviilg I I I C ' ~ t.t311:11.\ (.(11111.:1< 1 ~ti'ili:ti1(1s ;I gorl(Z main port tor Jerusalem, !i;lr Iii )I r.. qoorI ;11-111o111- !tit(\ t'illlrl- / # l r l : r ' ~ r t i 4 . 1 I r u r rr tvs i r r 01- r o r x r : i ~ r i i ~ ( $ [ ' (Author's photograph)

lc;~tl lc~. n1.1iio11r pc~.sistc'tl Iongc.1. t l~an i t t l i t l in the coltlcr nol-tl1. Oncc ;~g ;~ in SIII-viving I t ; l l i :~~i tloc- ABOVE 'Soldiers of Nimrud',

rlmcnts provit l~ tIct;~ilctl infi)rli~;ltion \vllicIl \ v o ~ ~ l t l also ;lpl1l\. to UniversalHistoryofWilliamof . . ' O I ~ I I I . I I I - t - I I ~ o f s s i o l I I ~ I I I ~ s t I w e , Acre c. ad '286. lhe man in

front may be wearing the Middle to l1;1\.c ;I s~~cltllc. I1ol.scs ~11-1110111-. / ) ~ ~ I I Z I , I . ~ ( I ~ I I or ( I . S ~ ( > ~ ; ~ / I ~ I I 1ii ; l iI l)otlv-;~1-11lo111-, Eastern prototype of the European

I l o o s o I 1 i I I 7 I / I / I . / I / I 1 ~ r i ~ 1 I t coat-of-plates. (British Lib., Ms. / l l I l l l 7 1 : l O l t - 0 f ; l t t . 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 O f i t 1 1 1 . r l 1 / 1 l t I l Add. 15268, f.?Ir, London)

/ c ~ l : q ' ( ~ ~ ~ t 01. / ( / / ) I ) / ~ I ~ c ~ ~ I v I ( I I I ~ / ) / I I I I ~ t!.pc. Tllc, Iiglltc~. ;lrnls ;~ lso 1m1)111;11- in Xcgcnn 0rltrelnc.1- ;1rc mirrorctl in tlic ~nilit;ll-y tl-e;ltisc \\.~-ittcli I)? T11cotlol.c I-';tlc;~ologus:

'I~idcctl in tlic mattc.1- of' mot~ntctl soltliers ... each \\.it11 I~is iu-mo11r ant1 equipn1elit, he slioultl I1;ivc t\\.o sm;~ll horses like those of the (;I-ceks ;11icl thc TIII-ks, that is to say gcltlings. or at least two mares. ;lnrl that he be armetl to match tlie strength of'liis 1101-scs. That is to sa). \\.it11 tlouhlct, h r r l r / ) l * ~ ; ~ c . o r l ant1 gorgcret, ctlil-ass ant1 ~ O S ~ ~ I I ~ I J S O I I ,

chapel tle fer, s~\.ortl o f one Lye o r another at his sitle. greaves and r l r i s s ~ s and his lance and sliielrl. Xncl if he ~\.ishes to have great horses, that is to say destricrs in Latin style, let him be armed \\.it11 heal?. armour suitable for that purpose .... And in this connection let their surcoats he provided with a I~adge like that on their banners, ensigns ant1 tlie pennonsof their lances to make a good show of their people, and this I \\.auld also apply to mountetl lesser people o f the said districts. k'assals ant1 knights should have three horses, a destriel; a good p;~lfrey ancl a gootl packhorse to carry their necessary equipment. Barons and those of higher rank shoulcl each have at least five horses \\,it11 their harness, and each should have a good squire

The largely 13th-century Klz 10 k v t b p !ii!11 ~ c ~ i 1 1 ~ ~ ~ 1 1 1 v hv l i i% sk!tb, :111d I I C I ~ I C ~ (I[' ~ ! I V I I I \11ot iI(~ s p ; ~ i ( ~ Kales! fortress on an islet rmsprnsc for i l l h c ; l r i n g I ~ i r l l ~ t . l f ' t \ ~ c ~ l l i t l u i . 1 1 ~ t o I t i s hcrtlcbtlr ;Itnil prcllil. : ~ l l l t o ~ ~ o s i t @ the fortified Port of Le I t i s is i l 1.- Goure (now Uorlkos) an the coast or ClfIcla. (Author's photograph) S U ~ ' [ - ; I ~ - I t ~ o ~ ~ i . I I ; L ~ ;IIII , ; I~? I wrii IVOI-11 I x - r i r : t ~ 11 I I I ; I ~ I ;IIICI III;IV 11 it\-r I~t.ci 1

( t i ' ICIt i l l f l i t* c.iti~lv c l ;w* . -1-IIL. q ~ ~ i l ~ t . c l t t I b v ~ r ~ t t ;IIICI ~ t r t i t / ~ ~ t > ~ t S ~ B I I - : I I . I T I O ~ I I . p i x ~ l ~ : ~ I ~ l ~ t-c:~~-!?ccI I < i ~ i - ( I I ~ L ~ I I I tliib 12111 C V I I I I I ~ Y I -~CII I I t11<, 11 ic!tIlc~ 131st 1 i;~ 111~- ( : I - I I ~ : I ( ~ ~ Y . T ' I ivv I \ -C- IC- 811it-k t - i i t ~ ~ ~ g t ~ t o i t~ ; ikv [ l ~ ~ i i . IV~YII .LT ; I I I ~ I ~ ; I ~ coil-

~ l ~ i c ~ i o ~ ~ s t v l n ~ l k v . [ I ~ o I I ~ I I l : ~ i r 1 : ~ ~ l i - c ~ ~ i ~ t t11-Y t > v i ( l r n ~ x - ~ I I ~ J I V S ~ l ~ i t t ~ I C W (I!

LEFT Icon of St George and the Young Man of Mltylene, posstbly made at Lydda in the Krngdorn at Jerusalem, mid 13th centuv. Although the salnt wears unre- alistic pseudo-Ramm armour he rides a horse with a realistic

13th-centuv saddle. (National Icon Collection, no. 13, British Museurn, London)

I < s l ) r r i ~ t l t . ~ ~ r ~ h:ne s1ima.11 that ;I 1 o i 1 ~ i n ; ~ i l I r ; t e ~ l ~ e l - L tt~r1c1c.d t r l \~1.;11>

; t r o ~ r ~ ~ t I :l rirlr.i.'c Ic-gs I ~ l i t tio a d r q i ~ a ~ ~ ' t.s1)1:11i:1lio1t 1 i ; i ~ !.('I 1)t*i,11 f o ~ t i l ~ l Iiji.

t l ~ '~l0111>Irrl ' l ~ i ~ t ~ l > ~ i * k < S(I < I V I V I I ~ ~ i c t ~ t i o ~ ~ r c l i l l l1r~t11 ~ ; I I I . o~ )<* ; I~ I ; I I I ~ I I s l i ~ ~ r ~ i c sntu-rcs. Pcrt~;~px i t si 1 ~ i p 1 ~ m e a n 1 i n - a v i ~ ~ g t~~~~~ :b~-inc~i~r-. \I'it11 I I I < - s c l > ~ r . : ~ i o t ~ or m;t i l coifs Ti-tbn~ l i : ~ t ~ h r r k s itn I I I C 1:ttIl C I - I I I ~ I ~ Y ;l!ld t l l t . tv i t l r -

S~I'E-XI r c - p l a r c . ~ n c b t ~ t of rnifk a i t h 111;til nrrrv~t.ojk : ~ t ~ ; t r h c . r l t o 111~' ritr~s r j f

h r = f ~ t i r ~ s i r i the 14th ct-ntlrr!; t l l r raiscd cn l l ;u - s c s f ' I i ; ~ ~ r ~ ~ c i ~ l ; s ~vc.r-t- r l r ; ~ r - l v stifkntvl :and padrtetl. 'Tllr 1-1~11 r c i i t r i r ? . nE~o s:l\rV ~ V C ~ I Z V ~ ' L ~ S C r~1'1hc % I ~ o t . t -

~ l c ~ v c ~ l lrft tt/wrprr \ V O I + ~ I t \ + i t I ~ ~ . i g i ( l : ~ r + a t i - ~ i ~ S c ~ ~ i c t * s , '1'11~ / J ~ I I F ~ I ~ + ~ ~ I I I I ~-r~i t ; t i i~s

a rli!.;tci-?; t l i o i ~ g l ~ t t ~ v ~ r - i l l 0 1 ' R;~t -~c- l l a l I r ~ . s ; ~ t l r t ~ r of 1 3 o l o ~ t ~ l i\-11o r tic.(! c~u C:rl~.i;ulr :lt D;~lr~iert:l I !! lCl-20 stntril: -

''1;) 11ir I H o s p i ~ ; ~ l ( ~ f I ! I ~ C;rrt11;1n5, ~ v 1 ~ ~ 1 - v I I P ~ \ * i ~ t i < ~ [ ( I I ) [# l ~ i t i - i t * c l ~ I I P Icfi 2111 h i s iIrt1tS ;1t1<1 ; ~ I - I I I O ~ I ~ - :1t1<1 h i s p : ~ n c - r r i : ~ ~ t ~ t v i r l ~ (t11v I C I I I X s l r t ~ v t ~ ;III(I coif.'

C<t<igrtnt it1 C ~ I I W C ! ~ ~ < ! O C ~ I I ~ I C ~ I I S 91.~- 11)oi-c- v;~qilv c - s p I , ~ i t ~ < ~ l : I I IVV ~ i l l l p 1 ~ hcing I~fl:l l~/lf l l ld, p;ldtFetE m i ~ E C ? C ~ I ~ I - ~ ~ Y ~ I P C ~ iz1;lif ; I I " I ~ I O ~ ~ I . S

caprrlrcrl in l ~ a r r l e clr cnpicc1 from tltr 3lt1slin1r. Sirnlblr f r w n s o f ' p l ; ~ t c - a r m r l r r r 1t.r.1-r. i l s c d at ;i11 r;tl-1ic.r r l ; ~ t v 111;111 is gcti-

c-1.;111\. ~~c*;~lizc(l. 1<;11.l), \.cl-sio~ls 01' tlic rttit.i~~ 01. q11it7,/ w * I - ~ prol);il~ly 1)11f'f' Ic;~tlic~.. possil~ly l i ~ ~ c t l ;11itl ~);~tltlctl, ;11it1 ~\.cl.c. nicli-

t i o ~ i c ' c l 1.1-o111 tlic 1;1tc I L ' t l i ccbntlrr!. o~~\v ;~~ . t l s . B!. the 1.I t I i cc.ntrll-!. tlic!. \\.(-I-c I-igitl c ~ ~ o r ~ g l i t o scl-\.c. ;IS ;~ncIiol.

points fi)~. gi~;\rtl-cli;~ins to t l ~ c s\\,ortl. cnsrlt.i~ig t l i ; ~ t ;I knigl~t tl i t l not lose Iiis ~\.c-apo~i in Ix~ttlr. T l ~ c crtt.i~ came in \ . a ~ - i o ~ ~ s st!,lcs: siclc lacing o r ~ v i t l i slioi~ltlcr I ~ ~ ~ c k l e s 01- si~iipl!. slil~l~ecl o \ w the licacl. Tlie Iatc 13th-early 14tli-ccntr~l-y cuir;iss o r pair of cuil-asscs \\.as at first simil;il- to tlie rrririr, co~isisting of t11.o pieces of li;\~-tlenecl leather t h o ~ ~ g l i they m;iy 1i;ive also incl\~cled internal pl;ites 01- scales. Rocly Zirmour of vcrtic;~l l~latcs (11- sl~lints \\.;IS. lio~\.cvel; k n o w in late 13tli-centr1r!. Germany. Some sur-

\ k i n g cui~asscs fi.oni the seconcl quarter of tlic 14th century are matle of solitl horizontal iron hoops, these

l>~.cs~rm;il>ly li;~\.ing rcplacetl tlie earlicr vertical splints. X 1argc.r l>l;ite for tlie micltlle of the chest appearecl in tlie mitl

14th cen tur!.. e\,entu;~lly e\.ol\.in: i in the breast-plate. .\lt.;in~\.l~ilc. in ;II-cas infl~~cncetl In. Italy the late 13th-cc11t111.y

Seal of John II d'lbelln, Lord of Beirut, AD 1260, from Santa Marla del Teutonlcl, Venice. The leader of one of the most powerful Crusader tamilles In the east Is shown In complete European arms and armour. (Inv. b.3, n.55, Archhrlo dl Stato. Venice)

r.ot.c/::cr scc~ii.; t o 11;li.t. 1i;ltl I'e;~tr~~.t.s in comnlon \\.it11 [lie Islamic or l h . ~ a ~ i t i n c Ic;itlic~- I;~mc.lla~- j(iii~vltc/17. Driri~ig tthc 14111 cclitrir?. the Inore \\.itlcl!. kno\\.n coat-of-1)latt.s ~volvctl o ~ ~ t of the c.a~.lie~. pail. of l~lates, Il;ir~l)e~.k of' ~ ~ l a t c s 01' sinil~ly ~>latcs. \\liilc eal-l!. Sor~iis of ci~irass pro\.ecl c'l'tibcti\.c ;ig;linst lances. ;II.I.o\\.s ;inti cr~tting s\\,ortls. they \\.ere Ics.; c~l'fi'cti\.c ag;iin.;t tlie t l i~.r~sti~ig st!.lc of ti.nci~ig ~\.liicli camc into I I S ~ in thc ~nicl I:itli crnttlr!.. (:r~ir:ls%c.s o f this 0 . 1 3 ~ 11:itl two or 1111-c-c ~-on.s of intel-~ial plate-s or sl)li~its l>~'otccti~ig the I~otly 1,111 \\.ere regarcletl ;is oltl-frisliionetl 11). thc ~ i i i t l I-1111 cc'ntlll.): The 111.ig'indine \\.;IS ;i more flesihle form of crrirass consisting of mr~cli smalle~. p1;ites. first I>eing nientionecl arotlncl I:S(iT - again in Ital!..

.-\tltlitional ~ ~ r o t c c t i o ~ i fi)r the arms I~egan to be seen in the late 12th celitrll.!: first as mail mufflers or niittcns for tlie hand. Fingered mittens ;ipl)e;irecl later i l l the 13th century 1)ut startecl to die out after 1330. By the11 scpal-ate gauntlets \\.ere common. having first appeared in the late 1:Sth cc~itt~~.!. as mail-covered gloves. S e s t came !\.halebone I>et\\.een Ia!.ers of Eilx-ic or leat1ie1-. then metal scales \\.hicli \\.ere increased in size I ) i ~ t retl~~cecl in nr~ml>er from 1340 on~\.arcls. .- i i /rlt~s ;attached to the shoulders \\.ere solely for heralclic display. tlie first rigid protection for tlie arms hei~ig tlisc-shaped b~.~.strgnils lacecl to the outsicle of tlie elbol~.. They were seen from arountl IL'(i0. being replaced by shaped colltns covering tlie outside of the ell)or\.s in the mid 14th centill-!.. Tube-like l>~utections for the arms are likely to Iia1.e reflected Islamic o r Byzantine styles, tlie~nsel\.es pt.rhaps reflecting Sino-Jlongol military influence. Tlic e;~rliest known European reference to such armour was in a c loc~~ment of al-oi~ncl 1260-70 11y R~rsticiano of Pisa. In 1302 a 01.0s dr frl. a1)l)e;wsiin ;I Fre~icli source: almost certainly being an earl!. ) ~ r r b ~ n c r for tlie 11pper ; I ~ I I I . R\. 1:3:30 firll armour for the arm consisted of a zwtnbrnrt. (lot\.cr a rm) . co11tc.r (e l l~o~\ . ) . trt.rOvo(.r (upper arm) and spaulder (slioulclc~-). Tlie 1;itter may first 1iaf.e heen seen in Ital:. around 1340 and of'ten ;ippe;irs to he macle of hardened leather.

Leg 11,1-otcctio1is tle\.elopetl cat-lier than separate arm defences,

I I 1 1 1 1 l C v ( C I i t 1 1 1 1 f 1 1 1 Amasre Is one of the fcw safe

I I I I I t I I 1 I t t I - harbours along tho expa*ed

i s t i i I I i t I . S t - i C i I I I 'lack Of walls anrl gate of its strong

i . t i 1 I I I 1 I l i t I 1 I 1 I EIradel Are dPEOrllEd

I I t i t t I t i t I I I i c 1- Genoese heraldic cRrving.

I I 0 1 1 l i s I i i t I 1 I I I I ? / P (Author's photograph)

~ v t r rt*f'vrs 10 p;tzlc!r(l or qt~iI!c-rI r l i n ~ t r r ~ .qt11t/~i3i(+~ O t t ~ t - 1 - f i ~ ~ i ~ \ c j f ' l q ~)~-otlcc-tic>n nnl!- ;rppcarc.<l i l l thr 13th i - c ~ l t ~ ~ t - \ ; t l ~ r > z ~ ~ l ~ 11 l t=~- r i s ;11$0 ;111

intct-esring ~. r i r r r .nc r to p ~ ~ t t . / l i h v r u'liic11 'Illtt~g l ik r 14 t ~ r I o \ \ * - c I ~ ~ ~ t t ~ ' r ~ ' ill r l~c late 121 hrrn l t r ~ r . ~ C:rtts;~dr Ilvclc p o r n ? S:'lins~'. Tl l t~ . wrrc prr~l~;ll,lt. k~i rv-r l r fc~tccq I I I O I I ~ I I r 11c.v might 11;1l*c- ~ 0 1 1 1 ~ l i .o?~~ l l i ~ v:~rlivr D \ ' / ; ~ t i ~ i r ~ t p r l l / i - / l / ( ~ ~ ~ t t , ~ 1 l I ~ i i l l t 1.y l t m ~ il l ~ ~ l ~ ~ l l l ' . ~ ' i ~ / l ~ l l ktlf ' tm-pl '<ll tn~l in115 ~<'l't;li I? [I'

: ~ p [ ~ t ~ t r f s i l ill tliv ~nir l - I 3111 crntttry. 111it did I W H I~t-co~iic. n-iiI(~sprv;trl i ~ i i ~ i l 111r 14th ccriturv. Thev ~r.ei-c 11ol-ri~allv list-cl to rrrf\srr r c > v r i - i u ~ rliiglls ; t ~ l c l

knees. 'Tl~ese t w r c i t 1 t t ~ r t ~ ~ \ . t ) rn ovcl~' or 1iut1r.r tltc. nrnil rhrrtr~rrv arid I~ecame 11cll.m;11 i t r l n ~ of kit in t llc t;t tcr I 3tli cell t11l.y F a ~ ~ - s l ~ ; ~ l > i ~ l 1vi1ig4

on 111c sicles of ~ l ~ t ~ m l q n ~ z o pnjrctt rhr* r ~ ~ t t r i t l v atirl h;lrk of' tIi(* kt1cc.s III~IT date I'roi11 i l n > t ~ l \ d 1 Y2,3 htl t did n o t I~ecor i r r ~\.iclc-sp~-r;~rl for srvrral yvars.

a i ~ i d Krr;lyex ilnc! strfwtt~rrr [ h e lower Icgs r11ir1 ~ I ~ C C F inay :11so ll:l\'cs hcrn \\Porn at all c;lrly tlatr* I~cncarl~ ~ria i l rlrnlrtrr.~ I ~ l t 1.;41.rIv ; ~ l ) j ~ ~ . ; ~ r c ( l on thc su~.f;tce hrfnre 1300. A Fi-enrh I-ekrcncr ta ;I tlt*tili-gt-c.;n c i l l 1902 apprnrs ro lt;tvr I ~ e e t i li?rcti tn 111r rest nf t l ~ r Icg ; I ~ . I I ~ ( J I I I : j31-011;1111\~ t o t f ~ ( *

r h n r r w ~ ~ . I!ali;~la ancl pcr1i;lps C:\.pr.ic>t i l lu~fr. ;~t ions tnrlrc. c o ~ r l l t ~ c > ~ l l \ ~ d ~ o t t .

1~:trdrrrctl I c a t h ~ r gt-c;lvos. Srthn~orls o r a ~ - n i o ~ l r t * t l \hoc.s, hr,tvr.\.t*r:

r-cmninctl \*cl.y tlit-r I~rStll-c. 1 ? P O . Hrltnrt~ wcnt thr-ntrgli ~ thc mrjqt \.irihle C I ~ ~ I I I ~ P S t l z ~ ~ - i n g this p c * ~ - i r ) t l . ;It

Frat a ~.clt~~itl-tc,~>r)rcl hc-1111ct wit11 n r t\'itl~oiit i~ ~>i i s ;~ l ~ ~ . ; t s ti1(151 ~ ~ i d c ~ s p r t ~ : ~ t l .

Hlstory of Outmrner. Acre. A D 1290-91. one of the last man- uscripts to havo bcen made In the Crulisder city. [Bib, Laurenziana, Ms. Plut. LXI.10, F l o r e n c e )

L E F T "msadem attack Acre ' , showing an assault by a galley end a Transport vessel. (1. 63) BELOW 'Crusads of St Louis a g a i n s t Egypt." On the upper reglster St touls' army rldes behind thc king's standard-bearer, the knights wearing the l i g h t e r arms and armour used in O u t r e m e r during the

l a t e 13th century. (1. 336~)

t l ~ v ~ ~ ~ 1wi11g ' l : ~ c t ~ i l l w I ~ i ~ ~ ( l ' ;~r(-oriIing 1 0 SOIIW

r - h n r l r r b r r r r l t , gtortr. ;t11i1 s i t i l i ( * ~ i ~ t i ~ + ~ l i ; ~ \ - i ~ j g ;t rlrr- I - ! r I i i 1 1 ( : I - t r r r r r l r f ; y t f r . . r l l t - ( . ' I , I J ~ I J / I - ( . 'yrh ; I I \ ( I ~ ~ i - o v i c I ( - s i ~ i r t ~ i - l - s ! i ~ ~ ~

I l l l l t 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I t I 3 I I i ~ t I t t i t 1 t i t t L t pt-t l l>;l t>lv l l l t ~ l lp]M.I- I-i!ll ( 1 1 ' ;I l l : l r - l 4 > p p < - d xl-t,:il

l ~ t - l t i ~ l c < I \ I - I - ~ ~ ~ ~ i l l l i i ~ t - gohl i x , i ~ l b g{,t115 SVI i l l [ l i t *

r i ; i s ; ~ l . ( t i T tvr-l ' tm Ijl-r l i t . c . t cd li-c 1111 ~ l i ( ~ 51111 I)\. l ; i l .gch

/ / r r ~ t l > t r ~ t ~ t t / < ) I . ] l f ~ ~ ~ l ~ o i r p i r c c - s t ) [ ' ~-1tt111. L \ l i t ~ l c - txtt*~- J ~ I I I ~ I ~ I ' ~ t 1 - c - y ~ K I S

~ 1 ~ ~ ~ 1 i lx-c1 w t - ; i i - i ~ i g ;I l ~ t s ; ~ c t j c , k l t * ; ~ ~ l i t ~ i t 1 h i s l ~ c l ~ t i c ~ t \ \ . t ~ i l r (111 1 1 1 ~ FiS111

( : i . ~ ~ < ; ~ t l ( * . 111 its I i t l l v clr.\.c.lt qlc:tl lt>i.t11 [ l ~ t - gr.rh;t t I r t . l i l r 1 i ' ; t ~ r r s c . ~ . \ ~ e t l for. t lw A~i i ; r l~ t t ! . i . l i l r . i t1 t ~ c l t h I < ~ i r - i ~ p c . ;~niP C > r r t ~ - c - ~ n c ~ ; !.r~ it.; c-al-l! I t i s t n t - T I-c-maitin o1>~11ri.. . \ ~ ~ r t r l ~ c , l . I ~ t c - E '1111-cc.rlt t1r-y ( : ~ . r ~ s ; t t l c I:vc.lr Ijorrn k n o ~ \ , r r ;IS tlie 1.r (.'Jlr'iwJjr~. 1111 C t " p r r ' ~ o ( ~ ' i i l l t o ( J i . (n~~ 1111 11-(I r l c t i ~ i l . I-Ivi-C- 11i(a s t l . n l l g t - s t pil-t or "rtir-li ;111 P I M I I ~ ~ \ . ; l c 1l1t' % t ~ t l ~ l ~ i i ~ (,I- rtlnir~rt: I ~ c - ~ ~ r - ; l ~ l i \ \ . l ~ i r l l t\+carc. r / ~ l n r k ~ h b n ~ r .

~ x + i - l i ; ~ ~ n rl lcs l.i\.t.tc.tl ~ ~ l q ~ c ~ i - I - ~ I I I . r l l r r l t h ( . ~ / i , t t ~ s ! ~ w l 1 1 1 - o t r c t i n g t h e hrr . - i ' ! I rW ~ l ~ ' ! l I l t 4 ~ ~ S I ~ I I 11 : l~ l ;I 11i15ilI t$ ' l l iclI l l l i $ l t ?kn\V I~:IVP r t ~ r i l l ~ d 1 1 1 ~ ~ ~ c Y 1

1x11- of' ~ I I c * / h ~ ~ s t r r f l . 11111s ;I I I I F I I / ~ ~ I I ~ ~ ~ v l i i c l ~ IGIS l > r r > h l I A y :I c l ~ i ~ ? - s t r a p .

. , \ I ICII 11t.r 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 ~ ~ t i 11 !A- ( Y ~ t q ~ t t f i ~ r uti C~LVIP :dso i i i c - l i ~ d t - r l t t ~ / l i A ~ . tl~is r:~re 1r1-111 ~ i c ~ s s i f ~ l v i.e[i-i-l-i t (1 I'?( s l i t s irl I lrr L~re-cnvcring I>;ll;'r or thy I I I * ! I T ~ ~ I . A-\ti : ~ l t t - g o r i r ; ~ l ~ v x t IS-ri11c-11 Iw k ~ r I t ~ ! S t l s S i ~ r r i ~ i 1 ISi, IIIC yc* i t r o S S i t l : t c l i i ~ ' ~ gI.ViIt ~ . i i t o r v i t t k i i ~ b ~ i ~ i . \1:11rcI t h a r thr I* ;TP~T'~I OII 111~-sc g r r i t t

I i t ~ l r ~ i ' i r'r~i'r-t'c-ct 4 l i t m rB\'c-s. ~ I I ~ I I ;I kmrrtrrr ri ~?iriCw ;1111io~t CPI*I;IIIII\, t*volvi~~g 1 1 I 0 1 l l t 1 t 1 I . 1 1 c RIGHT Cawlngs over the church

I I 1 I t I I I I i 1 ' ;I I I 1 Pomh of Decant MonasteWm

i I I I ~ i i i I c v 1 I f ' I t r *' 1327-35; Kosovo reeion- Yugoslavia. In the constal or

1E11t 1;rtc. I .?t l~-cc.nlli~ !. ~ ' c . l i . r c ~ l ~ c t . \ to ;I I r ~ ~ t ~ m r ti i i i \ ~ i ' ) . ~ liroh;~lllv 111c-;lrlt 0111~ Alba-nian me militaly

I i ; n i i q :I ~ ~ i v c ~ t t s r l m c ~ r a l > l r v i 5 o i - \ I I C I ~ ;IS t!lrlvc r l i ' t l l t - t.al+Iy 1.lth rr-nfi~ry. ,gutpment reflects southem 1 t l f 1 1 1 ~ 1 I 1 I l l f 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 Italian I n f l uence . (Authai's

Guest-hall, dam and perhaps sugar-processing mill beneath Montfort castle in northern Palestine. (D. Pringle) BELOW Exterior of the hall and remains of a dam across the Wadi al-Qarn. RIGHT Interior of the great hall at first-floor

level.

1iottc.r cli~li:~tcs. L.arge / n b o l n c c ~ i ~ r ~ ~ ~ cl11g11r~tr shieltls \\.it11 anglccl col-ne1.s al>pc;\rctl in Italian art ant1 t l i ; ~ t of' 01111.crner \\.liilc Li.;~g~ncnts of ;In ;illnost ~ . c c t ; ~ n g ~ l ; ~ ~ sliiclcl Ii;lve ;ilso heen fi)untl in 14tli- ccnttlry T;irno\.o in 1311lgari;t. GclieraIIy speaking,

Iio\\.c.\.c.~; tlic sliic.ltls of tlic I:3tli-ccntt1r!. I<uropcan knightly Clite hecame tliickcr ;11itl sliol-tc~:

Ik\.cIo~xn(.~its in s\\.orcls ~vcrc less \.isil)lc h t ~ t Inore significant: cli;~ngvsiin l,l;~tlcs rcflecti~lg clc\~elol~ments in ;u-~not~r ~\.liile changes in hilt tlcsign \\.ere 1;rrgcly a matter of local fitsliion. Apparently superficial clccol-ation sr~cli ;is gilcling, silvering or painting protecteel s\\.orcl-hilts fi.o~ii 1.11st \\.liilc wligious ancl more rarel!. s e c ~ ~ l a r inscriptions on hlatles ~x~otcctetl tlic \vcapo~i fi-0111 evil inf1t1~1icc.s o l procl;timccl tlic name ;tncl ;tllc~gi;tlicc of its o\\.ncr. From tlic! 1 1111 to 1.5111 ccntt~rics most Ellropean su.ol-tl-1)l;ltlcs wc1.e fi)rgctl horn a single bar of ~niltl steel ratlier than I>eing ~>ilctl. foltlccl ant1 p;tttern-\\.eltled as in earlier years. A slender but thickel- ant1 longer l>lade appeareel in the niicl 12th century in response to ;t niorc ~\.iclcsl~rcntl use of ;~rrnoul: Sevet-theless they were n111ch the same \\.eight as e;u.lier s\\~orcls; generally between 11/3 kilograms. During tlie 13th ccnt~~r!. the c;lrrying of t~\.o s\\,ords appeared in the Crusader St;ttcs ;und Spain, the seconcl sl\-orcl probably being an early version of tlie Iica\,ie~ s~\.orcl-of-~\.ar. This hacl a larger grip ~vliicli permitted a hro- h;uiclctl stroke, tliollgh it w;ts not a true hvo-hanclecl s\vorcl. t\ selection ol'strrviving s\\.o~-cls c;ipt~~recl tluring a micl-14th century I l ;~mluk raid on (:rus;~clcr (:!.p~-rls inclutles nor~n;il weapons and 1ie;nier sir-orcls-of-war as tlsctl in ;111 p;~rts of Or~trc~iier .

Daggers \\.ere no t I-cgal-cleel as a necessary item of cavalry equipment in tlic c;~rI!. 12~11 ce~ntul-y hut c a n e into use less than 100 ye2l-s later, tliot~gh the!. t l ic l not hcc;t~ne st;~nclartl knightly equip~nent ~ l ~ l t i l the 14th

Universnt History of 1:fijlinm of v r c , Acre, c, kO 12B7. (Bib. Nat..

Ms. Fr. 20125, Parin,), LEFT 'Alcxnndcr's n m y In bn:tlr!

with tho Indians.' Trvo of Iht? elephant riding Indian- tlirnw

Gwck tire grenade!% Irk@ thwc

used by Mu~l im troops aqains: the Crusndera. DC LO'W 'Death of

Hector'; mail cuisses did not cover tho upper rear of thc thighs.

Iriq . ~ ~ ( Z ~ I I I P t t ~ ~ / t t l i w d tt 11 ~ o t ~ f r / b ~ ! ( t ~ , + ! ~ i ~ t

:l rrrl hr rnr t-trff i l l Iril J ~ c ~ t z r l 11. 1 1 1 1 1 ~

Ili.irltirlp rrttr h it ~tdrrrl nnrE ~ i s l j I ~ ( r , ~ t / o r r rr rtrl

111 \ / i f # / / i17f'Pi' 1 ~ ~ 1 1 /h,4/f/ lui/ 118 8?'t, l ' f ~ t 1; \ d'ftI!l iPt't,yttti 1 1 ~ If 1Vh' /MI 1 l ~ l f l ~ l .

Interior of the north wall of the Crusader castle of Andmusa, Greece. (Photograph

A. Don)

Unnamed ear~glrnid-l4th-century

eliigy in Salerno Cathedral with several pieces o l highly dec- orated hardened leather amour. (Author's photaqraphl

'The Bytantlnes attack ShayzarN,

Hrstory of Outmmer, northern

Italy, c. AD 1291-95. This picture

represents Byzantlnns using

Hems of equipment as y e t rare In western Europe but possibly

used in Outremer, such as separate mail gauntlets, mwcl spurs and bamboo lances. (Bib.

Nat,, Ms. Fr. 2G31,1.205r, Paris)

f . r t ( l t \fr;rrv.c I r k rrr rrr l i i t t r r f * / J r t n i t l ~ t t I ~ I S I ~ K . / I Y I ~ I r i l l , t , t r t .

()HI' 11111 11 11)it't'l '~ / i i t ! i l l< / ) I ? X / , I / ~ 011 !!I\ \ l ! l rm/ t ! .

Or//. ( I l i r ~ r l . r r r r r o rt I ~ I I . t h t r t r t r r t r ( I / r . r r fwtrr l ~ r r t t l fltr rrllrr,r r r r ~ t rt /i\lr. 0 1 1 r . 11r1 r rr b , i~~! rrr I r i r d rrr /T(r;r-rr rrtr !/I,. to/, r r J I t r r hr Irrrr,/ .

'!'I)/* I ) / / / il / f / * / f ~ \ [i * f f / l f l . / l / t ! l 1!tqI, t t l r l > t / ~ # , r i<.I//f,*. (4 t l / , t / l , . l . ! J l l , , , ( t ~ ~ O f I ~ ~ ~ ~ /m4f1 t .

1;rtl rut! w r ( r ~ ~ t t i h r r !d(r:ot~vrf i v ~ t h (1 kt,(/ r ~ ~ t z t ~ J I I V ~ ~ , ( ~ ; v ~ i l t I v < ~ i ~ r * \ .

eSicge of Shayrar'. Unlwersal History of William o f JLre, Aen. c, A D 7284. The soldiers on the right itiustrnle the light

equipment including m u d shields ndopted by knights ot Outremcr when fighting on foot. (Blb. Nat., Ms. Fr, 9084, t.l82v, Paris)

THE PLATES

A: ARMS AND RRMYIOU;R, C, A D i * P O f The LnPtn statfis h;1(1 not yet rievclo~~ed dlszt17ctIve nsoecls tn

therr amis, drlnour and coqtLtmP Wrrh the poss~ble erccpteon of 3 crottl around this 1ii3n's helrn~t he coirld have corn? from nny\vh~re irt W~stern Europe. 2a Segmented and IrnrnwI spangmtl~lrn wrth 3 broad nasal. 2b H ~ l m e l from b~nenlh. show~t~g lenflier Ilnrnq. 2c Sec:lon Ihrough ti~lrnet and Irn~nq. show~nq partla1 pndd~ng 3a h?all c o ~ l w ~ t h vpnta~l unlaced :a show soft leattwr l~rllnq 3nd I ~ m g system. 311 S~de of colt w ~ l h ventn~l In plnce. ~r:d!cal~ng paddlncl between cod and ski~ll. 4a Ot~llted prnbesnn 4b Sfrrp of pr ln t~ t l Eayptlan cotton fzbrlc sPwn around lower ~ d q e of larn/>esor~ 5 Mitten of rn:>lt hauberk, sliov~tr~q sl~t leather palm. 6 Example of rat? l;lt!~+'enrly 73th-centirry weqtern European Iabrtc such as would bc used for ordlrrarj garments 7a Qi~rlted mall-l~ned chausses worn over plarn woullcn hose and colton breeches. A srrnple kntft? or dagger has hypoth~tically been thrust riito the rlght leq 7b Soft 1~nther soles benaa!h f ~ e t of chattsses %a Gtlded prick-spur seen from outslde of lo<>t. 8b Top we7:< of strap aird buckle securlng t h ~ spur. 9 Decorated outer and plan- tnner s~~riaces of t h ~ rnet~l[lc chape of sword-scabb;l:d. 10a Outer face of a leather-covered, qesso-embossed wooden scabbard. 10b Inner face ot scabbard, 11 Optall of pattern on sc;~hl~ard. 12a Rawhde sword-belt showrnq the way ~ t s two elementsate attached to a scabbard. 12b Oeta~led slde ~ I P W of heft and scabbard showrng the way In which t h e two elern~nt? are tied to one another. 13a E~Fded iron sword- hilt. t3b Sidp vlrfw of pornmet ,ind grip. showrnq lnelnq of Feather covered grrp 13c Sectron lhrough grbp showlng Iron tanq at centre, two p1.3c~s of wood around tang and teather coverlng of grrp 13d End of arfded Iron qurtfons In the form of a srmpl!f~ed beast's head 13e Top view and section through qu~llons. 131 Tznq of sword-hiade wtth hilt removed, showlng t ~ p beaten to secure hilt. 14a Outside of herald~cally pa~nted leather-covered wooden shleld w~th fluted iron bass. 14b Secllon across shreld, i 4c l ns rd~ of shie2d. 14d Detail of rivet

to secure enarm4.s and gu~ge straps. 14e Vertetil profile of sh~eld. 15 Lance-head.

B: CONUQIS TRAtNlNG C. A D 1200 A conrnrs exerclslnq outs~de the walls of a Crusader c ~ t y in Palestrne. The unrt consrsts of 20 lo 24 men. two mnks deep. wlth the r~ders so close that thelr legs touch. The second r a m is iess than a horse's leno!h behind the first and has 11s :Inces a~med between the nders rn front. They are canknng, not gal- loping or trotttng.

C: MALE COSTUME, MID-13T H CENTURY l a The main figure has the baggy wh~te l~rren breeches worn benealh all other garments and t~gh:oned by a draw-str~ng. I b Herns of the breeches could be laced up high. as shown hew. or much lower. 2a Woollen hose, cut on the bias, are worn over Ihe br~eches and are tred to the waistband of the breeches. 2b A later system of securlng The hose used a button on the front of the breeches. 2c Another system added a leather stmp to the too of t h e hose. 2d Cloth garters were sornet~mes decorated W I I ~ brass medallions and strap-ends knotted at the front of the leq. 3 Varrous styles ol soft leather

shoes. 4 Var~ous ~ltvIc$ of stiff l ~ r r t h ~ r boots. S Wnoc!$'rl paltms tvorn over boots or shncs w h ~ n waikrnq rn w ~ t wealher. 6 Shrrl worn over t l ~ e brecctles and dvcors!rd v21'h strlps of ernbrofrlrrtd nlntprcnt. 7 Front-slit tunic wor.1 ov-r shrrt. I3 AlZernatrve sldp-slrt tunlc. 9 F,?sh~onabl~ long sleevra of t m c w ~ t h cuffs folded b; rk to show lrri~ilq material. 10 Detait of fahrrc ru~ttr t1~ralJrc rosette pa!tern. 11 Fullor form of tunlr: or shirt known as n hh.?ii:. somr-t~ms of ~ICJI R I ! ~ and deco*:twj rvilh em'bro~dory. 12 Shorl tunic with t?w!mvnq3ntly lono 3111 sl~eves. 13 S~mple fomr nf superluntc to be worn o v t ~ an ord~nary tllnlc. 14 G*arnache of heavy woollen matwnt, sewn partlnlly LIP lbe s~des to leave wlde armholes and broad :Inp- ltke lapels f 5 Gart5erorps rv~athpr:3roof hoodnd garrnr n! of h e a ~ y \voollen fabric. 1Ga Plain wh~te Irnen coif r i d tler?n'h cktil. 16b Small slrnple form of hood. 16c Later form c.t ticod wtth shod hrrpip at hack. ldd Butbond fc>rrn of hoot! wltl~

long trrtptps. 26e Hood with 'd;larrf?d' edge: here worn o??y on ton of !tie h ~ a d and h ~ l d rn piace by a padded Ifrrprpe arouM the head. 16f Dark felt hat with elongrltecl b r ~ m at front. 16g Dark felt hat w ~ t h i~pturned brrm ~ I I ? at front and back, wo~r i ovpr h o d with a st~ort Irripir>e, l6h Soft. I~ght-colourd ctf.th hat worn over a corf. 16i Broad-brrmmeri straw hat worn over a co~f . 16j Dark felt bcr~t w ~ t h decorated llning turned up around the edqe: worn aver a co~ l .

D: BATTLE OF NICOSIA, CYPRUS, q229 Uurrnq the crv~l war butwr.en an Imperial army from Italy sent by Frderick II and Ibr*f~n forces from the Kirlgdorn wf Jerusalem. a close-comb- t m~lkr? took plnce ot~ n rt*cer?lly p lough~d f i~ ld , hut there was so much dust that the ou!come was unclear for some t~me. Durlnq the frghttnq a Lombard kniqht rn the Imperial army was k i l i ~ d by John of Pctrrft because he was not wearrllg a nevt !om 01 helmet w~th n face-cover~ng mask or v~sor.

St Theodore, Clliciiln krmenian, possibly 14th century. Dcsplts strong Crusader influence on the rnilllaty Cllts of C<licia, this horsrrnan is shown in a purely traditional manner. [Archacofoglcal Muscum, Tarsus1

E: ARMS AND ARMOUR, C. AD 1285 1 The figure shown here wears clothes made of rich silk from the neighbouring Muslim states and has weaponry reflecting distinctive styles seen in Outremer during the final years of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. These include a brimmed chapel- de-fer helmet, a sword hung from a baldric rather than a sword-belt, an early form of baselard dagger and a light oval shield suited to siege warfare on foot. 2 Front and side views of a thickly quilted coif to be worn beneath a mail coif. 3 Type of separate mail coif to be worn beneath a brimmed chapel- de-fer, having a padded leather-covered padded ring around skull to support the helmet. 4 Mail coif to be worn beneath a great helm, its almost flat topped shape resulting from a thickly padded arming cap worn beneath. This later form of mail coif also has a broad facial opening which could be tightened across the chin by a draw-string. 5a-c Front, side and sectional views of a great helm showing the leather lining The helmet is made of five sheets of riveted iron and painted with the owner's heraldic motif. The space between the lining and the top of the helmet might be thickly stuffed straw or horse-hair. 6 Detail of fabric for surcoat, incorporating the knight's coat-of-arms. 7a Cuirass or pair of plates. 7b Cuirass when unbuckled and laid flat showing the flap-like cloth skirts, the outer layer of coloured fabric and a leather backing partially removed to show the vertical hardened leather plates. 8 Waist-belt with alternating enamelled heraldic bronze shields and bronze stiffeners riveted to the leather belt. 9a Leg defences consisting of mail chausses with padded linings worn over the hose, beneath quilted cuisses with domed hardened leather poleyns sewn or riveted permanently on the knees. The mail chausses have leather soles. 9b Detail of cuisses with integral poleyns, showing lacing down inside of leg and lace through the lower edge. 10 Quilted aketon with raised collar buttoned at each side. 11 Interior of oval shield showing plain leather guige

Pack-horse on a late 13th-14th-century wall painting in the Refectory of the Monastery of Osios Loukas, Greece, made when the monastery lay within the Crusader Duchy of Athens. Such pack animals would have been used by all armies in the region. (Author's photograph)

and padded squab behind enarmes arm straps, the topmost of which was held in the fist. 12a Scabbard for a light sword and attachment to a baldric. 12b Side-view of a leather- covered wooden scabbard with flared opening for the sword; baldric removed. 12c Rear-view of top of scabbard with lacing for baldric attachment. 12d Detail of lacing system to fasten baldric. 13a Light sword with 75cm blade, probably for use on foot. 13b Constituent parts of the sword's hilt, con- sisting of the tang of the blade. thong to sew leather covering over the wooden grip, the leather covering itself, large- headed short-shafted brass nails around the grip, two halves of the wooden grip with a groove for the tang, the polished bronze quillons with a tapering hole for the tang, enamelled bronze pommel seen from the front and side, and a detail of the pattern on one lobe of the pommel. 14 Flanged iron mace, about 75cms total length, with a wooden grip and leather wrist-strap. 15a Large sword of war. 15b Silvered iron pommel with enamelled red cross in centre. 15c Silvered iron quillons. 16a Sword-belt and lacing system for the scabbard of a large sword-of-war. (Note: this is not being worn by the figure, since he has a light sword on a baldric.) 16b Single bronze stiffener from belt with hole for buckle-prong. 16c Single bronze stiffener from belt without buckle hole. 16d Upper part of the scabbard with complex lacing system in place. 17a-b Front and rear of a scabbard for large sword-of- war. 17c Top of scabbard with reinforcing piece of leather and flaps of thick oiled fabric from the lining. 18 Early form of baselard dagger and sheath.

F: CAPTURE OF THE MINBAR FROM THE MOSQUE AT NABLUS, AD 1242 Attacks on cultural targets were one way in which the declining Crusader states attempted to keep their neighbours at bay. On this occasion a small force of knights led by a band of Templars attacked Nablus, massacring much of the population and seizing the minbar or pulpit from the Great Mosque. It was then taken to Jaffa as a trophy.

G: SUGAR FACTORY-FIEF IN THE KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM, C. AD 1280 Many fiefs in Outremer raised money from industry or commerce rather than agriculture as in Western Europe. Amongst the richest were money-fiefs which included sugar- processing factories. This technology had been copied from the Islamic peoples of the Middle East but, unlike their Muslim neighbours, the Latin elite of Outremer often used slave labour to turn the huge stone presses. Such slaves included captured Muslim women.

H: HORSE HARNESS, EARLY 13TH/MID-14TH C 1 A destrier or war-horse saddled for war or tournament. 2 A destrier with the style of one-piece horse armour used in Outremer and other parts of the Middle East. 3a Basic wooden frame of a war-saddle. 3b War-saddle complete with padded leather seat, painted leather covering, doubled girth. breast-strap and stirrups. 3c-e Front, rear and sectional side views of bronze stirrup. 3f Alternative method of securing a war-saddle with the breast-strap around the rear of the cantle. 39 Alternative arrangement of girths, plus padded squabs on the front of the saddle to protect rider while jousting. 4a Heavy form of curb bit, plus bridle. 4b Top view of the mouth-piece. 5 Iron horse-shoe. 6 Fully armoured

destrier war-horw wlth iwo s ~ t s of relns; one of leather- covered chain for use In battle, one of ord~naty leather straps. 7 Qestrier w ~ l h a later form of war-saddle in whlch the seat curved up ~nto !he amons of the cantle, these In turn wrappinq araund the r ~ d ~ r ' s buttocks and upper thighs rathPr than hrps. This type of saddle was starting to appear in the mid-141th century but became more wrdespread later. 8 Early style of deep-seated war-saddle. 9 Later style of war-saddle. 10 Underneath and s~de vrews of a horseshoe for a large

destrier, showinq nails beaten over outside the hoof. 11 Charnt'ron head-protection for a destrier, with the outer decorative layer removed to show a hypothetical recon- struction of the iron frame, sheets of hardened leather. semi-domed Iron eye-piece and thick qu~lled I~nrnq. 12a-c Vx~ous t y w of 14th-century stirrups. 13 Elaborate form ot Iron curb-b~t wrth leather bndle removed. 74 S~mple iron snaffle bit w~th cheek-p~eces.

I: TOURHAMEHT ON ISTHMUS OF CORIHTH, AD 1302 The tournament on the Isthmus of Corinth in the spring of 1302 was an elaborate affair with knights and squires coming from all over hatln Greece. Amongst those who attended were sewn champions dress& in green taffeta covered in golden scales. wh~le the ladies of Greece 'rafned influence' upon the

combatants. When the young Duke of Athens met the older and more experienced Master W~lllarn Boucharl tn slngle combat, a sp~ked crest on the chamfron of Bouchart's horse pierced the duke's horse, throwlng the duke Ze the ground.

3: ARMS AND ARMOUR, C. dD 1340 1 The early and m~d-1Jit i century was one of the most dec- orative penods in the history of European arrnour. particularly when grfded hardened leather protect~ons were used. This tlgure IS based on varrous sourc~s from the Kingdom of Cyprus. the Angevin realm in southern Italy. G m e and the south-western Balkans. 2 Cewel~t&e close-fitting helmet worn beneath a mall coif and a large visored basctet. 3a-b Side and rear views of the mail coif showing tightening strap around the head, lactng up the back and the outline of the collar of a padded tlppet and gambeson worn beneath. 4 Front of the visored basctnet w~th visor lawered. The cockerel shaped crest would be made from woad, leather and gesso. 5 Gambeson cans~sttng of two layers of whlte linen with thick qu~ttmg between. The lower sleeves and skirt are not padded. 6 Mall hawbergeon, or short-sleeved hauberk. 7 Tippet with thick qujlted lining to stop chaffing. 8a Coat-of-plates recon- structed from a mid-1 4th century example found In The rums of the Genoese trading outpost of Arov on the Btack Sea. Here the amour is shown opened with its red velvet covering removed to show the iron plates rivet& to a soft leather backing, 8b The back of the armour opened and l a ~ d flat wlth its velvet covering removd. 8c The front of the annour closed. as when worn, with ~ t s velvet outer surface in place. The coat-of-plates was held in place by substantial leather straps plus an iron pin and leather loop on the left shoulder. The removable ptn through two iron loops on the chest form a fastening point for guard-chains leading to sword and dagger. 9a Hardend leather, partially gilded rerebrace for the upper right arm. 9b Vambmce for the lower right arm made of Iran splints between layers of leather. plus laces on the outside of the elbow to attach a disc-shaped besegew. 9c-d

Upper and lower views of a gauntlet for the left hand. cnn- sistlng of iron plates on a lenther glove vr~th nn adr:i?k n ~ l buff-lmther protec!ion around the wrist. I 0 ErnL>roif!r~rl~d design, largely of gold thread, acmss chest and hack c 1 the surcoat. 1 I a Leg armour consisring of mall c I ~ ~ u * ; ; - s , cfo,nud iron poleyns, qu~lted cuisses with 3 fringe of ma11 ntuur~d trlc tower edqe. an addilional sheet of hardened lenlhcr to protect the thlqhs, and h~ghly decorated t i s r r l ~ n ~ d Tcnfhcr greaves. I tb Outside of the riqht I q wilh full ?en 11nrnes.s or;d spur. l l c Outside of right leg with cuisse and add~tronal pi-ce of hardened t h ~ g h protectton rernovd. f 2 G~lr!~rl iron spur of revolv~nq rowel type. 133 Eltltlock dagger In its sh~ath. 13h Side view of baflock dagger aul of sheath. t3c Side view of veyvet-covered wooden sheath: gilded chape and brnnze mounts with enamelled coat-of-arms and knottd c o d to belt. 14a Sword and scabbard w~ th sectional vicws of blade and g~lded Iron qu~ltons. 14b Velvet-covered woodcrr scabbard with enamelled coat-of-arms on the gilded mount. 14c: New Italian grip method of holding sward wrth the fore- ftnger over one qurllon. 15a Front of double-cuwcd shicld with a lance rest. 15b Hor~zontal section through :he shlnld showing normal curvature around arm and body. 15c Vcr:rcnl section through the shield showing forward thrusting cur- vature. 15d interior of shreld.

K: THE NAVAL LhNblNG AT SMYRNA IN A b 4344 The attack on Srnyrna (now Izmlr) was ann of Inr? most ambitious and successful navaE assaults in the Tater Middle Aqes. It was also cam& out in the face of fierce Turkish resistance on the beaches. The Crusader knights and other troops emerged from their ships fully aimed, the vessel? almost certainly being specialized horse-transporting g~tleys with entry pons In the stern.

COLLECTIONS

Basically there is nothing to collect from the Crusader states. Occasionally a fragment of pottery suppcs&ly dating from the Crusader period turns up in a M~ddle or Near Eastern bazaar but otherwise surviving artefacts are so rare that even the wealthlest collectors are trustrated. The following is a !!st of the most important museums and libraries containing rnaterlal connected with 13th-l dth-century Outremer:

ARMS A H 0 AAMOUR Art Museum Ph~ladelphra, USA: Cypriot sword from

Alexandria Arsenal bskeri Museum, Istanbul. Turkey: Cypriot swords from

Alexandta Arsenal Metropolltan Museum of Art, Flew York, USA: Crusader

sword pommel, weapons fragments from Monffort Castle

Royal Annouries, Tower of London, England: Cyptiot sword from ~fexandria Amend

CdRYlNDS Arab Ahmet Mosque. Nicosia, Cyprus: effigial slabs Archaeological Museum. Adana, Turkey: efigial slab krchaeoloqlcal Museum, L~massol, Cyprus: efligial slabs Archaeological Museum. Tarsus, Turkey: Carving of wem'or

sarnt from Armenran church Armenian Church. Ntcosia, Cyprus: effigial slabs Aya Sotla Mosque. Nicosra, Cyprus: efltgral dabs Cathedral. Farnagusta. Cyprus: efigial dab Church of St John Vladimi~, Elbasan, Albania: coat-of-ams

of Charles Thopia Emerghieh Mosque. Nicosia. Cyprus: efigial slabs Sera11 Mosque. Nicosia, Cyprus: effigial slabs Wctoria & Albert Museum. London. England: marble

lympanum from Larnaca Yilanl rkale. Turkey: cawing over castie gate

caws AHD SEALS Biblloth6que Nat~onale, Cabinet dss Medailfes, Paris, France

ICONS Byzant~ne Museum, Athens. Greece Mwseum of the Archbishop Makarios Foundation, Nicosia,

Cyprus St Catherine's Monastery, Sinar, Egypt

MAHUSCRIPTS Bibl~oteca Antoniam. Padua, Italy: ' b k of Psalms' (Ms. C.12) B~bl~oteca Medicea-Lawrenziana, Florence, Italy: 'History of

Outcomer' (Ms. Plut. LXl.10) BibliothQue de I'Arsenal. Paris. France: 'Arsenal Bible' (Ms.

Ars. 521 1) Biblioth&que Municipale. Boulogne. France: 'History of

Outremer' (Ms. 742)

BibliothPque Munlcipale, Dijon, France: 'Universal History of William of Tyra' (Ms. 562)

Bibliotheque Nationate, Parrs, France: 'Universal History of William of Tyre' (Ms. Fr. 9084; & Ms. Fr. 201 25)

Bibliothwue Royale, Brussels, Eelglum: 'Faits des Romalns' [Ms. 1021 2)

British Library. London. Erlgland: 'Histoire Universelle' (Ms. Add. 15268)

Matenadaran Library, Yerevan. Armenia: 'Armenian Gaspels (Ms. 97 8. Ms. 6288, Ms. 7651)

State Public Library. St Petersburg. Russia: 'History of Outrmer' (Ms. Fr. Fol. v.lV.5)

Vatican Library, Rome: 'Universal History of Willlam of Tym' (Ms. Pal. b t . 1963)

WALL P A t H f lNGS Archaeologrcal Museum, Tartus, Syria Chapel of Castle d Crac des Chevalier [Hisn al Akrad), Syna Chapel of Marqab Castle. Syrva Church of Panagia Phorbiatissa, Asinou, Cyprus Chucch of St Nicholas tis Steyrs. N~cosia. Cyprus Church, Qar'a, Syna Monastery (abandoned] of Mar Musa, Nebeq. Syria Monastery ot Kalopaneyiotis. Cyprus Monastery of Mar Charbe!. Ma'ad, Lebanon Monastery of Mar Phocas, Ami'un. Lebanon Monastery of Mar Sa'ba. Eddeh, Lebanon Monastery of Mar Tadms. Bahdeidat. Lebanon

AbuIaRa, D.S.H., edit.. Commerce and Conquest in the Mediterranean. 1 100-1500 (London 1993)

Airaldi, G., & B.Z. K d a r . edits., I Cornuni llaliani nel Regno Cmiato di G8msaleme (Genoa 7 986)

Arben. B., 8. Ham~ltan R 0. Jacoby, ed~ts . , Latins and Greeks m the Easlem Meditemnean after 1204 (London 1989)

Atiya, A.S., The Crusade in the Later Middle Ages (London 1938)

Balard, M.. La M P ~ Noire et la Romanie Gfinoise (XIIIeXVe sikles) {London 1989)

Ben-Am). A,, Social Change in 8 Hostil~ Environment: The Cnrsaden' Kingdom of Jerusalem (Princeton 1 9139)

Bennett. M.. la W g l e du Temple as a mrlrtary manual. or how to deliver a cavalry charqe', In C. Harper-RIII, et al., ed~ts., Strrdtes m Medieval History Presenicd to R. Allen Brown (Woodbridge 1989), pp.7-19

Benvenlstl, M., me Crusaders m the Holy Sand (Jerusalem 1970)

Boase, T.S.R.. edit.. The Cilician Ktngdom of Armenia (New York R Edinburgh 1978)

Bon. A,, La #or& Franque (Par~s 1969) Brundaga. J A., She Crusades. Holy War end Canon Law

(London 1991) Chambeflayne, T.J., Lacrimae Nicossienses: Recueil

d'inscripiions fundmies (Paris 1894) Charanis. P.. 'Piracy in the Aegean during the reign of Micharl

Vll l Palaeologus'. Annuaim de l'lnst~tut de Philolog~e et d'historre orien!ales et slaves X ( 1 9501, pp.127-36

Chehab, M.H., 'Tyr a I'epoque des Croisades'. special volume of Bullettn du Musk de Beyrouth. M X I (1 979)

Ducetlier. A.. La Facade Mantime d~ I'Albanie au Moyen Age: Duraao et Valone du Xle au XVe s ik le e ~ e s s a l o n ~ k i 1981)

Edbury. PW., The Ktngo'om of Cyprus and the Cnrsades 1191-1374 (Carnbr~dge 1991)

Eydoux, H-P.. L'architecture rnilitaire des Francs en Orient'. in J.P. Babelon, edit., Le Chfiteau en France (Paris 1986). pp.61-77

Fedden. R. 8 J. Thornson. Crusader Castles (London 1977) Geanakoplos, D.J., 'Greco-Latin Relations on the Eve of the

Byzantine Restoration: The Battle of Pelagonia - I259', Dumbadon Oaks Papers. Vll (1 953). pp.99-141

Holt, P.M., edit.. The Eastern Medrterranean Lands A the Period of the Crusades (VVamnstw 7977)

Housley, N . , The Cater Crusades. 1274- 1580; From Lyons to Alcazar (Oxford 1992)

Hyland, A,. The Medieval Warhome from Bytantiurn fa fhs Crusades (SZroud 1994)

Jacoby, D.. Recherches sur la MedilemnnBe Oxientafe du Xlle au XVe S~ecle [London 19791

Jacaby, D., Sociefe et Oemographie B Byzance et en Romanie Latrne (Landan 1975)

Jacoby, D.. Studres on the Crusader States and on Venetian Expansion (London 1989)

Kedar, B.Z., The Franks in the Levant, 17th lo 14th Cenlvn'rs (London 1099)

Kedar, B.Z. et a!., edits.. Oufremec Stvdies ~ I I the Cnrsadinc~ Kingdom o f Janrsalern Presented to Joshua Pr~wcr (Jerusalem 1982)

Lowe. A., The Catalan Vengeance (London R Boston i 972) Luttrell, A., Latin Gr~ece. the Hospitall~rs and Ilre Crusade:

129 1- 1400 (London 1982) Marshall, C.J., 'The French Regiment in the Latin East. 1254-

91 ', Journal of Medieval Hi~tory. XV (19891, pp.301-7 Marshall, C.J., 'The Use of the Charge in Battles in the East,

1 192-1 291 '. Historjcal Research. U I I I ( 1 9001, pp.771 -F Marshall, C.J., Wadare in the Latrn Ea-ct, 1792-1291

(Cambridga 1992) Mayer, H.E.. Kings and Cords in the Latin Kingdom of

Jenrsa!em (London 1994) Mtller, W., The Latrns m the Levant: A History of Frankish

Greece (12114- 1566) (London 1908) Nicholson. H., 'Knights and Lovers: The Military Orders in the Romantic Literature of !'le Thirtrcnth Centrrsy', in M. Barber, edit., She Mi!itary Orders: F~ghting for the Faith and Caring for the S,ck (Aldershot 1994), pp.340-5

Pascu, S.. edit., Cot/aquto Ramena-!lahano ' I Grnavesi nrt Mar Nem durante r secoh Xlll e XIV' (Buchawst 77-28 Marro 1975) {Bucharest 1977)

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Pryor, J.H.. 'In Subsidium Terrae Sanctae: Exports of food- stuffs and war material from the Kingdom of Sicily to :he Kingdom of Jerusalem, 1265-1 284'. As~an and African Stvdi~s, XXll (198B), pp.127-46

Rie hard. J.. Le Comte de Tripoli sous la Dynastie Toufousains (Paris 1945)

Richard. J., Cmisades et Etats Lafins d'Orient (London 1992) Richard. S., Crors6s. missinnaires et voyageurs (London 1983)

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Jerusalem 7 1 44- 12 77 (London 1 973) Thiriet. F.. La Romanie Vgnifienne au Moyem Age (Paris 1955)

GLOSSARY

LF F 1 klleg~ry of the Church, wall painting by Andrea di Bonaiuto in the Church 01 Santa Maria Navella. Florence, c.1365. The prlgrims in the

front row. merchants and knight in

t h e rn~ddIs and noblemen at the rear right, could have been seen

throughout Italian-dominated Outrcmcr by the mid 14th century. (Author's photograph)

ArLmfs: shoulder-prcces solely ID? heraldic drsplay

AKETON: ~ u l t e d soft-amour or~qinally of cotlon

nncnorrs: ex-By7anl~ne m~l~tary khte rn Lahn G r m e

ASGERGVM: see hauberk AVENTAIL mad attached to the rlrn of a

cervef~ere or basclnet helmet snccium see basc~net BACILLETUM: set? basctn~t BADEUIRE: see baselard RAID: government's rntl~tary represen-

tat~ve snRtJaTn: early rneanrng probably of

cod or aventatl saRnEnta: mail coif snRauTn: deep form of bascinet pro-

tectrng much of the lace BASCWE-~: lrght helmet also covering

s~des and rear of head ehsciNmo: see bascrnet sasELnRe: dagger with dtstinctive H-

shaped hilt snvw: see bai!i snzEulr=iE: see baselard aEsnc;Ews: d~scs protecting elbow ~ O H O R D E ~ S : ind~vidual ]Qust!ng BRAS DE FEU: early form of upper arm

protecl~on BRIGAHDINE: flex~ble form of cuirass

consist~ng of very small plates

GAPICAS FERREIS: 1~ C)rmOUf cnuans: boots or qreaves CAFloEtkBnE: probably the ttppcr rlm

of n flat-toppetl grPat helm c n ~ a a t s a ~ : horsecloth covorlnq all or

most of the an~rnnl EAPELLO OE FFRRO: See war-hat CAPIRONE DE FERRO: see cotf CAPPELUM DE A C C I A R ~ : see war-hat CEACLE: tower rlm of helmet CFAVELI~RE: light hemrspherical h ~ l r n ~ t CEHVELLIERE: Set? Cel~e!lf?te

CHAMFRON: armour lor head of horse CHANSON DE GESTE: warlike poem

or song CHAPEL OE FEU: See war-hat cnaTELnlN: commander of a castle CHAUSSES: mall stocknngs cnmnuen&: raid CHICANE: eaRy form of polo In Rance CMWAIN: neck and shoulder protection CLIPEUM: ~ h l ~ ! d COAT-OF-PLATES: seqmented body

amour attached to a leather or fabrrc base

COIF: flexible head-protection COLERIAM: armour for neck and

shoulders C ~ M M A I ~ ~ A N C E ~ : heraldic emblems cou~tx~e~E: second rank~ng royal

mil~tary officer of state CDHROIS: cavalry formatIan

CORAZINIIS: SPP r~t~r;lss CORAZZA: SPP ril:I'?SS

CORELLUS: SPQ Clllf~?$$

COUTEAIJ: r l i r r q ~ r COUTER: ; l l l l lOl l I I R ~ P ! ~ O ~ V

COUVERYURES: Inbrlr: cnvrwnq for Ilorqr

COUVERTVRES DE FER: mall horsc- ;1rnlour

couvEn7unEs DE PLATES: plnl~rl horse- nrrnntlr

C ~ U P E ~ I A M : ser7 cnlprcrc CRUPIERE; 2llTIOPIT rP;lr 6f h t ) ~ ~ cum-nour~r~: h:~rd~ncd l*nther cvlenss: plated body-arnlorlr CUlRrE: body arn~ot~r of huH Imther cuias~s: nrmour for thiqhs and knees CULTELLUM OE FERRO: C~:IO~PT

C U R ~ C ~ ~ J S : see C U I ~ S S

DESTRIER: war-horse DUBBING: kn~ght~nq cerpmony ECHELLE S: squadrons ECU: shield ENARMES: holding straps of shield EPAVLIERE: see espalibre ESPALI~AE: shoulder armour FALDIS SPONTONEM: armour for

a bdonlen FENESTRAL: part of helmet protecting

face FEARO GAMBEA~AS: leq armotlr FIEF: piece ol land or other economic

ent~ty supporting a knight FtnesolE: see fi'anborant FUNBOIANT: piece of cloth on helmet FLAHCHI~RE: amour lor front and side

af horse. GAMBERUOLIS: k g arITl0Uc GAMBESON: f0m of §~f?-amlo~r GENELUCRE: probably knee protection GONFANONIER: standard-bearer

U O R O ~ E : see gorgeettes aoaaCfims: neck protection o o e e t ~ n : see gorgbrettes GORGFERE : see gorgeretres GORGIERE DE PLATE: scale-lined

avsntail or neck protection OMPER: wooden disc round haft of

lance ORU\T HELM: heavy helmet covering

entire head eREnns: armour for lower leq GVIGE: supporting neck-strap of shield HALIBERGEON: Shod-sleeved mail

armour nnueERK: marl shirt of tunic heaume h v~slhre: helmet with fixed or

movable face protect~on INDULGENCE: certificate given by the

Church, forgiving sins in return for specified penance

JUPEnU ~'ARMER: form 0f padded armaur fmm the Turco-Arabic jubbah quiltad armaur

UMERIAS: early form of cuirass LAMEMIAS VEL CORACZAS: S&? coat-of-

plales UMI~RES: early form of cuirass ULNCERM: lance U ~ N : metal l o y simllar to brass LORAIN: d~orathve metalltc plaques

on horse-harness MAW ONES^: assocation of ship-owners,

merchants and/or knights gav- erning Genoese coIonial outposts

rn,wsrRE: summit of helmet HANICIS CIROTECAS DE FERRO: a m

defences MAR~CHAL: rulwhs third-ranking mtlitaty

off~cla l

MENTONAC prabably a chm-strap MESERICORDE: dagger M~RENS: see muffIers MUFFLERS: mail protection for hands NASAL: nose-protecting extension of

helmet

OSBERGUM: See hauberk PAIR OF CUIRASSES: see currass PAIR OF PLATES: see coat-of-ptates WLFAFY: ridjng horse not used in

battle FANCERIA: form of hauberk PANCERIAM, panstere. pnnzeria. PANZEUIAM: see pancerra PAVISES: large infantry shield PERPUNTO CROSSO ET COHSCIALIBUS

FERREIS: qIJllfC!d aWtOU? with Iron lin~ng probably of scales

~ m n c breast-strap of horse- harness

PIZAINE: targer, perhaps semi-riqid form of aventail

P~ATES: see coar-of-plaies plates de alemayne: see coat-of-

plates POITRAL: See peyk3/ WLNN: knee-prot~tion POUMIMS: name g l v e n to kn~ght of

rnlxed European and Middle Eastern parentage

wuusuiv~m new k n ~ g h t or 'learner' OUINTAINE: WVO!VIH~ target used In

tra~ning with lance WIRE*: probably buff leather body-

armour REREBRACE: armour for upper arm RESTOR: system whexeby the King of

Jerusalem r e p l a c d value of horses

or rnrlitary equipment lost when knights served outside Ihe Kingdom

WEATONS: arrnoured shoes SCHlNEFtlkS: S@t? greaves SCUTO: see scutum scv tu~ : shield SCUCCHA~: senior mrlitary government

ofl~cial SOLERt3S: See sabatons SOVOSBER~ANI: probably a form of early cuirass

SPATAM: SWOT^

ABOVE The fortress at Moncastro En the Ukraine [also known as Getatea

Alba, b k Klrrnan and now called Bllh~md DnIstmvsbkvi) WAS l l ~ t built by the Genoese to guad the estuary

of the DnEster river. it IS seen hem in a 13thlcsntury Auasian print. (Klcv Historical Museum photogmph)

SVAULDER: see espali&re SQUIRE: knight's servant, or member

of nobil~ty b e n e a t h knight (mean~ng varies)

s r t vnm: see chausses STOCCH~: larget dagger or short

stabbing sword SUMPTER: pack-horse SURCOA~: garment worn over amour TABOUCCIWM: Earge form al shield TABOUCC+UM ANGLUM: shiefd with

angled corners TA~OWM: rarge form of shield TALWAZ: largest form of shield raao~: kite-shaped shield TARGIAM: Set? fafQe TAAIDA: specialized hwse-transporting

galley of Arab origin Tnvomcelo: see tabolaceium TESTERlAU: head amour for horse mouenooum: poet and singer UEUI~RE: possib1y eye slits in the

face-covering part of a helmet VAMBRIICE: armour for lower arm ~ E N T A ~ L flap of mail on coif to

protect chin VOLET: decorative 'veil' tied around

hefrnet

WAR-HAR br i rnmd helmet

Notes sur les planehes en eaule~~r A1 I:', [W~,<~IFY~;- 9 b m ' , - .?.I ra: 1.1 :'.lml!~rr I l W rmnm 2r .-@I segmpnfC el I :<;+:+ 2b l~r.,..,? V'I I!,' t:.75r..:... 2c CFT!?ill ~ ' L I I dqquc ct flc l i h h l u f c Sa C ~ u f o n m1111~ a-c w l : ! : l t v ' . % - r 3h :ib!bb Clr s-.':' l%-r vpn:.i : r n y'3;r l a Ch?n!.Vrn! n>~rr.!,?r cn 4b Panrip rir cnron C F !,,7'? -11 ,In J , P I r?,,~ ,?,J,,.!J%.~:: '8 W.:~'*J fi,jAv',h t7ri 1ir,7r~lnr, G 1 ~ v l ~ , # v i rv r ,?r,nt;v 1-1 ., !r 1.'..:.,,, 4;l>l:,81 (*(I I , ,?r 89 y y ' p 7.3 (~~,~ury.v. . : :;73:rlar.i..-. rd,l.l!+l.'. : dc ;-,, ;p,, 7b :in .."-<,drs r'.irr.r.i Ba €F*T dnm. .1 I cr Ibn 8h V P ? :.llrr,+,t.* c~ 11 rm,81r!o,r E! (1r I8 ,., Ie P:II VI *I:::,. ,t I IP:v~,.- g :,1ir4 i8-v ,! I I!,:.,! 17~!,>~'~q114, ,! ,I a~v,,,~,, ,,, (a,? I ,,[*,, ln,t.a r ~ c p tm,,,,..m 1"'. 'f '" fl lj'l ltlWJ,t 8NP PA>,', h Y 1 ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ 1 1 lj" , (I? tm! rq:,>-:*r,, ' e,Alml 1 11 L)A~I,I r: ! 7 ~ t # ~ l l , : # * r r~~J I73 I a. flhnr* r i 8 [vm- r.1 I t . , r I.,,,: 17h ';\IJ. I,lla,r,iLp r , u.. . 6,:. (0- : relnt,.~.~ 1 1 ~ , :3r ,m d p p a ~n UP, 0, , b I c < 0 ," l l b i , ~ 12'. 'A>- 1, ,?uI:*;~,I .,! .I,, . u 1 r n ~ r : , t # m ~ 1 3 ~ lh:r! I:., 17 p~,,~n.-a, I3d r, q1111 tn; *n ' , c I )WV '\ \,I ',n l3ebr,.- :'I,;!.T~I*L,~~* e1 .*, '-3" +v , p . , ) r , ~ , 131 ; , > ? ; c ~ ~ 1, 1:1rl? c 48:i'.: q7, !*! Ida fzl , ,r~?sf !I :% '$~ : f '~ , , * ,.I; r b w L.:*P~! I:,, [uh,,i 141, ! ;LW!~~T*I rb, b:,. ' .+r n4c l r~ ! , , r~~ut #!.I Lbmu,.' <, t 4 d [b,.l.t~: ,.I r . ~ ! ud, ' <><~ 731~":. 5 ,!,-r. , p ~ , ~ , ; ~ w : c. -, ,;,::v< 14r l"rl.1 v-r?,irl r l :~ thvr I,.: 15 It ,- r l ~ 7 .1 . 0

Mn Cc perwnmgs dhxmtre M d.nPremm mhn du mshrms rnasn*in, vcrs Is muleu du I* Bl(dc, nwc 1111 wantalw large F O Iln hhnc w!m = vim!erncntP l b L'Ourk! 011 pnnl;llnn t s l l n ~ l ? ~ r k haul. 23-42 LPS C??IY;W cn la.rw po'lmrs p,v deF.:u5 Iv pan!:81M t'hwnt l l r r n dr C.;rrsps r,~i-tni 2d Jrrctrrre5 r a !,,+I Frmror* 3 't; rr d,! Cha!jr%i:,c% pn otlr w?,rlP 4 :.lylr- dr* tbol?es r7 ! UM Iqrn-v 5 lL r , l r :~<Pn 1 ~ ; pub? -!,*,*,I% IM >-bqs, ; ( , J (7,]m~-,=.atv-, [,,I! lp,!:;>: ~' l -~~lpl l t 6 [?,FVV ,+.-,-O~,:P :,--,rn,,p p~ e4.r- ,. ;? ;>nl>:, " 7.9 10 I(, l:!,~ !:,. tfi. ,, 1 ::# ,,)! 12 t~tv . ! :~>a [ c , ,m AW- ,!, :!lr!m r u . r q * ~ ! , , ~ v > , I?* 13 r h C c 7 ~ ? ~ : I c 4- Sufr r ~ ~ n l c ~ a 16 f,?rr ,chp 15 '.* ',-n+- 1 ,, c,?:, 1 ?\,, ?: : 1'2?,rr,' :k!q L>,! mj ,.,..,! "T 1fia , ,I *rq : * I ' 7,: I5h-e c>:~l>..? ?&7- g ,-, p 3 , 4 . 5 1,. , i ~ , IWIW !fin 8 .. , l , ~ * , P,,, ! ( 1 1 PI^ :,:, crr<c5 : 16, r ! , ? ~ ,,, ,*,, n:,,t:e 2 :>8t:, ' : % t!?.T [Wm'!P ;I ?I ,l,*77,. ,Jml , m 16, , 'T :, ' P-1 !1>#"18' !. :rmr :jVD< d'#:pbVA:* < s * L - r V P p#><' p3j t ! r 4 : ,.7, r,->t

O La b;llanWt dc M ~ m l n , C ? ~ C . 1213 v dkcula Mnun champ ala m n t i f l l rn labwrd I y ava~f tM~.mrnl Ce pmr;cr..fr 0t1 14 lrrlvl nF-ndra qur'q~fi t p m p a n - l Ile p r v r u r dwlr f r r la ratbre

E l b! surpendl% h Wi b?udrk, WI dcs mEernkf5 mgrrards n s c ~ ~ d d Im aarchrr male k h w 2a-b Crwfmalslassh pone SOU'. un crwfmt ma t!& 3 CP'~ICR IT:~RIIPS !mi - un C O . ~ W I . ~ + . !I*. s i?%ndr 4 ~'m'crl mad Im plq? ZM Un qrcT.l.rl t ~ l m 5a-c Vtrr!> d 117 p'r,T! hrlm 5 I:.-la1 rhr

1 - - a ) du s.:r;nJt la-b Cdr,'.'.~ VY 7.v r r l71. ! f~~ 8 m : ~ * ' t ~ ~ i ~ 98 P~II!L~CII?I=, IW ;.m~:~?- c I : ~ I .C tr nai',+s ~l ~ h n v , ' ? : d- c , l#r pjrlrrq <:rc7!r.c I"r ~ h . l w r 5 . rc:.:rr,:. rn~'-~fac, .w-, ~ r ~ r : ~ T : ~ . , T S

n <I!,' rl~r;?. pn ' - 8 r v rip EUI b O E ~ : ~ ' J T rr.k.a : 9b1 I n fibr.:c,rh rn.~! t l.~..:-o a,rr col :r r,,,

11 Ism',t:s d In I-,,:I.~-I~I m.-'- 12a Irrp,iu lr!rrf tm: , e ' 6 +I.. et I r I . . . W .! I:n :8.rv:r:jc: 12b :',,re IA lm!? c 2.1 ~ U L I ~ ~ P ~ U I (I? ?mr7 r % o ~ ~ w i t ,!r r,, r -m- .,>!IC, 0- ?Zc ,ir8,, ?f!,<,vJ r , ~ hl,,t #LI tm ! r~~~va8 ) a r r :lrf:\w'rr 51.1'1-8111 9 . 1 C~~ITI'IP~ 17d Ii, 171 Pd - jr 'p?li . SC t l e ~ l . , h., 17 11 l~a,~il",., (!m h?~,(:r,..v? 111 I:-&+ lr!I-#? 1 3 3,f!r,r~r-'-< rar?bm? (!- 3 I:~I:I., ,.? I 14 l!,~?m;~~~. vq lw ., h ~ ~ t ~ , ~ , tsa 6.l-d- I.W , ' n ~ l r l l r 15b l ' > , i n n ~ i m frr a r y,,!r tX :: rl3~: rvr ar,!-r:Nb rf,a 1 n..nt,~rr O . :'A I *:: r.<!, vm7 .:d :arr 'L p'. 11 1.- '..~r'Pau d ! r - l + . ~'.~II-.I F;...-. r;. [I( or-r 16h.c k ~ , :,,lr,.ls fin I,r.rl:> il* I ? 1-8,81:.1-.. 160 ,;a,!,- cbl[*n' r b h 8 r P n.1 i,.,.rr4.11a a:? . ,?,r4>mp rvlr~prp.r~ C. I ,. ,.% t'f8.b Jh3'1' r! 1.7 r.0, cj v.7 f m ~ . . ~ ~ : ~ ~ ~ .I srn~ c.,',?. ~ p r r ! . ~ . r ~ ~ o , r + * 1 1 ~ 11 ::I[ ,:.I ~,I,I.~A..~,I 18 I I-, ,!o*q. [.pp.

m.. '.r:. .-? fl 1,11 p",r11 ,I j ( : I < . 4' !, ' : LN.I.* q,), :P

El L h d m w c h l bc halallR du debut du 13Cmc s~We wU cwr le mMl Q vn I m k . 2 Un Iws::~rrcrnpa(ru!nr d'une Vu!e PlFrr 3 l SPil* CC bsn-lle en twrs 3b Srl!c cIe Bx1.111'c avcc uftp PI rwr f r * +<l;rrr, i -cOuvPtr O r cult Pfi' lt w.0115 vCr#:r:t!rr drl,#bC.I!. 1.1nmbrr d r (w1ra.l PI rl.m Y-t Vwt ,'a ~.l:rrr r n h n ; C Rf A:,lre r.-:hr& dc 'lr;t,?o d :lr.tn 5rllc 1.0. suFVre 3p h r l r r n r ; avTe ! l I - .I? yrnlTtrrri rlts COII:I~-!T 'PR*GN~PT :I ..1~31:! 1- 11 :PI'.- 4. Fwmr 10~1rfln C r ti*--. .I . p ~ # l r l p : ! r p38rs I:cal db i,8.1,'.! I* 1.1 !.r,?l~rr. 5: 1.1 r " : , v v ru Ih:nl n ~ r 8rlrn. 4c-dL:lr..; du rqow 5 &fir .> ,W~.II ~n W 6 ?a<:' r- IPLI rr CVII :!.> T:C+,~F <, r,,: w cu i:p111~ ,,IP,LI~, aVt*: nlltlgre c ~ ~ r l . ~ ! t P E W!I* F.'LII <e ibr - f rs unr ~ ? X ' I P :P:n,:~l,m d- a l r p r r ~c rrl,~r!ql FP ! l ~ t a IIP PT 1 :1111re rn I;l-as7rs CI' cum! nrf r lamTr 7 !I I? "r:r3? p :I? !>'?we er s*-'',' C? Crr:?rnt R ju.!l.. 08 Ri#v're FfflrW :* CP ! ' ~ 1 2 31CteP 91 :illC P r qll~rrC n P ..Rl.! :'cs :afl~t 4D k t r l v l ns I crr,6r cl nr:a~l Cr I 1m1-, m ~ t CP 12 'm'? F u r :"? C O U ~ K ~ ~ P - " c[vr v- ?l:,nr 10a.b IPm<~wz* ~t rblb! (?,I 14.7 ,? rl~ov.~! c UI ,?*.>M P?s:! r: 1 1 a ~P~T::,TT r,.~ . vnwr~ OF , 4 ti,.; ~ ' U J I ,?P.<? ,,,r I?A.< n - ~ > , r > b$p% fl,+~rr,~ars 8u 1': - 0 5 , r ; ! * 13 1'.,,:!1-'. :u rar;ll.cr Cans unim l ~ r . : ~ ? p ' ,~? 13.: .? CI. :A SP!IP r? q 3 0 7 ~ L1~5 dc 1 Imp?-T 14 kr:rnc Iraua,. *-r d~ rf~>*: a mi l r rnr ! t~ r n 15 y1~71.l !hr1~?1 ayrr rn.~or..,>

arwre PJ mi en ma llrs nwc q r m h w *n ~ c s w u i 4 Awn1 0.0 hrrC.wlavcc r t ~ r . ~ w 7cr.e 5 C.3m.hn h M u . P ' i : v ?o m.iallr G.. ~ J I I ( Y ' C J mancw: t n u f l ~ t 7 f lnle & r ' .x~l ,,' .l qhr h ? ~ a m .r Iwz- .c r / ' rn 8b .* 1w Oe v-n..:r m r r : c re rr ;r -i Ml & . e ow,n: d* j r r n ~ l e fr,mc 9a Rcrrbui-r pour La Dan,? lu:IEflrur? O J Mar om.1 9b Lln1:vacc pour h pan,e ~r . l r , r ~?~ l~e 0t1 >rn drv! 3 . i ~ lac,*:< mi ' rrr ur. R'r-r:rw 91-d i ' l ~ r s ~ ' u n o:~n! qaurhe. 1 0 B.(b?tr~P ~III la p h r * cl le d,*5 du s ! r ' t l k ~ i 1 la Arnlurr dl.'. ,?T.L-~ cnmwve M .::,ilrrr-r..* prl rn~I , r ts (:I' p:Cyrs en fr* en IYVP FF C ~ l i l r , dr C;~~LTM n:atrv%-.we5 P: dr o.r.1w-s p? rl,,r d'lrtl. ?vr,- d,.com!~r.r.!. rKhrrc!+c< l l b Fr:,~r~+uf Or In )?ralSp r!.?t:r a:.r havna~s "1 6 w r m I re E~~PI.~*I r a,. la :-,,:kw clro8.r. nu-? ClrLcE rr ; U - , T W : ~ ~ 5.1::1117m..-.;1,.~ :.I~CIP C? 17 E(~.,jrv PnId-um 12 ! r?rr,n I.? 1111 a P,. r(:'afre enfc 3 1 ,w l12 1311 : ' . * ' ~ f ' r , , : :I.I~',w-C C.1- !A o ? - l ~ ~ 13b Vua t?!pralc o I m8n"ird t.3' x I 13c PIP I.l1t73't rnr la as,." t'r 1.r 5 r r f r; ::d-t.- 6 , . YT.I%I'.. .darn fl(18~, e I \ > r 1b.1 e l n (1, ',.rr$ v' I rml* Ida t p P 1.1 :mJJrPA~ ..roc ?~...'~rdl I:* 18 :PmP F: .;.l-'lnn~ r l Inr d n - ~ 1 I m : $1 l 4 b Fmrrrau ?n b,,: r#.,.nuvrr.EP wrlmr:! l4c !Ioavc;'o mCa',-?r do ;?:.P!Y 9 I I : . I ! ~ ~ . : c 15a FM:C a v n twx?, r a do!#:, n [ ! ,~,:h~rr~ vrC ,$:,:y18*,' 6 IT', 1Sh ?~: ' , r ,n r!+f,:,mr~l,k,t, el! MIIP!,,,~ 1% ?.,?r:l,~n v*r. :,r.~'r ,?I b . , ~ ' , v r 156 I'I!P':*.I!I c,,, rdwrl~--:

II l un d t s &nspus f i lva l~5 h ~ t ~ 5 m b m t! ks vim rkmm eg la f ~ n du mn-lp. I M I I P k Ifmrc r r 'w t~nc - des Turx rur I t? plMP3 Ccs rnpva'pw C l n W PQT am- tmuw pn r~ercn: de Curs ni,,'cs tn1,memmt amlt*:.

nn*s;cosil trsgc d~ WaRm vnd dw ~r r r tmq . M w urn Q 11% n ~ h r U M ~ - ZI S ~ q n , , r~i, ,r UM oerahml-t Z~sngwwm 2b .lrlttlr.hle def He rns Zc O ~ ~ ~ s c I n f l ms Helm vnd

C l r AdunU d-esef F~qw rlM d ~ e cmrehnn SclWfen dnr M h n u b M d u q Mm8 om 13 ~ 2 h u n C r O ~u'qezrql 44x1 Vdgl w~t!a 1 d @ R f m P c s R A VPI-m lelncn .lnlw n*r K mduw Ib ncr SIIIII dpr OIF.~M~V m i 0 hnrh cPunn:rrl 2a.c Dlc U'nm:Mx wnrd Lrkv dcn PfpwhC~

0 Dre kh lacm vm Il~rcdra Allr Zmm m Jahr 1225 l a r d ah7 rclmm Irkt i pep?lirptrn SWY. und &% r n ~ r ~ l e derm.rRcn ulr! Slau?, n~rlnpw 'Wh, t 3 R hbpr den A ~ r - ~ r q drs K>rr;+r r u b ! Imqp ?I,#: Lll'4L1rn*~8t t* ' rrb#13

E l Watfrll utd R i r s l ~ , d ~ t m u. 1185 n Chr swmrnm, dwwhnn ~ . d b f ~ r - H e h m ma KlCmnP. @bn Tch.#Eft an rl*!ltl W"rqchrnk. t h P Fri~tifvrm OM R?srhrd-Dnlr9n rind rmn Irrchlrr, M r * r 'kt~':r! 2a.h l l~14f l f lvt D l , rur l r r rlncm Frtli-ny In;w f'ml I l i r 'n~nn,?n:r~-~, 'u~~:r! r:r.em r!'rwl.~:,. 'er rnlt cr?-rnp<' 4 Yr.'i,~~~l:.vl:cr W, Oei ;~r>:cr e rnm f;rrca! w p ! , - q r t n ~ ~ r ; v -0 5s.c l J l ! ~ ~ s ~ , € ! lwd!#:l!- !v~;~( '~lFrl v:l.,Ph C*,,,7I ! 4 ~ 1 , ? ~ 6 ,',lrr04,!#>ta~l r!?? !,,:rr>,#r 74.b r!,,,;is brm:~t~ l~~rv l -wr '.: u ' ! . f I?: Rr'cr B L ~ t q t l r : 9. P"~cq:r'i:l:. ?PI~c~[.?~:?~-C'~J.WI'I ~ n d LC?, r!i ,"'b'n r:!-r dtl t i~ ,P, \ l3* ' r r le fi>\rr7;.1.~1 prwnf!.l-n T.:! f l rmx~~ nn,:i.'-.:~rn I -,'or 7.1 rhx, i b.> V l *.,I,.*>L. - 11 g81 10 pi::. Ah,>!,l* rnll vll<,!7-#T b , , p n 11 tr,,4 -,,?#*" r r.rq uw;,,, 7

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