WBDG

Whole Building Design Guide

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Health Care Facilitiesby Robert F. Carr

Last updated: 03-14-2007

Overview

We shape our buildings and afterwards our buildings shape us... Winston Churchill (May 10, 1941)

Health care facilities encompass a wide range of types, from small and relatively simple medical clinics to large, complex, and costly, teaching and research hospitals. Large hospitals centers may include all the various subsidiary health care types that are often independent facilities. The old expression, "You never get a second chance to make a good first impression" applies to health care facilities. The facility conveys a message to patients, visitors, volunteers, vendors, and staff. The facility also communicates a torrent of clues about the organization and the medical care being provided there. The clues start at the approach to the facility, the drop-off area, the parking lots, and the street signs. Ideally, that message is one that conveys welcoming, caring, comfort, and compassion, commitment to patient well-being and safety, where stress is relieved, refuge is provided, respect is reciprocated, competence is symbolized, way-finding is facilitated, and families are accommodated. The facility also influences employee service attitudes and behaviors. Finishes, signage, and artwork must be carefully selected, well coordinated, and integrated. Security can be balanced with some features apparent to patients/visitors, while conveying a message of safety. Thoughtful design can help ensure the proper first impression is created and sustained.

The design of health care facilities is governed by many regulations and technical requirements. It is also affected by many less defined needs and pressures. The most pressing of these are workforce shortages, reimbursements, malpractice insurance, physician-hospital relations, capacity, care for the uninsured, patient safety, advances in technology, and patient satisfaction per a recent American College of Healthcare Executives survey of hospital CEOs.

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VAMC Dallas, TX

The entire health care system is under great pressure to reduce costs, and at the same time, be more responsive to "customers". The aging are the heaviest users of health care services, and the percentage of the aging in our population is increasing significantly. At the same time, rapid technological advances, often involving very sophisticated techniques and equipment, make more diagnostic and treatment procedures available. The consequent increase in health care costs is not easily accommodated. Designers find increasing focus on limiting both construction costs and the costs of their design services, while compressing construction schedules and still meeting the highest quality standards.

As cost pressures increase, health care facilities find themselves in increasing competition for both patients and staff. Architecture is often recognized as an important tool in attracting and retaining the best doctors and nurses, the most successful HMOs and insurance plans, and the most patients. Consumer decisions are based on cost, accessibility, quality of service, and quality of medical care. An aesthetically pleasing facility is a key aspect of the perceived quality of care.

Health care is a labor-intensive industry, and much of that labor is highly skilled and highly paid. Since 60 to 75% of hospital expenses are labor costs, a design that increases operational productivity or efficiency and reduces staffing needs can have a major impact on the bottom line. (Don Blair, then at Perkins + Will, estimated that the cost of one full-time staff person is equivalent to the debt service on $1 million of borrowing per Architectural Record of May 1997.) Likewise, operations and maintenance costs over the typical 50-year life cycle of a hospital contribute up to 80% to the equation, so anything designers can do to facilitate maintenance and reduce total life-cycle cost will have tremendous returns on a relatively small up-front investment. (Source: Federal Facilities Council.)

Flexibility must be a basic feature of any new health care facility to keep it from rapid obsolescence in the face of changing needs and technologies. Health care facility needs are evolving rapidly, and the direction of that evolution is difficult to forecast with any certainty. New equipment technologies, new treatment methodologies, changes in diseases, and changes in the patient population base all impact the facilities that house them. Inpatient care is steadily being reduced while outpatient services are growing. There is increasing emphasis on special-care units and smaller satellite facilities rather than large, centralized facilities.

In the past, communicable diseases were the major health problem, and sanitation or cleanliness was the main characteristic of a healing or therapeutic environment. Cleanliness remains extremely important, but there is increasing recognition of the value of a pleasant, easily-understood, and non-threatening environment for patient recovery. For example, the Planetree Hospital philosophy of "demystifying medicine" emphasizes such a physical environment as part of its approach. Good design in the health care setting starts by recognizing the basic functional needs, but does not end there—it must

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also meet the emotional needs of those who use such facilities at times of uncertainty, dependency, and stress.

Emerging Issues

The movement from hospital-based acute care to outpatient care, and toward a more holistic, preventative, and continuous care of health and wellness.

The new HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accessibility Act) regulations addressing security and privacy of "protected health information" (PHI). These regulations put new emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy, and may affect location and layout of workstations that handle medical records and other patient information, both paper and electronic, as well as patient accommodations.

Increasing emphasis on security, especially in large public facilities, and the need to balance this with the desired openness to patients and visitors.

Classification

A trend towards specialization has resulted in a growing number of health care types. Among them are hospitals, nursing homes, outpatient facilities, psychiatric facilities, rehabilitation facilities, hospices, assisted living facilities, congregate housing, adult day care facilities, and various specialized outpatient facilities. The WBDG currently includes sections on the following four specific building types:

Hospital Nursing Home , including Alzheimer's Related Dementia (ARD) units Outpatient Clinic , including the specialized diagnostic and treatment areas which

may be stand-alone facilities Psychiatric Facility , including psychiatric hospitals

Major Resources

Websites

AIA Academy of Architecture for Health (AAH) —Contains AAH newsletters, reports, and other documents related to health care design.

American Hospital Association —Information generally focused on financial and organizational issues, but includes good data on health care statistics and other resources.

American Society for Healthcare Engineering (ASHE) —An advocate for continuous improvement in the health care engineering and facilities management professions. Contains a Therapeutic Environments Forum with excellent information and sponsors an annual conference on planning, design, and construction.

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American Society of Interior Designers and the University of Minnesota —The first centralized clearinghouse for design and human behavior research on the Web.

Green Guide for Health Care™ —A best practices guide for healthy and sustainable building design, construction, and operations for the healthcare industry.

Hospitals for a Healthy Environment —A four-member partnership between the Environmental Protection Agency, American Hospital Association, American Nurses Association, and Healthcare Without Harm to educate health care professionals about pollution prevention.

Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO) —Has some facility related information, though it is largely concerned with operational issues.

Society for the Arts in Healthcare (SAH) —National and international advocacy group for the integration of the arts into the healing health care environment.

The Center for Health Design —An extensive site focusing on health care facility design.

VA Office of Construction & Facility Management (CFM) Technical Information Library—Includes manuals, guides, and other standards covering all aspects of health care facility design.

Publications

Architectural Record —Monthly journal with a building types study section focusing on health care design every year or so. Online archives include many more projects than those that appear in the printed magazine.

Building Type Basics for Healthcare Facilities . ed. Stephen A. Kliment. New York: John Wily & Sons, Inc., 2000.

Design That Cares: Planning Health Facilities for Patients and Visitors, 2nd ed. by Janet R. Carpman, Myron A. Grant and Deborah A. Simmons. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.

Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health Care Facilities by AIA Academy of Architecture for Health, Washington, DC: The American Institute of Architects, 2001.

Healthcare Architecture in an Era of Radical Transformations by Stephen Verderber and David Fine. Yale University Press, 2000.

Healthcare Design —A quarterly magazine with design articles and presentations of recent projects

Health Facilities Review, 1992-1993 and subsequent issues by AIA Academy of Architecture for Health. Washington DC: AIA Press.

Hospitals and Health Networks —A monthly journal of the American Hospital Association. Includes occasional articles on construction.

Innovations in Healthcare Design: Selected Presentations from the First Five Symposia on Healthcare Design ed. Sara Marberry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995.

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Journal of Healthcare Design —Published from 1988-1998, contains presentations at the annual symposium on Health Care Design.

Modern Healthcare —A weekly journal for health care executives with frequent articles on design and construction and an annual design awards program. Online articles from 1994.

Performance Failures in Health Care Facilities. Preliminary Report by Earle Kennett. Washington, DC: AIA/ACSA Council on Architectural Research, 1988.

Sustainable Federal Facilities: A Guide to Integrating Value Engineering, Life- cycle Costing, and Sustainable Development by the Federal Facilities Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001.

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Hospitalby Robert F. CarrNIKA Technologies, Inc. for VA Office of Construction & Facility Management (CFM)

Last updated: 04-21-2008

Overview

"A functional design can promote skill, economy, conveniences, and comforts; a non-functional design can impede activities of all types, detract from quality of care, and raise costs to intolerable levels." ... Hardy and Lammers

Hospitals are the most complex of building types. Each hospital is comprised of a wide range of services and functional units. These include diagnostic and treatment functions, such as clinical laboratories, imaging, emergency rooms, and surgery; hospitality functions, such as food service and housekeeping; and the fundamental inpatient care or bed-related function. This diversity is reflected in the breadth and specificity of regulations, codes, and oversight that govern hospital construction and operations. Each of the wide-ranging and constantly evolving functions of a hospital, including highly complicated mechanical, electrical, and telecommunications systems, requires specialized knowledge and expertise. No one person can reasonably have complete knowledge, which is why specialized consultants play an important role in hospital planning and design. The functional units within the hospital can have competing needs and priorities. Idealized scenarios and strongly-held individual preferences must be balanced against mandatory requirements, actual functional needs (internal traffic and relationship to other departments), and the financial status of the organization.

VAMC Bay Pines, FL

In addition to the wide range of services that must be accommodated, hospitals must serve and support many different users and stakeholders. Ideally, the design process incorporates direct input from the owner and from key hospital staff early on in the process. The designer also has to be an advocate for the patients, visitors, support staff,

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volunteers, and suppliers who do not generally have direct input into the design. Good hospital design integrates functional requirements with the human needs of its varied users.

The basic form of a hospital is, ideally, based on its functions:

bed-related inpatient functions outpatient-related functions diagnostic and treatment functions administrative functions service functions (food, supply) research and teaching functions

Physical relationships between these functions determine the configuration of the hospital. Certain relationships between the various functions are required—as in the following flow diagrams.

These flow diagrams show the movement and communication of people, materials, and waste. Thus the physical configuration of a hospital and its transportation and logistic systems are inextricably intertwined. The transportation systems are influenced by the building configuration, and the configuration is heavily dependent on the transportation systems. The hospital configuration is also influenced by site restraints and opportunities,

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climate, surrounding facilities, budget, and available technology. New alternatives are generated by new medical needs and new technology.

In a large hospital, the form of the typical nursing unit, since it may be repeated many times, is a principal element of the overall configuration. Nursing units today tend to be more compact shapes than the elongated rectangles of the past. Compact rectangles, modified triangles, or even circles have been used in an attempt to shorten the distance between the nurse station and the patient's bed. The chosen solution is heavily dependent on program issues such as organization of the nursing program, number of beds to a nursing unit, and number of beds to a patient room. (The trend, recently reinforced by HIPAA, is to all private rooms.)

Building Attributes

Regardless of their location, size, or budget, all hospitals should have certain common attributes.

Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness

An efficient hospital layout should:

Promote staff efficiency by minimizing distance of necessary travel between frequently used spaces

Allow easy visual supervision of patients by limited staff Include all needed spaces, but no redundant ones. This requires careful pre-design

programming. Provide an efficient logistics system, which might include elevators, pneumatic

tubes, box conveyors, manual or automated carts, and gravity or pneumatic chutes, for the efficient handling of food and clean supplies and the removal of waste, recyclables, and soiled material

Make efficient use of space by locating support spaces so that they may be shared by adjacent functional areas, and by making prudent use of multi-purpose spaces

Consolidate outpatient functions for more efficient operation—on first floor, if possible—for direct access by outpatients

Group or combine functional areas with similar system requirements Provide optimal functional adjacencies, such as locating the surgical intensive

care unit adjacent to the operating suite. These adjacencies should be based on a detailed functional program which describes the hospital's intended operations from the standpoint of patients, staff, and supplies.

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VAMC Albuquerque, NM

Flexibility and Expandability

Since medical needs and modes of treatment will continue to change, hospitals should:

Follow modular concepts of space planning and layout Use generic room sizes and plans as much as possible, rather than highly specific

ones Be served by modular, easily accessed, and easily modified mechanical and

electrical systems Where size and program allow, be designed on a modular system basis, such as

the VA Hospital Building System. This system also uses walk-through interstitial space between occupied floors for mechanical, electrical, and plumbing distribution. For large projects, this provides continuing adaptability to changing programs and needs, with no first-cost premium, if properly planned, designed, and bid. The VA Hospital Building System also allows vertical expansion without disruptions to floors below.

Be open-ended, with well planned directions for future expansion; for instance positioning "soft spaces" such as administrative departments, adjacent to "hard spaces" such as clinical laboratories.

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Cross-section showing interstitial space with deck above an occupied floor

Therapeutic Environment

Hospital patients are often fearful and confused and these feelings may impede recovery. Every effort should be made to make the hospital stay as unthreatening, comfortable, and stress-free as possible. The interior designer plays a major role in this effort to create a therapeutic environment. A hospital's interior design should be based on a comprehensive understanding of the facility's mission and its patient profile. The characteristics of the patient profile will determine the degree to which the interior design should address aging, loss of visual acuity, other physical and mental disabilities, and abusiveness. (See VA Interior Design Manual.) Some important aspects of creating a therapeutic interior are:

Using familiar and culturally relevant materials wherever consistent with sanitation and other functional needs

Using cheerful and varied colors and textures, keeping in mind that some colors are inappropriate and can interfere with provider assessments of patients' pallor and skin tones, disorient older or impaired patients, or agitate patients and staff, particularly some psychiatric patients (for in depth survey of research related to Color in Healthcare Environments, see CHER).

Admitting ample natural light wherever feasible and using color-corrected lighting in interior spaces which closely approximates natural daylight

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Providing views of the outdoors from every patient bed, and elsewhere wherever possible; photo murals of nature scenes are helpful where outdoor views are not available

Designing a "way-finding" process into every project. Patients, visitors, and staff all need to know where they are, what their destination is, and how to get there and return. A patient's sense of competence is encouraged by making spaces easy to find, identify, and use without asking for help. Building elements, color, texture, and pattern should all give cues, as well as artwork and signage. (As an example, see VA Signage Design Guide.)

For an in-depth view see WBDG—Therapeutic Environments.

Cleanliness and Sanitation

Hospitals must be easy to clean and maintain. This is facilitated by:

Appropriate, durable finishes for each functional space Careful detailing of such features as doorframes, casework, and finish transitions

to avoid dirt-catching and hard-to-clean crevices and joints Adequate and appropriately located housekeeping spaces Special materials, finishes, and details for spaces which are to be kept sterile, such

as integral cove base. The new antimicrobial surfaces might be considered for appropriate locations.

Accessibility

All areas, both inside and out, should:

Comply with the minimum requirements of the Americans with Disability Act (ADA) and, if federally funded or owned, the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)

In addition to meeting minimum requirements of ADA and/or UFAS, be designed so as to be easy to use by the many patients with temporary or permanent handicaps

Ensuring grades are flat enough to allow easy movement and sidewalks and corridors are wide enough for two wheelchairs to pass easily

Ensuring entrance areas are designed to accommodate patients with slower adaptation rates to dark and light; marking glass walls and doors to make their presence obvious

Controlled Circulation

A hospital is a complex system of interrelated functions requiring constant movement of people and goods. Much of this circulation should be controlled.

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Outpatients visiting diagnostic and treatment areas should not travel through inpatient functional areas nor encounter severely ill inpatients

Typical outpatient routes should be simple and clearly defined Visitors should have a simple and direct route to each patient nursing unit without

penetrating other functional areas Separate patients and visitors from industrial/logistical areas or floors Outflow of trash, recyclables, and soiled materials should be separated from

movement of food and clean supplies, and both should be separated from routes of patients and visitors

Transfer of cadavers to and from the morgue should be out of the sight of patients and visitors

Dedicated service elevators for deliveries, food and building maintenance services

Aesthetics

Aesthetics is closely related to creating a therapeutic environment (homelike, attractive.) It is important in enhancing the hospital's public image and is thus an important marketing tool. A better environment also contributes to better staff morale and patient care. Aesthetic considerations include:

Increased use of natural light, natural materials, and textures Use of artwork Attention to proportions, color, scale, and detail Bright, open, generously-scaled public spaces Homelike and intimate scale in patient rooms, day rooms, consultation rooms, and

offices Compatibility of exterior design with its physical surroundings

Security and Safety

In addition to the general safety concerns of all buildings, hospitals have several particular security concerns:

Protection of hospital property and assets, including drugs Protection of patients, including incapacitated patients, and staff Safe control of violent or unstable patients Vulnerability to damage from terrorism because of proximity to high-

vulnerability targets, or because they may be highly visible public buildings with an important role in the public health system.

Sustainability

Hospitals are large public buildings that have a significant impact on the environment and economy of the surrounding community. They are heavy users of energy and water and produce large amounts of waste. Because hospitals place such demands on community resources they are natural candidates for sustainable design.

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Section 1.9 of VA's HVAC Design Manual is a good example of hospital energy conservation standards that meet DOE requirements. Also see LEED's (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Green Building Rating System for sustainability standards for construction projects.

Emerging Issues

Among the many new developments and trends influencing hospital design are:

The decreasing numbers of general practitioners along with the increased use of emergency facilities for primary care

The increasing introduction of highly sophisticated diagnostic and treatment technology

Requirements to remain operational during and after disasters—see, for example, VA's Design and Construction Procedure: Natural Disaster Non-Structural Resistive Design

State laws requiring earthquake resistance, both in designing new buildings and retrofitting existing structures

New HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) regulations address security and privacy of "protected health information" (PHI). These regulations put new emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy and may affect location and layout of workstations that handle medical records and other patient information, both paper and electronic, as well as patient accommodations.

Preventative care versus sickness care; designing hospitals as all-inclusive "wellness centers"

Use of hand-held computers and portable diagnostic equipment to allow more mobile, decentralized patient care, and a general shift to computerized patient information of all kinds. This might require computer alcoves and data ports in corridors outside patient bedrooms.

Need to balance increasing attention to building security with openness to patients and visitors

Emergence of palliative care as a specialty in many major medical centers A growing interest in more holistic, patient-centered treatment and environments

such as promoted by Planetree. This might include providing mini-medical libraries and computer terminals so patients can research their conditions and treatments, and locating kitchens and dining areas on inpatient units so family members can prepare food for patients and families to eat together.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Hospitals are among the most regulated of all building types. Like other buildings, they must follow the local and/or state general building codes. However, federal facilities on federal property generally need not comply with state and local codes, but follow federal regulations. To be licensed by the state, design must comply with the individual state licensing regulations. Many states adopt the AIA Guidelines for Design and Construction

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of Hospitals and Health Care Facilities, listed below as a resource, and thus that volume often has regulatory status.

State and local codes, which in the past have frequently been based on the three regional model codes, are now often being based on the model International Building Code (IBC).

Since hospitals treat patients who are reimbursed under Medicare, they must also meet federal standards, and to be accredited, they must meet standards of the Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO). Generally, the federal government and JCAHO refer to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) model fire codes, including Standards for Health Care Facilities (NFPA 99) and the Life Safety Code (NFPA 101).

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) applies to all public facilities and greatly affects the design of hospitals with its general and specific accessibility requirements. The Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) apply to federal and federally-funded facilities. They are not greatly different from ADA requirements.

Regulations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) also affect the design of hospitals, particularly in laboratory areas.

Federal agencies that build and operate hospitals have developed detailed standards for the programming, design, and construction of their facilities. Many of these standards are applicable to the design of non-governmental facilities as well. Among them are:

Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Office of Facilities Management Technical Information Library contains many guides and standards, including:

o Design Guides for planning many different departments and clinics, design manuals of technical requirements, equipment lists, master specifications, room finishes, space planning criteria, and standard details.

Major Resources

Websites

American Hospital Association —Information generally focused on financial and organizational issues, but includes good information on health care statistics and other resources.

American Society of Interior Designers and The University of Minnesota —The first centralized clearinghouse for design and human behavior research on the Web.

Green Guide for Health Care™ —A best practices guide for healthy and sustainable building design, construction, and operations for the healthcare industry.

Hospitals for a Healthy Environment —A four-member partnership between the Environmental Protection Agency, American Hospital Association, American

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Nurses Association, and Healthcare without Harm to educate healthcare professionals about pollution prevention.

Society for the Arts in Healthcare (SAH) —National and international advocacy group for the integration of the arts into the healing healthcare environment.

U.S. Green Building Council

Publications

Building Type Basics for Healthcare Facilities , ed. Stephen Kliment. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.

Design Details for Health: Making the Most of Interior Design's Healing Potential by Cynthia A. Leibrock. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999.—Innovative design solutions in key areas such as lighting, acoustics, color, and finishes

Design Guide for Improving Hospital Safety in Earthquakes, Floods, and High Winds: Providing Protection to People and Buildings. FEMA, 2007.

Design That Cares: Planning Health Facilities for Patients and Visitors, 2nd Edition , by Janet Carpman, Myron Grant, and Deborah Simmons. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.

Development Study—VA Hospital Building System by Building Systems Development and Stone, Marraccini & Patterson. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, rev. 1977.

Emergency Department Design: A Practical Guide to Planning for the Future by John Huddy and Michael T. Rapp. Irving, Texas: ACEP (American College of Emergency Physicians) 2000.

Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health Care Facilities by AIA Academy of Architecture for Health. Washington, DC: The American Institute of Architects, 2001.

Healthcare Design , ed. Sarah O. Marberry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.

Health Facilities Management —A monthly journal of the American Hospital Association's Health Forum. It serves the health facility operations, maintenance, construction, and environmental services community.

Healthcare Facility Plannning: Thinking Strategically by Cynthia Hayward, AIA, FAAHC, ACHA. Health Admnistration Press and the American College of Healthcare Executives, 2005.

Health Facilities Review 1992-1993 and subsequent by AIA Committee on Architecture for Health. Washington, DC: AIA Press.

Hospitals and Health Networks —A monthly journal of the American Hospital Association covering general health care news, with occasional articles on design and construction

Hospitals, The Planning and Design Process, 2nd ed. by Owen B. Hardy and Lawrence P. Lammers. Rockville, Md.: Aspen Publishers, 1996.

Hospital Interior Architecture: Creating Healing Environments for Special Patient Populations by Jain Malkin. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992.

Healthcare Design —A quarterly magazine with design articles and presentations of recent projects

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Medical and Dental Space Planning: A Comprehensive Guide to Design, Equipment, and Clinical Procedures, 3rd Edition , by Jain Malkin. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.

Modern Healthcare —A weekly journal for healthcare executives with frequent articles on design and construction and an annual design awards program. Online archives of articles back to 1994.

Time Saver Standards for Building Types, 2nd ed. by Joseph De Chiara and John Callender. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980.

Tools

SpaceMedGuide-A Space Planning Guide for Healthcare Facilities —a popular planning tool providing state-of-the-art planning methodologies, industry benchmarks, and planning tips.

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Nursing Homeby Robert F. CarrNIKA Technologies, Inc. for VA Office of Construction & Facility Management (CFM)

Last updated: 04-22-2008

Overview

Nursing homes serve patients requiring preventive, therapeutic, and rehabilitative nursing care services for non-acute, long-term conditions. Specialized clinical and diagnostic services are obtained outside the nursing home. Most residents are frail and aged, but not bedridden, although often using canes, walkers, or wheelchairs. Stays are relatively long, the majority for life. Nursing homes also care for a smaller percentage of convalescent patients of all ages. These patients are in long-term recovery from acute illnesses, but no longer require hospitalization.

Nursing homes, or sections of them, are often classified into intermediate and skilled nursing units, definitions related to Medicare/Medicaid standards. Intermediate-care facilities have just enough nursing to qualify for Medicaid; skilled nursing facilities meet the more demanding medical standards to qualify for Medicare as well as Medicaid support. The cognitively impaired are frequently housed separately in Alzheimer Related Dementia (ASD) units.

Nursing homes present special design challenges in that for most residents the nursing home is not just a facility, but indeed their home. The reality is that in most cases the residents will live there for the rest of their lives and, moreover, rarely leave the premises at all. The nursing home becomes their entire world in a sense. The challenge is to design a nursing home that is sensitive and responsive to long-term human needs and well-being, both physical and emotional.

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Floor Plan of Missouri Veterans Home—St. James, MissouriArchitect: Kennedy Association Inc.View enlarged plan

Building Attributes

A nursing home operates primarily in a patient-care mode rather than a medical mode. Consequently, its more important attributes are those focusing on the general well-being of its residents rather than high-tech considerations. The principal attributes of a well designed nursing home are:

Homelike and Therapeutic Environment

Inherent in any institutional stay is the impact of environment on recovery, and the long-term stays typical of nursing home residents greatly increase this impact. The architect and interior designer must have a thorough understanding of the nursing home's mission and its patient profile. It is especially important that the design address aging and its accompanying physical and mental disabilities, including loss of visual acuity. To achieve the appropriate nursing home environment every effort should be made to:

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Give spaces a homelike, rather than institutional, size and scale with natural light and views of the outdoors

Create a warm reassuring environment by using a variety of familiar, non-reflective finishes and cheerful, varied colors and textures, keeping in mind that some colors are inappropriate and can disorient or agitate impaired residents

Provide each resident a variety of spatial experiences, including access to a garden and the outdoors in general

Promote traditional residential qualities of privacy, choice, control, and personalization of one's immediate surroundings

Alleviate possible disorientation of residents by providing differences between "residential neighborhoods" of the nursing home, and by use of clocks, calendars, and other "reminders"

Encourage resident autonomy by making their spaces easy to find, identify, and use

Provide higher lighting levels than typical for residential occupancies

Efficiency and Cost-Effectiveness

The nursing home design should:

Promote staff efficiency by minimizing distance of necessary travel between frequently used spaces

Allow easy visual supervision of patients by minimal staff Make efficient use of space by locating support spaces so they may be shared by

adjacent functional areas, and by making prudent use of multi- purpose spaces

Western New York State Veterans Home Batavia, NY, Kideny Architects

Cleanliness and Sanitation

An odor-free environment is a very high priority in nursing homes, since many residents are occasionally incontinent, and the pervasive odors can give an impression of uncleanliness and poor operation to family and visitors. In addition to operational practices and careful choice of furniture, facility design can help odor control by:

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Adequate and highly visible toilet rooms in key locations near spaces where residents congregate

The use of appropriate, durable finishes for each space used by residents Proper detailing of such features as doorframes, casework, and finish transitions

to avoid dirt-catching and hard-to-clean crevices and joints Adequate and appropriately located housekeeping spaces Effective ventilation, which may need to exceed nominal design levels

Attention to Way-finding

A consistent and well thought out system of way-finding helps to maintain the residents' dignity and avoid their disorientation. It should:

Use multiple cues from building elements, colors, texture, pattern, and artwork, as well as signage, to help residents understand where they are, what their destination is, and how to get there and back.

Identify frequently used destination spaces by architectural features and landmarks which can be seen from a distance, as well as symbols, signage, art, and elements such as fish tanks, birdcages, or greenery

Avoid prominent locations and high visibility of doors to spaces which patients should not enter

Use simple lettering and clear contrasts in signage (See VA Signage Manual) Clearly identify only those rooms that residents frequent

Accessibility

Many residents may be ambulatory to varying degrees, but will require the assistance of canes, crutches, walkers, or wheelchairs. To accommodate these residents, all spaces used by them, both inside and out, should:

Comply with the requirements of the Americans with Disabilities (ADA) and, if federally funded or owned, with the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)

Be designed so that all spaces, furnishings, and equipment, including storage units and operable windows, are easily usable by residents in wheelchairs

Be equipped with grab bars in all appropriate locations Be free of tripping hazards Be located on one floor if feasible, preferably at grade. If residents' bedrooms

must be located on more than one floor, then dining space must be apportioned among those floors, not centralized

Security and Safety

Design to address security and safety concerns of nursing homes includes:

Use of non-reflective and non-slip floors to avoid falls

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Control of access to hazardous spaces Control of exits to avoid residents leaving and becoming lost or injured Provision of secure spaces to safeguard facility supplies and personal property of

residents and staff

Aesthetics

Aesthetics is closely related to creating a therapeutic homelike environment. It is also a major factor in a nursing home's public image and is thus an important marketing tool for both residents' families and staff. Aesthetic considerations include:

Increased use of natural light, natural materials, and textures Use of artwork Attention to proportions, color, scale, and detail Bright, open, generously scaled public and congregate spaces Homelike and intimate scale in resident rooms and offices Appropriate residential exterior appearance, not hospital-like Exterior compatibility with surroundings

Emerging Issues

There is a growing recognition of the need for dementia day care. This can often be effectively provided within or adjoining an inpatient nursing facility.

There is a need for better non-medical residential facilities for the frail but independent elderly.

Managed care programs for the aged are being developed to prevent, or at least postpone, institutionalization.

New HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) regulations address security and privacy of "protected health information" (PHI). These regulations put new emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy and may affect location and layout of workstations that handle medical records and other patient information, both paper and electronic, as well as patient accommodations.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Like other buildings, nursing homes must follow the local and/or state general building codes. However, federal facilities on federal land generally need not comply with state and local codes, but follow federal regulations. To be licensed by the state, design must comply with the individual state licensing regulations. Many states adopt the AIA Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health Care Facilities, listed below as a resource, and thus that volume often has regulatory status. State and local

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codes, which in the past have frequently been based on the three regional model codes, are now often being based on the model International Building Code (IBC).

Library, Missouri Veterans Home, St. James, MO, Kennedy Assoc., Inc.

To care for residents who are reimbursed under Medicare or Medicaid, facilities must also meet federal standards, and to be accredited, they must meet standards of the Joint Commission on the Accreditation of Healthcare Organizations (JCAHO). Generally, the federal government and JCAHO refer to the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) model fire codes, including Standards for Health Care Facilities (NFPA 99) and the Life Safety Code (NFPA 101).

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) applies to all public facilities and greatly affects the design of nursing homes with its general and specific accessibility requirements. The Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) apply to federal and federally funded facilities. They do not greatly differ from ADA requirements.

Federal agencies that build and operate, or fund, nursing homes have developed detailed standards for the programming, design, and construction of their facilities. Many of these standards are applicable to the design of non-governmental facilities as well. Among them are:

Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), Office of Facilities Management Technical Information Library contains many guides and standards, including:

o Design Manuals of technical requirements, equipment lists, master specifications, room finishes, space planning criteria, and standard details.

Major Resources

Websites

American Health Care Association —This organization represents the long-term case community. The website is not focused on design issues, but includes much background information and statistics.

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American Society of Interior Designers and the University of Minnesota —The first centralized clearinghouse on the web for design and human behavior research.

Green Guide for Health Care™ —A best practices guide for healthy and sustainable building design, construction, and operations for the healthcare industry.

Publications

Contemporary Environments for People with Dementia by Cohen and Day. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press, 1993.

Design for Dementia by Margaret Calkins. Owings Mills, MD: National Health Publishing, 1988.

Design of Long-Term Care Facilities by Aranyi and Goldman. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1980.

Designing for Alzheimer's Disease: Strategies for Creating Better Care Environments by Elizabeth Brawley. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997.

Design Details for Health: Making the Most of Interior Design's Healing Potential by Cynthia A. Leibrock. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1999.—Innovative design solutions in key areas such as lighting, acoustics, color, and finishes

Design That Cares: Planning Health Facilities for Patients and Visitors, 2nd Edition by Janet Carpman, Myron Grant, and Deborah Simmons. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.

Designing the Open Nursing Home by J.A. Koncelik. Stroudsburg, Pa.: Dowden, Hutchinson, and Ross, 1976.

Guidelines for Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health Care Facilities by AIA Academy of Architecture for Health. Washington, DC: The American Institute of Architects, 2001.

Hospital Related Facilities for the Elderly by Alicen Hall. Lubbock, Tex.: Texas A&M University, 1997.

Nursing Home Design by Benjamin Schwarz. New York: Garland Publishing, 1996.

Nursing Home Renovation Designed for Reform by Lorraine Hiatt. Boston: Butterworth Architecture, 1991.

Time Saver Standards for Building Types, 2nd ed. by Joseph De Chiara and John Callender. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1980.

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Project Planning, Management and DeliveryLast updated: 04-04-2008

Introduction

Successful project management requires team leadership and coordination, diligent project planning, and effective oversight of the delivery process. Recognizing the importance of these qualities in satisfying clients' expectations, the Project Management section offers guidance for the entire delivery team to successfully and effectively carry out a high performance building project.

While this section is still under development, click on one of the following areas to begin your exploration:

Project Delivery Teams —Contains guidance on assembling and effectively managing the project team.

Project Planning and Development —Contains guidance on how to plan and deliver a project, from inception to turnover.

Building Commissioning —Provides an overview of commissioning drivers, benefits, goals, and principles.

Project Delivery and Controls —Contains descriptions of procedures and practices used to manage project scope, budget, and schedule.

Note: Terminology and processes described within this section of the WBDG typically refer to federal projects, but may be applicable to other public sector institutions with adaptation for local standards of professional practice.

Major Resources

Federal Agency Links

DOE Project Management Process (PDF   28   KB ) NASA NPG 8820.2F-Facility Project Requirements Standard Form 330, Architect-Engineer Qualifications —On December 11, 2003,

Standard Form 330 (SF330) was released by the federal government. The new form, which architects and engineers use to present their qualifications and experience when seeking federal projects, replaces SF 254/255 and emphasizes qualifications-based selection for the procurement of A/E services.

USACE Project Managers Guide USAF Project Management Online Handbook

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VA Project Managers Handbook

Publications

Construction Project Administration by Edward R. Fisk. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992.

Managing the Construction Project, A Practical Guide for the Project Manager by Theodore J. Trauner, Jr. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1993.

Program Management Procedures by Construction Management Association of America. McLean, VA: 2003.

Project Management in Construction by Sidney M. Levy. McGraw-Hill, 2002. Project Management, Principles and Practices by Pete M. Spinner. Prentice-Hall,

Inc., 1997.

Organizations

Construction Industry Institute (CII) —A consortium of public and private facility owners, construction contractors, material manufacturers.

Construction Management Institute (CMAA) —An association representing the construction management profession.

Federal Facilities Council (FFC) —A cooperative association of 24 federal agencies responsible for facility design, acquisition, management, maintenance, and evaluation.

Project Management Institute (PMI) —The largest association of project management professionals from across all business and industry sectors.

Tools

Project Planning Tools (PPT) —A web-based resource that produces automated, project specific, Commissioning Plans to enable efficient planning, management, and delivery of building projects. PPT is offered by the U.S. General Services Administration's Public Buildings Service to assist public and private organizations in delivering quality projects, on time, and within budget.

Others

Architectural Practices —A free resource for architects, engineers, contractors, and other members of the building community. It provides tools and advice to help architects manage projects effectively.

FedBizOpps —The single government point-of-entry (GPE) for federal government procurement opportunities over $25,000. Government buyers are able to publicize their business opportunities by posting information directly to FedBizOpps via the Internet. Through one portal—FedBizOpps (FBO)—commercial vendors seeking federal markets for their products and services can search, monitor and retrieve opportunities solicited by the entire federal contracting community.

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University of Maryland Project Management Program —Provides project management education and research

Project Delivery Teamsby the WBDG Project Management Committee

Last updated: 03-15-2007

Overview

Every capital project has a unique set of program goals and technical requirements that demand assembling a specialized mix of core team members and other stakeholders (a stakeholder is a party with a vested interest in a project). Successful project management involves continuous leadership of the team through successful project planning and development and through project delivery and control.

This branch of the WBDG has been developed to assist stakeholders in capital design and construction programs in understanding how project teams are selected, procured/contracted, and coordinated for successful project delivery.

Assembling a Project Delivery Team

Except for minor repair and maintenance projects that are carried out by professional services staff internal to an agency or institution, delivery teams in federal projects will typically consist of government delivery team members (federal government employees) and contract delivery team members (private sector firms and their employees).

The extent of professional disciplines and technical specialists (often called Program Advocates) represented on the government delivery team will vary depending on the extent of the managing agency's annual capital design and construction program and associated management/professional, support staff. Delivery team members should be identified in the Project Management Plan (PMP) and typically will include a project manager, contracting officer, owner/client representative, A-E designer, specialty consultants, construction contractor, construction manager, and peer reviewer(s).

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Contracting and Acquisition

Project Managers work closely with agency contracting officers in assembling the project delivery team. Project Managers need to have familiarity with acquisition and contracting regulations and procedures applicable to the managing agency, but only contracting officers (often referred to as the "CO") are permitted to contract for professional and construction services on behalf of the government. The selection and procurement of contracted delivery team members on federal projects are regulated by the Office of Management and Budget (OMB), and both professional and construction services are advertised in FedBizOpps.

There are several types of acquisition regulations that apply to design and construction contracts for Federal projects:

FAR - Federal Acquisition Regulations—applies to projects delivered through most "civilian" agencies.

DFARS - Defense Acquisition Regulations Supplement—applies to Department of Defense (DOD) projects. (NAVFAC manages U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps projects; AFCESA manages the planning and design phases of USAF projects; and USACE manages U.S. Army projects and the construction phase of USAF projects.)

NMCARS - Navy Marine Corps Acquisition Regulation Supplement VAAR - Veterans Affairs Acquisition Regulations—applies to projects managed

by the Veterans Affairs Administration.

Acquisition Regulations specify procedures for advertising work, selection stages of submissions, and contractor evaluation and selection criteria. The "Brooks Bill" is a procurement method that allows award to the best qualified, rather than lowest priced, offer. Advertisement, evaluation, and selection are followed by contract negotiation and award. Many agencies have developed and adopted standard forms for professional services and construction contracts.

Federal budget cycle considerations will also impact the project planning process. Depending on the scale of a project, funds for site purchase, design fees, and construction costs may be spread over several budget cycles. Contracting for each phase of work may only occur after funds are requested in agency budgets and appropriated/authorized.

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Defining Roles/Responsibilities and Team Management

Project Managers develop and define roles and responsibilities of each delivery team member through the use of Project Management Plans, agency handbooks/guidelines, Commissioning Plans, RFPs, Scopes of Work, and Contracts. Because project requirements and solutions evolve during the design phase (and even into the construction phase) a high degree of continual coordination among delivery team members is needed for an integrated team effort that will result in projects that are on time, in budget, function properly, and meet the project owner's expectations.

Project Management Practices and Standards

Successful project management of a major, complex design and construction program requires mastery of a body of knowledge (BOK) including skills and abilities in project planning, development, design, scheduling, cost management, codes and regulations, contract law, and exceptional communication and interpersonal skills. These professional skills are necessary for effective and successful project leadership and delivery team management.

Careers in Government

Federal agencies advertise all job announcements for architecture, engineering, and construction/project management positions in USAJobs. Each agency offers programs in professional development, internships and mentoring, promoting career advancement opportunities. For more information on a particular agency's programs contact a representative directly through the Participating Agencies section of the WBDG Home Page.

Information on annual salaries (by grade and step) for federal positions can be found at the Office of Personnel Management.

For additional information on careers in Project Management, visit Project Management Institute—Career Headquarters.

Major Resources

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Federal Acquisition Regulation FARSite Contracting Laboratory —Information of DOD acquisition procedures. FedBizOpps —FedBizOpps.gov is the single government point-of-entry (GPE) for

Federal government procurement opportunities over $25,000. Government buyers are able to publicize their business opportunities by posting information directly to FedBizOpps via the Internet. Through one portal—FedBizOpps (FBO)—commercial vendors seeking Federal markets for their products and services can search, monitor and retrieve opportunities solicited by the entire Federal contracting community.

Federal Agency Links

Standard Form 330, Architect-Engineer Qualifications —On December 11, 2003, Standard Form 330 (SF330) was released by the federal government. The new form, which architects and engineers use to present their qualifications and experience when seeking federal projects, replaces SF 254/255 and emphasizes qualifications-based selection for the procurement of A/E services.

USACE Project Managers Guide USAF Project Management Online Handbook VA Project Managers Handbook

Publications

Building Construction Handbook Virginia: Reston Publishing Co., 1993. CM: The Construction Management Process by James J. Adrian. Virginia: Reston

Publishing Co., 1981. CM: Developing, Marketing, and Delivering Construction Management Services

by Charles B. Thomsen. McGraw-Hill, 1981. The CM Contracting System - Fundamentals and Practices by C. Edwin

Haltenhoff. Prentice-Hall, 1998. Capstone: The History of CM Practice and Procedures by Construction

Management Association of America. McLean, VA: 2003. Construction Bidding: Strategic Pricing for Profit, 2nd Edition by Park and

Chapin. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1992. Construction Contracting: A Practical Guide to Company Management, 7th

Edition by Richard H. Clough, Glenn A. Sears, and S. Keoki Sears. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.

Construction Dictionary by National Association of Women in Construction. Arizona: 1989.

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Construction Management, a Professional Approach by Kavanagh, Muller, O'Brien. McGraw-Hill, 1978.

Construction Management: Law and Practice by Michael C. Loulakis, Jon M. Wickwire, and Thomas J. Driscoll. Wiley Law Publications, 1995.

Construction Management Standards of Practice (Fourth Edition) by Construction Management Association of America. McLean, VA: 2002.

Contract Administration Procedures by Construction Management Association of America. McLean, VA: 2001.

Contractor's Guide to Change Orders, Second Edition by Andrew M. Civitello Jr. Prentice Hall, 2002.

Guide to Federal Procurement by the American Institute of Architects. 2005. National Construction Law Manual by James Acret, Esq. BNI Publications, 1996. Outsourcing Management Functions for the Management of Federal Facilities

Commission on Engineering and Technical Systems. 2000. Professional Construction Management (Third Edition) by Donald S. Barrie and

Boyd C. Paulson. McGraw-Hill, 1992. Problem Seeking: An Architectural Programming Primer, 4th Edition by William

M. Pena and Steven A. Parshall. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.

Project Team Communication Technologies

ExtranetNews —A comprehensive listing of electronic Project Team coordination tools

Tools

Project Planning Tools (PPT) —A web-based resource that produces automated, project specific, Commissioning Plans to enable efficient planning, management, and delivery of building projects. PPT is offered by the U.S. General Services Administration's Public Buildings Service to assist public and private organizations in delivering quality projects, on time, and within budget.

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Project Planning & Developmentby the WBDG Project Management Committee

Last updated: 09-05-2006

Overview

Excellence in Project Management is achieved through effective management of a complex range of issues unique to each project. Contemporary institutions and organizations are increasingly realizing that traditional forms of management—based on the same approach to every project—cannot accommodate the ever-changing landscape of today's economic, social, and business environment.

This section of the WBDG Project Management Branch provides guidance on integrated planning and development processes to establish an owner's expectations for project scope, budget, and schedule. It also provides guidance on managing the delivery team during the planning, design, construction, and initial occupancy phases of a project.

Project Requirements

Project inception and preliminary planning require thoughtful definition of goals and needs (Project Scope); master planning to accommodate anticipated future needs; evaluation of project alternatives; identification of site requirements; funding requirements; budget authorization cycles and/or financial impacts; and project phasing.

Delivery Methods

There are many approaches to achieve successful project design and construction. These "Delivery Methods", which are driven by the project's scope, budget, and schedule, include Traditional (Design/Bid/Build), CM (also called CMc, or Construction Manager as Constructor), Design-Build, Bridging, and Lease/Build. The selection of a delivery

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method will in turn influence the Delivery Team composition, schedule, budget, and management plan.

Project Management Plans

A Project Management Plan (PMP) is commonly used to document key management parameters in a central location and is updated throughout the project focusing on recognition of changes in program planning and management of those changes. It includes definition of an owner's program goals, technical requirements, schedules, resources, budgets, and management programs.

Design Stage Management

Once a design team has been assembled (procured), a high level of owner coordination is needed to manage the entire delivery team through the project's design phases. Design management requires oversight of schedules and budgets; review of key submissions and deliverables for compliance with program goals and design objectives; verification of incorporation of stakeholder review input; verification of incorporation of construction phase functional testing requirements; and appropriate application of the owner's design standards and criteria.

Construction Stage Management

Project coordination/communication o RFIso Change order managemento Conflict resolution

Inspections Submittal reviews Schedules Payments

Building Commissioning

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Commissioning (Cx) is a systematic process of ensuring that building systems perform interactively according to the design intent and the owner's operational needs. This is achieved by documenting the owner's requirements and assuring those requirements are met throughout the entire delivery process. This involves actual verification of systems performance and integration; comprehensive operation and maintenance (O&M) documentation; and training of the operating personnel. Building Commissioning procedures may include: Commissioning Plans, Total Building Commissioning, Systems Commissioning, Pre-installation Performance Testing/Commissioning, Re-Commissioning, Retro-Commissioning, and LEED Certification.

Major Resources

Publications

AIA Handbook on Project Delivery Capstone: The History of CM Practice and Procedures by the Construction

Management Association of America. McLean, VA, 2003. Project Planning Guide by the U.S. General Services Administration.

Organizations

Building Commissioning Association Construction Management Association of America Design Build Institute of America Project Management Institute

Scheduling Software

Method123 Project Planning Kit Microsoft Project Pacific Edge Primavera Systems

Tools

Construction Waste Management Database

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Project Planning Tools (PPT) —A web-based resource that produces automated, project specific, Commissioning Plans to enable efficient planning, management, and delivery of building projects. PPT is offered by the U.S. General Services Administration's Public Buildings Service to assist public and private organizations in delivering quality projects, on time, and within budget.

Sample Construction Related Forms

Construction Phase Formso Change Request Log o Contractor's Daily Report o Request for Information (RFI) o RFI Log—Sample o Points of Contact o Preconstruction Conference—Sign In List

Construction Documents Checklistso Preconstruction Conference—Checklist and Minutes o Construction Inspection—Checklist o Design Requirements/Provisions/Considerations—Checklist

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Building Commissioningby the WBDG Project Management Committee

Last updated: 04-27-2007

Introduction

Building Commissioning is a rapidly emerging A-E-C project management practice that is being embraced by public and private organizations because of its benefits in improved project delivery results.

This section of WBDG organizes commissioning information, guidance, and resources under three broad principles, including Determine Project Performance Requirements, Plan the Commissioning Process, and Document Compliance and Acceptance. It is important to note that all three principles are applied over the life-span of a capital design and construction project, and that it takes a multi-disciplined effort involving owners, design professionals, constructors, and commissioning providers to achieve optimal results from the commissioning process.

This WBDG page provides an overview of commissioning drivers, benefits, goals, and principles and general commissioning guides, standards, and resources.

Definition

ASHRAE Guideline 0, The Commissioning Process, defines commissioning as "a quality-oriented process for achieving, verifying, and documenting that the performance of facilities, systems, and assemblies meets defined objectives and criteria". Commissioning is therefore an "umbrella" process for all the planning, delivery, verification, and managing risks to critical functions performed in, or by, facilities. Commissioning uncovers deficiencies in design or installation using peer review and field verification. Commissioning also accomplishes higher energy efficiency, environmental health, and occupant safety and improves indoor air quality. Commissioning is a quality assurance-based process that delivers preventive and predictive maintenance plans, tailored operating manuals, and training procedures. Essentially, the commissioning process formalizes review and integration of all project expectations during planning, design, construction, and occupancy phases by inspection and functional performance testing, and oversight of operator training and record documentation.

Commissioning Definitions (PDF 26 KB, 3 pgs)

Benefits

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Commissioning assists in the delivery of a project that provides a safe and healthful facility; improves energy performance; optimize energy use; reduces operating costs; ensures adequate O&M staff orientation and training; and improves installed building systems documentation.

Commissioning benefits owners' through improved energy efficiency, improved workplace performance due to higher quality environments, reduced risk from threats, and prevention of business losses. Organizations that have researched commissioning claim that owners can achieve savings in operations of $4 over the first five years of occupancy as a direct result of every $1 invested in commissioning—an excellent return on investment. Meanwhile, the cost of not commissioning is equal to the costs of correcting deficiencies plus the costs of inefficient operations. For mission-critical facilities, the cost of not commissioning can be measured by the cost of downtime, which reaches an average of $26 thousand per hour for the package shipping industry, $89.5 thousand per hour for airline reservation operations, and $6.45 million per hour for brokerage operations, according to the research firm Dataquest.

Drivers

Governmental projects commonly employ commissioning because mission critical facilities support essential public infrastructures. Corporations use commissioning on projects to prevent "down-time" that can adversely impact bottom lines and business continuity. Manufacturers use commissioning because of high levels of environmental controls needed in process manufacturing and to ensure occupational safety in hazardous settings. While projects with special performance needs require commissioning, all projects can potentially need some level of commissioning.

In addition to the performance needs of mission-critical facilities, another factor driving demand for commissioning is the desire to obtain certification through the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program. USGBC adopted the LEED standard to improve energy efficiency and environmental performance in buildings—and commissioning is a prerequisite for LEED certification. A LEED certified building might include highly efficient power and lighting systems, photovoltaic and active/passive solar technologies. From an owner's perspective, investment in such sophisticated building technologies must be accompanied by rigorous construction quality assurance and performance verification measurement, which are best provided by the commissioning process. Commissioning beyond the basic prerequisite requirement can earn an additional LEED point.

Green design helps reduce building costs while providing for a more comfortable indoor environment, research indicates. Investing in green construction pays for itself 10 times over, according to an October 2003 study prepared for a group of more than 40 California government agencies. The study, conducted by the Capital E Group at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory with input from a number of state agencies, reflects the most definitive cost-benefit analysis of green building to date.

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Commissioning Goals

Commissioning is often misinterpreted to focus solely on testing during the end of the construction phase. But commissioning is actually a collaborative process for planning, delivering, and operating buildings that work as intended. ASHRAE (The American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers) defines commissioning as "…the process of ensuring that systems are designed, installed, functionally tested, and capable of being operated and maintained to perform in conformity with the design intent… Commissioning begins with planning and includes design, construction, start-up, acceptance and training, and can be applied throughout the life of the building." This definition accurately depicts commissioning as a holistic process that spans from pre-design planning to post-construction operation and can be thought of as a checks-and-balances system. Accordingly, the goals of commissioning are to:

1. Define and document requirements clearly at the outset of each phase and update through the process

2. Verify and document compliance at each completion level3. Establish and document commissioning process tasks for subsequent phase

delivery team members4. Deliver buildings and construction projects that meet the owner's needs, at the

time of completion5. Verify that operation and maintenance personnel and occupants are properly

trained6. Maintain facility performance across its life cycle

Commissioning Principles

Regardless of the extent of commissioning that is determined as appropriate for a project (Number or complexity of systems commissioned) and the approach utilized (Independent CA, A-E/CA, CM/CA or Owner/CA), there are three overarching principles in the Commissioning Process that begin at project inception and continue through Occupancy and Operations.

Determine Project Performance Requirements

Every project goes through Pre-Design and Design Stages that establish an owner's needs, goals, scope, and design solutions for a proposed project. Proposed designs and constructed work can only be evaluated against objective criteria and measures that are embodied in well-documented project requirements. Project development is an "iterative" process where building performance decisions are refined to successive levels of detail over the course of project delivery. Key commissioning activities supporting this principle include:

Understand Needs of Special Building Types Define Threats, Risks, and Consequences

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Determine Key Program Goals and Objectives Recognize Systems Criticality to Achieving Goals Conduct Key Commissioning Programming Activities

Plan the Commissioning Process

Commissioning involves the systematic process of planning delivery team member roles and responsibilities and tasks for all project phases and activities, including review and acceptance procedures, documentation requirements, development and approval of Commissioning Plans, Commissioning Schedules, and Testing and Inspection plans. Planning the Commissioning Process includes identification of special testing needs for unique or innovative assemblies and measures that will assure adequate O&M Training. Key commissioning activities supporting this principle include:

Establish Goals for Quality, Efficiency, and Functionality Establish a Commissioning Approach and Scope Establish Commissioning Budgets Establish Commissioning Plans Establish Commissioning Schedules Establish Testing and Inspection Plans Develop Commissioning Specifications Determine Special Testing Needs Establish Re-Commissioning Plans

Document Compliance and Acceptance

Commissioning serves as the historical record of an owner's expectations for project performance throughout the project delivery process. The purpose of commissioning documenting is to record the "Why, How, and What" of key delivery team decisions throughout the planning and delivery process. Commissioning documents the establishment of standards of performance for building systems, and verifies that designed and constructed work meets those standards. Key commissioning activities supporting Document Compliance and Acceptance include:

Document all Levels of Project Development and Acceptance Emphasize Inspection, Testing, and Training on Commissioned Systems Compile Key Commissioning Documentation

Application

Currently, no building code requirements exist at a national level for Building Commissioning. However, all new or renovation building programs can benefit from some level of commissioning, depending on mission and systems criticality. Recent case studies conducted in private sector facilities have shown that the Building Commissioning Process can improve new building energy performance by 8% to 30%. Similar results can be expected in other facilities. For complex building types with highly

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integrated building systems, formal Building Commissioning Processes will prove most valuable. Mission Critical Facilities have special needs for protecting their mission continuity and occupants.

Some governmental agencies, including GSA, NAVFAC, and USACE have adopted formal requirements, standards or criteria for commissioning of their capital construction projects. However, the extent of commissioning utilized will depend on project funds available.

Industry Guidelines

This section of the Whole Building Design Guide is based primarily on the Commissioning Process recommended in ASHRAE Guideline 0 - 2005. It is highly recommended that project teams who employ the Building Commissioning Process should follow the process outlined in ASHRAE Guideline 0. Guideline 0 has been adopted by both ASHRAE and NIBS and does not focus upon specific systems or assemblies, but presents a standard process that can be followed to commission any building system that may be critical to the function of a project. The NIBS Total Building Commissioning Program is currently working with industry organizations to develop commissioning guidelines for various systems and assemblies.

NIBS Guideline 3 (Draft Version)—Total Building Commissioning (TBC) Process

Conclusion

The commissioning process can be applied in a variety of approaches focusing on building systems/assemblies and can be customized to suit project needs. But regardless of commissioning approach and system focus, it always requires clear definition of performance expectations, rigor in planning and execution, and thorough project testing, operational training, and documentation.

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Relevant Codes and Standards

ASHRAE Guideline 0-2005: The Commissioning Process —the industry-accepted Commissioning Guideline.

NIBS Guideline 3-2006: Exterior Enclosure Technical Requirements for the Commissioning Process, National Institute of Building Sciences, 2006.

The Building Commissioning Guide , U.S. General Services Administration, 2005.

Additional Resources

Agencies

California Commissioning Collaborative —a group of government, utility, and building-services professionals committed to developing and promoting commissioning practices in California

Commissioning For Better Buildings in Oregon by Oregon Office of Energy / PECI, 1997. New construction overview, benefits, process and case studies. 44 pp.

Energy Design Resources —Sponsored by Pacific Gas and Electric Company, San Diego Gas & Electric, Southern California Edison, and Southern California Gas.

Federal Energy Management Program —Offers programs and resources for energy efficiency in operation of federal facilities.

Oregon Office of Energy —Benefits of Commissioning, case study, tool kit of new and existing commissioning application materials, and the full text of Commissioning for Better Buildings in Oregon

Portland Energy Conservation, Inc.

Organizations

ASHRAE —A leading organization in the development of standardized commissioning guidelines

Building Commissioning Association —A leading professional association for membership and certification of building commissioning practitioners

Commissioning Specialist's Association (UK) U.S. Green Building Council

Publications

Building Commissioning: The Key to Quality Assurance (PDF 1 MB) U.S. Department of Energy Rebuild America Guide Series, 1998. Commissioning retrofits and existing buildings: overview, process, and case studies. 77 pp, PECI.

The Building Commissioning Handbook 2nd Edition , by John A. Heinz, PE and Richard B. Casault, PE. Alexandria, VA: APPA: The Association of Higher Education Facilities Officers, Phone: (703) 684-1446, ISBN: 1-890956-28-7.

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Commissioning Four New Science Laboratory Buildings (U. of WA) by Bonneville Power Admin. / Phoebe Caner, Portland Energy Conservation Inc., 1997. Commissioning case studies with detailed "lessons learned" information. ~70 pp. Phone: (503) 230-7334.

Commissioning Guide by Public Works Canada, Western Region. 1993. Phone: (403) 497-3770.

Commissioning Guidelines, Instructions for Architects and Engineers by State of Washington, Dept. of General Administration, Division of Engineering & Architectural Services, 1995. Phone: (360) 902-7272.

The Cost-Effectiveness of Commercial-Buildings Commissioning: A Meta- Analysis of Energy and Non-Energy Impacts in Existing Buildings and New Construction in the United States by Evan Mills, Norman Bourassa and Mary Ann Piette of Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Hannah Friedman and Tudi Haasl of Portland Energy Conservation Inc., Tehesia Powell and David Claridge of Energy Systems Laboratory, Texas A&M University. December 2004.

Guidelines for Incorporating Commissioning into Energy Savings Performance Contracts PECI, October 2000.

A Practical Guide for Commissioning Existing Buildings by Tudi Haasl of Portland Energy Conservation Inc. and Terry Sharp of Oak Ridge National Laboratory. April 1999.

What Commissioning Can Do For Your Building? PECI, 1997. Derived from a database of 175 case studies of commissioning of new construction, equipment replacements, and upgrades in existing facilities. 12 pp. Phone: (503) 248-4636.

Training and Other Resources

ASHRAE —offers an ongoing series of commissioning workshops Building Commissioning Association NCBC —a national commissioning conference incorporating integrated research,

development, initial deployment, and information on building commissioning Portland Energy Conservation, Inc. (PECI) —Provides workshop announcements

and conference information, E-mail: peci@peci.org

Tools

Project Planning Tools (PPT) —A web-based resource that produces automated, project specific, Commissioning Plans to enable efficient planning, management, and delivery of building projects. PPT is offered by the U.S. General Services Administration's Public Buildings Service to assist public and private organizations in delivering quality projects, on time, and within budget.

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Determine Project Performance Requirementsby the WBDG Project Management Committee

Last updated: 02-28-2006

Introduction

A proposed building's scope, schedule, and budget are developed in Pre-Design Stage programming documents. In this stage, the level of project and/or systems criticality must also be determined, based on an owner's requirements and risk management strategy for the activities and mission housed in a building. It is essential that the Pre-Design Stage programming documents also include Quality Assurance strategies and budgets to verify that delivered systems and assemblies meet performance expectations. The Commissioning Process involves a systematic means of verifying that the critical systems are installed, functioning, and maintained in optimal condition. In organizations with in-house planning staffs, the commissioning program is initially scoped at the same time that the owner's team determines initial project performance requirements. In organizations without an in-house planning staff, a commissioning provider with experience in the building type can be instrumental in determining initial requirements and performance objectives.

This WBDG page provides guidance and resources on determining commissioning needs and requirements.

Recommendations

Understand Needs of Special Building Types

The focus for commissioning varies based on the purpose of the building. Health care facilities are highly sensitive to temperature and relative humidity, as are museums. Laboratories require fume hoods to operate correctly, while data centers demand reliable power. Governmental facilities have special requirements for access control, internal security, and communication technology that are essential to their function. Sustainable buildings with highly energy efficient mechanical systems must be designed, constructed, and operated properly to achieve their projected energy savings.

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Virtually any building project will have building systems; assemblies or features that could benefit from commissioning. To date, commissioning has been used most often on the following building types:

Auditoriums Call centers Classified sites Colleges and universities Co-location sites Command and control centers Data centers/computer rooms Health care facilities High rises Laboratories Libraries Mail processing centers Munitions plants and storage Museums Network operation centers Optic transport facilities Process manufacturing facilities Large retail facilities Storage and distribution centers Switch facilities Telecommunications and Microwave/radio tower facilities Trading floors Web-hosting telecom sites Zero/Low energy building

Determine Key Program Goals and Objectives

Commissioning of mission-critical facilities is often focused on ensuring high levels of reliability, power quality, maintainability, and flexibility—as well as other design objectives and building system attributes. Programming for commissioning requires going beyond the simple allocation of space, enclosure, finish, and equipment to examine business goals and facility mission as determinants of its programming goals and objectives. Design objectives and functional characteristics that need commissioning to verify building performance may include:

Accessibility 24x7 facility reliability Adaptability Building pressurization control Energy efficiency goals Flexibility in audio visual systems Functionality

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Maintainability Redundant and resilient HVAC systems for climate control Reliability Scalability Security/Safety Serviceability Sophisticated detection and fire suppression systems Space and organizational process functionality Structured raceways for flexible cabling installations Sustainability Survivability

Define Threats, Risks, and Consequences

In order to determine performance expectations and measures, the project team must have a clear understanding of overall key business objectives. The project owner must guide the project team in establishing priorities by which project success will be measured. It is important for the owner, or qualified experts to define business risks, occupant threats and risks, hazards, and consequences and impacts that a system failure may have on the overall mission performance of a facility.

Recognize Systems Criticality to Achieving Goals

System criticality, and the need for its performance verification through commissioning, is determined by examining how each system, assembly, or building feature supports key program goals and facility mission. For example, buildings with a high risk of airborne contamination must be designed for enhanced occupant safety measures. This may necessitate high-performance HVAC system design that provides constant airflow direction and pressure differentials between interior spaces—under all operating conditions. This type of building functionality can only be achieved through systems based planning, design, construction quality assurance, and testing and verification of the operating systems under various conditions.

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The GSA Program Goals Matrix in Facilities Standards for Public Buildings, P-100 indicates critical Program-System relationships that must be addressed within Building Systems Programming Directives to designers

Another example is the need for Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) equipment in mission-critical facilities. Requirements for these buildings may be as stringent as 99.999 percent power reliability, which means just five minutes of unscheduled downtime per year. By comparison, typical utility reliability is 99 percent. Commissioning of mission-critical power systems, therefore, focuses on ensuring high levels of reliability as well as power quality. A power interruption of only 8.83 milliseconds can shut down or even damage computers.

Routine quality assurance is needed for all building components. Usually the decision to commission specific building systems is made during the Design Development phase of a project, but may also occur in concept design or Construction Documents as project performance requirements and Design Intent Documentation evolves.

Conduct Key Commissioning Programming Activities

Many design and construction programs execute careful planning and programming that is embodied and encompassed in Master Plans, Building Engineering Reports, Special Studies, Feasibility Studies, and Program Development Studies. Yet, some building programs execute planning and programming only minimally. For commissioning to be successful, programming documentation must summarize or include the Owner's Project Requirements (OPR) that are both general and specific to critical requirements. The OPR

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is a summary of critical planning and programming requirements and owner expectations that is updated by the commissioning team as the project evolves. If program or mission elements change during the span of project delivery, the OPR should be updated to reflect changes in building performance requirements. ASHRAE Guideline 0 - 2005 (Annex J) provides a general format for developing an Owner's Project Requirements (OPR) which includes:

Project schedule and budget Commissioning scope and budget Project documentation requirements (submissions and formats) Owner directives Restrictions and limitations User requirements Occupancy requirements and schedules Training requirements for owner's personnel Warranty requirements Benchmarking requirements Operations and Maintenance criteria Equipment and systems maintainability requirements Quality requirements for materials and construction Allowable tolerances for facility systems operations Energy efficiency goals Environmental and sustainability goals Community requirements Adaptability for future facility changes and expansion Systems integration requirements Health, hygiene, and indoor environmental requirements Acoustical requirements Vibration requirements Seismic requirements Accessibility requirements Security requirements Aesthetics requirements Constructability requirements Communications requirements Applicable codes and standards

Note: This is a general list of programming documentation that will vary by project depending on scope, size, complexity, and budget.

The Basis of Design (BOD) is a narrative and analytical documentation prepared by the design A-E along with design submissions to explain how the Owner's Project Requirements (OPR) are met by the proposed design. It describes the technical approach used for systems selections, integration, and sequence of operations, focusing on design features critical to overall building performance. An OPR is developed for an owner/user audience while the BOD is typically developed in more technical terms.

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Commissioning Specifications Requirements are developed to outline commissioned systems and equipment performance benchmarks, system integration details, submittal requirements for commissioned systems, initial construction contractor inspection procedures, tests, start-up, turnover procedures, owner training, and final documentation requirements.

Systems Manual Requirements—When determining commissioning requirements, it is also important to define documentation needs that will facilitate and support operation of commissioned systems. O&M Manuals are typically prepared by the construction contractor at the turn-over phase of a project, but are often inadequate to fully explain how a complex facility should be operated. ASHRAE GL-0 recommends that a "Systems Manual", containing commissioning and commissioning documentation be prepared for commissioned buildings. Systems Manuals should provide all the information needed to understand, operate, and maintain the systems and assemblies. The Systems Manual should be the repository of information on updates and corrections to systems and assemblies as they occur during the Occupancy and Operations Phase. A best practice is to develop a Systems Manual Outline simultaneous with selection, design, and specification of the commissioned systems.

Training Requirements—An important element in the commissioning process is ensuring that O&M personnel are properly trained in operation, care, adjustment, and required maintenance of commissioned systems and equipment. O&M personnel must be trained in the knowledge and skills needed to operate a facility in conformance with its design intent. Training needs must be addressed in the early planning stage to inform operating personnel about staffing budgets and hiring, qualifications, O&M contracts planning and procurement, construction contract training specification development and commissioning authority contract responsibilities.

Some owner groups are beginning to task commissioning authorities with operating facilities for up to one year after turn-over to conduct seasonal testing and systems optimization, allowing for an overlap in O&M contract start-up and training.

Emerging Issues

Increased Emphasis on Occupant Security/Security

In the post 9/11 environment, providing occupant safety to visitors and workers in public facilities has been a driving force to deliver and commission facilities with enhanced building safety measures. This trend is not expected to decrease, but will likely increase the standard of care necessary in the design and operation of all forms of public and corporate buildings.

Evolving Certification Programs and Standards

Building projects are increasingly requiring performance certifications such as LEED, SPIRIT (USACE), Energy Star, OSHA, and others. The project team must discuss and

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decide on certification requirements in planning and design phases so that a commissioning for certifications can be included in the OPR and Commissioning Plans. USGBC is developing additional certification standards for Existing Buildings, Interiors, and Version NC 3.0 for New Buildings.

Continuous Commissioning

The benefits of Retro-Commissioning, Continuous Commissioning, and Systems Optimization are well documented in annual energy savings in studies conducted by many institutions, such as Texas A&M Energy Systems Lab. Fewer studies are available to demonstrate the cost benefits of commissioning new construction. However, threats and risks to operational/business continuity, occupant safety, and health and systems degradation and inefficiency often warrant the added expense of utilizing the Commissioning Process.

Relevant Codes and Standards

ASHRAE Guideline 0 - 2005: The Commissioning Process —The industry accepted model Commissioning Guide

Additional Resources

GSA Building Commissioning Guide GSA Project Planning Guide Portland Energy Conservation, Inc. Raised Access Floor Design Guide (GSA to publish in summer 2005)

Organizations

Building Commissioning Association (BCxA) —A leading professional association for membership and certification of building commissioning practitioners

National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB) —Certification program and manuals

Portland Energy Conservation, Inc.

Tools

Project Planning Tools (PPT) —A web-based resource that produces automated, project specific, Commissioning Plans to enable efficient planning, management, and delivery of building projects. PPT is offered by the U.S. General Services Administration's Public Buildings Service to assist public and private organizations in delivering quality projects, on time, and within budget.

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Document Compliance and Acceptanceby the WBDG Project Management Committee

Last updated: 02-27-2007

Introduction

It is often said that commissioning is all about good project documentation. The purpose of commissioning documenting is to record the standards of performance for building systems, and to verify that what is designed and constructed meets those standards. Commissioning is a team effort to document the continuity of the project as it moves from one project phase to the next. In the Planning and Development phase of a project, planning and programming documents begin to define an owner's requirements for building performance. When the entire project delivery process is documented in a consistent manner, an historical perspective is created that explains the iterative process of determining the agreed-to project requirements at each step of the development process. Commissioning documentation becomes the road map for the success criteria to be met by facilities that are put in service.

At post-occupancy, commissioning documentation becomes the benchmark to ensure that the building can be maintained, retuned, or renovated to meet future needs. It documents the Owner's Project Requirements (OPR) in the beginning of the project and records compliance, acceptance, and operations throughout the facility's life.

This WBDG page provides information on common commissioning documentation practices and resources related to commissioning specific systems and assemblies.

Recommendations

Document all Levels of Project Development and Acceptance

Requiring documentation of results and findings of the commissioning process at all project delivery stages and phases provides a record of the benefits received from commissioning. It also provides documentation to be used in the future to troubleshoot problems and optimize operating strategies. Decision making is an "iterative" process made over the course of a project through analysis of options, selection of alternatives, refinement of application, and integration of the design components. As each decision is made, commissioning documentation provides the basis for evaluation and acceptance to proceed to the next development level.

Emphasize Inspection, Testing, and Training on Commissioned Systems

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An essential element of the commissioning process is field verification inspection and testing of commissioned systems, assemblies, and features. The Commissioning Authority coordinates and witnesses commissioned systems verification tests to verify that the systems operate in accordance with the design intent. The Commissioning Authority may be tasked with conducting special testing of commissioned systems beyond what is required in specification requirements. Deficiencies discovered during verification testing are documented and logged by the Commissioning Authority in corrective-action reports. Retesting specific systems and/or system components takes place once the respective deficiencies discovered during the first test are resolved.

A draft set of system readiness checklists (SRCs) and verification test procedures (VTPs) is included in the commissioning specification to communicate to the bidding contractor the level of rigor that can be expected during the testing phase of the commissioning process. The SRCs are detailed checklists for documenting that each system is prepared for testing. The VTPs are a detailed set of instructions and acceptable results for thoroughly testing each system.

During functional performance testing and operator training, the commissioning team moves to the forefront. The team verifies the performance of building systems based on detailed test procedures developed by the commissioning team and determines the most efficient equipment settings. Testing must be performed not only in normal operating modes but also under all possible circumstances and sequences of operation, with real-life conditions simulated as much as possible. Further, integrated systems testing should examine systems as a whole in order to evaluate overall design and compatibility.

The team also supervises operations staff training on commissioned systems and equipment, and organizes warranty information. Ultimately, the team prepares extensive documentation on systems, including benchmarks for energy use and equipment efficiencies, seasonal operational issues, start-up and shutdown procedures, diagnostic tools, and guidelines for energy accounting.

Compile Key Commissioning Documentation

Commissioning documentation is generated throughout the project delivery process, and key documentation such as OPR, BOD, Cx Plans, schedules, and inspections and test results are included in a Commissioning Report. Commissioning documentation that will be included in the Commissioning Report is normally shown in a table format with responsibilities of individual team members who will prepare, review, and accept the results and documentation. A partial list and descriptions of key commissioning documentation includes:

Owner's Project Requirements (OPR)—For commissioning to be successful programming documentation must summarize the OPR that is both general and specific to critical requirements. The OPR is a summary of critical planning and programming requirements and owner expectations that is updated by the commissioning team as the project evolves. If program or mission elements

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change during the span of project delivery, the OPR should be updated to reflect changes in building performance requirements.

Basis of Design (BOD)—The BOD is a narrative and analytical documentation prepared by the design A-E along with design submissions to explain how the Owner's Project Requirements are met by the proposed design. It describes the technical approach used for systems selections, integration, and sequence of operations, focusing on design features critical to overall building performance. An OPR is developed for an owner/user audience while the BOD is typically developed in more technical terms.

Design Review Comments—Comprehensive reviews targeted to critical systems at all design phase submissions are an important aspect of commissioning documentation. Reviews for code compliance and constructability will pertain all systems of all projects, while commissioning reviews are focused to commissioned systems, equipment, and building assemblies and building components they are interfaced with.

Certification Documentation—Owners sometimes require their facilities to achieve certifications such as Energy Star, LEED, USACE Spirit, or governmental agency testing and inspection. When such performance certifications are required as part of a design or construction contract, they become critical to an owner's project expectations and may be included as commissionionable elements.

Submittal Review Comments—Concurrent with the design team and owner review, a designated commissioning team member reviews products and systems submittals for compliance with the Owner's Project Requirements. Special attention should be given to substitutions and proposed deviations from the contract documents and Basis of Design documentation. Submittal review comments on commissioned systems will often generate issues for coordination between integrated systems, equipment, and technologies.

Inspection Reports—Commissioning Inspection Reports should be prepared regularly to document progress of the work on commissioned building systems. These reports will normally produce functional issues, integration issues or operational issues that are then captured in Issues Logs for discussion and clarification of performance expectations, integration issues, or operational issues. The construction delivery team (and owner's representative (CM), if applicable) will also prepare inspection reports pertaining to all building systems and components.

Test Data Reports—Test Data reports contain results of the Testing and Inspection Plans and include Pre-Functional Test (PFT) reports, Functional Test Reports (FTP), and other test results specified for the commissioned systems.

Issue Logs and Reports—Issues Logs and Reports are a formal and ongoing record of problems or concerns-and their resolution- that have been raised by members of the Commissioning Team during the course of the Commissioning Process. Issues Logs should be included in Commissioning Reports because, along with minutes, design review comments, and Inspection Reports, they explain the thought process and rationale for key decisions in the commissioning process.

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Commissioning Reports—The commissioning requirements, process, documentation, and findings are incorporated in a Commissioning Report that accompanies the construction contractor's turn-over documentation. ASHRAE Guideline-0 recommends that the Commissioning Report be included with O&M manuals in a Systems Manual. Commissioning Report contents should be clearly defined in Commissioning Plans and include a narrative of the commissioning process, the design intent document, design review comments—and resolution, meeting minutes from all commissioning-related meetings, corrective action reports, blank verification test reports for future use, completed training forms, completed system readiness checklists, and tests and inspection reports for commissioned systems, equipment, assemblies, and building features.

Systems Manuals—The Commissioning Authority reviews the project operations and maintenance (O&M) manuals to verify that commissioned systems and equipment information and documentation are included. The Commissioning Authority also reviews the as-built drawings, in particular the sequences of operations documentation for automated systems that are commissioned, to verify that the documents turned over to the owner are accurate and reflect what was installed and tested. ASHRAE Guideline-0 recommends that O&M manuals, submittals, as-built drawings, specifications, certifications, training documents and commissioning documentation be organized by building systems in a "Systems Manuals" for ease of access and use by building management staff. Some owners find it is efficient to have the Commissioning Authority compile Systems Manuals for all systems—both commissioned and non-commissioned.

O&M Training Documentation—During the Design Phase, training requirements for operations and maintenance personnel and occupants must be identified relative to commissioned systems, building features, and equipment. It is critical that the operations and maintenance personnel have the knowledge and skills required to operate a facility in accordance with the owner's functional plan and the designed intent.

Post Seasonal Testing—Due to weather conditions, not all systems can be tested at or near full load during the construction phase. For example, testing a boiler system might be difficult in the summer and testing a chiller and cooling tower might be difficult in the winter. The performance and testing of active solar systems is also dependent on seasonal conditions. Commissioning plans should therefore provide for off-season testing to allow testing, balancing, and optimization of integrated systems under the best conditions.

TABLE D-1 Documentation Matrix Phase

Document Input By Provided By

Reviewed / Approved

By

Used By Notes

Pre-DesignOwner's Project Requirements

O&M, Users, Capital Projects, Design Team

CA or Designer

OwnerCA, Design Team

Design Team may not be hired yet.

Commissioning Plan

Owner, Design Team, CA

CA Owner CA, Owner, Design Team

Design Team may not be hired yet.

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Systems Manual Outline

O&M, CAOwner or CA

Owner Design TeamMay be included in OPR

Training Requirements Outline

O&M, Users, CA, Design Team

Owner or CA

Owner Design TeamMay be included in OPR

Issues Log CA CA N/ACA, Design Team

May be only format at this phase

Issues Report CA CA OwnerDesign Team, Owner

 

Pre-Design Phase Commissioning Process Report

CA CA Owner OwnerClose of Phase report

Design

Owner's Project Requirements Update

O&M, Users, Capital Projects, Design Team

CA or Designer

OwnerCA, Design Team

 

Basis Of Design Design TeamDesign Team

Owner, CADesign Team, CA

 

Construction Specifications for Commissioning

Design Team, CA, Owner

Design Team or CA

OwnerContractors, CA, Design Team

May also be provided by Project Manager / Owner's Rep.

Systems Manual Outline-Expanded

Design Team, CA, O&M, Contractor

Design Team or CA

Owner, CADesign Team, Contractor

Contractor may not be hired yet.

Training Requirements In Specifications

O&M, Users, CA, Design Team

Owner or CA

Owner Design TeamContractor may not be hired yet.

Design Review Comments

CA CA Owner Design Team  

Issues Log CA CA N/ACA, Design Team

 

Issues Report CA CA OwnerDesign Team, Owner

 

Design Phase Commissioning Process Report

CA CA Owner OwnerClose of Phase report

ConstructionOwner's Project Requirements Update

O&M, Users, Capital Projects, Design Team

CA or Designer

OwnerCA, Design Team, Contractors

 

Basis of Design Update

Design Team Design Team

CA, Owner Design Team, CA

 

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Commissioning Plan Update

Design Team, CA, Owner, Contractor

CA

CA, Owner, Design Team, Contractor

CA, Owner, Design Team, Contractors

 

Submittal Review Comments

CADesign Team

Design Team Contractor  

ASHRAE GL-0 Table D-1 Documentation Matrix

Emerging Issues

Building Information Models (BIM)

Building Information Models (BIM) based on NIBS International Alliance for Interoperability (IAI) Industry Foundation Classes (IFC) is an emerging technology that enables accumulation and management of facility life-cycle information. IFC-BIM lets architects, engineers, construction managers, facility operators, and facility manager's work with (and store for down-stream users) tangible components such as walls and furniture, and also concepts such as activities, spaces, and costs. OGC's Geography Markup Language (GML) facilitates interoperability for users of geospatial technologies such as geographic information systems (GIS), global positioning systems (GPS), aerial and satellite imaging, location services, and sensor webs. BIM is a simple concept—a master, intelligent data model, resulting in an as-built database that can be readily handed over to the building operator upon completion of commissioning. The BIM standard could someday integrate CAD data with product specifications, submittals, shop drawings, project records, as-built documentation and operations information, making printed O&M and Systems manuals virtually obsolete. The technology has moved forward, but the industry's ability to absorb these IT advances has yet to change. Clearly, if BIM offers a genuine solution to reduce errors and rework, while improving building operations, it will eventually change the way all project team members develop and share information over facility life-cycle phases.

Construction Specification Institute (CSI)

The Construction Specification Institute (CSI) has assigned commissioning to MasterFormat™ section number 01 91 00. The commissioning specification details specific responsibilities of the construction contractor and subcontractors for commissioning procedures, checklists, tests, and documentation. The role of an independent commissioning authority is to witness, verify, document, and recommend owner acceptance of the specified inspections and tests. As commissioning becomes a routine quality assurance process on projects, CSI language for commissioning will continue to evolve to reflect standard industry practices.

Relevant Codes and Standards

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THE only standard is NIBS/ASHRAE Guidelines. The Cx process does not relieve the contractor and or A/E of record of any obligation, code, or standard that must be achieved and maintained.

Model Commissioning Plan and Guide Specifications , Version 2.05, PECI. Feb. 1998.—Available from PECI, 921 SW Washington, Suite 312, Portland, Oregon 97205; Phone (503) 248-4636; Fax (503) 295-0820; E-mail peci@peci.org

Procedural Standards for Buildings Systems Commissioning —Available from the National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB)

Additional Resources

Organizationss

Associated Air Balance Council (Primarily for how the TAB fits into the commissioning process)—AABC National Headquarters, Phone: (202) 737-0202.

Building Commissioning Association (BCxA) International Alliance for Interoperability North America (IAI-NA) —A Council

of the National Institute of Building Sciences National Environmental Balancing Bureau (NEBB) —Certification program and

manuals. 8575 Grovemont Circle, Gaithersburg, MD, 20877. Phone: (301) 977-9589.

Portland Energy Conservation, Inc. Texas A&M Energy Systems Lab —Retro-commissioning process and software,

for sale.

Publications

Commissioning Smoke Management Systems, ASHRAE Guideline 5-1994 —ASHRAE Publications Dept., 1791 Tullie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329.

Continuous Commissioning Guidebook for Federal Energy Managers , Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP), October 2002.

The HVAC Commissioning Process - ASHRAE Guideline 1, 1996 . ASHRAE, 1791 Tullie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329.

NASA Reliability Centered Maintenance Guide for Facilities and Collateral Equipment

Procedural Standards for Building Systems Commissioning Standard HVAC Control Systems Commissioning and Quality Verification User

Guide, Engineering Research Laboratories, 1994. Facilities Engineering Applications Program, U.S. Army Engineering and Housing Support Center, Ft. Belvoir, VA 22060-5516. FEAP-UG-GE-94/20.

Thermal Energy Storage (TES) Commissioning Guidelines, California Institute for Energy Efficiency, San Diego State University, 1991. San Diego State University, Energy Engineering Institute, San Diego, CA 92182.

UFGS 02 62 16 Commissioning and Demonstration for Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE) Systems

UFGS 23 08 00.00 10 Commissioning of HVAC Systems

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Tools

Project Planning Tools (PPT) —A web-based resource that produces automated, project specific, Commissioning Plans to enable efficient planning, management, and delivery of building projects. PPT is offered by the U.S. General Services Administration's Public Buildings Service to assist public and private organizations in delivering quality projects, on time, and within budget.

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Related Resource Pages Building Information Models (BIM) Energy Analysis Tools Energy Codes and Standards Facility Performance Evaluation (FPE) Indoor Air Quality and Mold Prevention of the Building Envelope

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Plan the Commissioning Processby the WBDG Project Management Committee

Last updated: 06-18-2007

Introduction

Should an independent Commissioning Authority be retained, and if so, when? How will the commissioned systems be tested, inspected, and documented? How much should be budgeted for commissioning and special testing services? Once a project delivery team has determined critical project goals and requirements, these questions are answered by planning the commissioning process. This page is about incorporating a project's performance requirements into a plan that defines the commissioning scope, process, responsibilities, budget, and documentation requirements.

This WBDG page provides information on common commissioning planning practices and related resources.

Recommendations

Establish Goals for Quality, Efficiency, and Functionality

The commissioning planning process should be accomplished at the same time that a project team Determines Project Performance Requirements. The level and focus of commissioning efforts should be appropriate to a project's size, complexity, its housed mission, and an owner's risk management strategy. After the project delivery team has determined the essential project performance requirements, goals for project quality, efficiency, and functionality can then be established, and a commissioning approach and scope can be developed.

Establish a Commissioning Approach and Scope

There are numerous ways to assemble and structure a commissioning team. A different team member, including owner representatives, contracted program managers, or design professionals may lead the commissioning effort at each stage of project delivery, but the overall process, principles, and objectives are constant.

The question of who should be responsible for planning and overseeing the Building Commissioning Process and specific commissioning activities will depend on the needs of each project and is somewhat driven by budget and expertise available within the project delivery team. Regardless of where the responsibility for building commissioning lies, it is important that the commissioning authority maintain a position of impartiality to

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assure there is no conflict of interest. Common approaches to structuring commissioning roles and responsibilities include:

A/E as Commissioning Authority (CA)—while not typical, many architectural and engineering firms now offer building commissioning as Additional Services to the basic design contract.

Construction Manager (CM) as Commissioning Authority)—This commissioning approach can be cost-effective and work well when the CM is independent of the contractor's team and has the needed technical experience on board. Many owner groups use "Not-at-Risk" CMs who act as an owner's agent to manage schedule, cost, and quality. In some cases, the CM may hire the Commissioning Authority as a subcontractor, resulting in no additional contract management responsibility by the Owner.

Independent Agent as Commissioning Authority—to date, this is the most common approach to implementing the Building Commissioning Process. Many professional services engineering firms are beginning to specialize in providing building commissioning. The criteria for a good CA is a balance of lead engineering design experience with extensive field experience in installing and testing mechanical and electrical equipment and systems. The CA will typically stress flexibility in design so that performance can be verified.

Since many owners' groups typically utilize A-E's and "not-at-risk" CMs for quality assurance, commissioning responsibilities and benefits of third-party commissioning services must be determined for each project. NIBS Guideline 3-2006 Exterior Enclosure Technical Requirements for the Commissioning Process provides, "The Commissioning Process does not impinge upon the competency, authority, or responsibility of licensed professionals nor upon the obligations between Owners, Design Professionals or Contractors contained in standardized contract forms or project-specific contracts. The Commissioning Process structures the design and construction process to increase quality. It does not require the Owner to employ a specific outside expert as the Commissioning Authority and nothing would prevent the Owner from selecting the project design or construction firm to do commissioning, if the CA is properly qualified and positioned outside the specific project team within the firm. The level of effort of the Commissioning Process and size of the Commissioning Team for a given building can be strongly influenced by such factors as the owner's preferred level of building quality, the level of risk the owner will accept, as well as building size, type, and complexity".

Commissioning requires the active participation of the A/E, the Building Contractor, a Commissioning Agent, and the Owner. The construction contractor is typically tasked with executing commissioning tests and inspections, with planning, defining commissioning procedures, coordination, witnessing, verification tasked to the Commissioning Agent.

On larger projects, it may be appropriate to employ a Commissioning Authority under two separate contracts, one for commissioning the Planning (Pre-Design) and Design stages and another for planning and executing Construction stage commissioning—after

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the full extent of systems commissioning and on-site technical services is determined. The GSA Building Commissioning Guide includes a sample Scope of Commissioning Services suitable for use on public agency projects.

Establish Commissioning Budgets

Commissioning costs can range widely and are dependent upon many factors including a building's size, complexity, and whether the project consists of building renovation, modernization, or new construction and the scope of commissioning services provided. In general, the cost of commissioning new buildings range from 0.5 percent of the total construction cost for relatively simple projects such as office buildings to 1.5 for complex laboratories and medical facilities1. Additional information on Building Commissioning can be found in PECI, New Construction Commissioning Costs, 2/14/2002. For an existing building, the cost of commissioning can range from 3.0 to 5.0 percent of the total operating cost. A good rule of thumb for systems-based commissioning budgeting is between 2 and 4% of the construction cost of each system being commissioned.

Key factors that can have a direct impact in developing a commissioning budget include:

When the commissioning process starts (during design, construction, or post-construction)

The number and complexity of systems to be commissioned Complexity of the systems The level of detail required during the commissioning process (Does it include

documenting and witnessing all equipment start-up, verification tests, spot checking the balancing report, etc.?)

Deliverables (design intent document, number of design reviews, commissioning plan, O&M manual review, final report, etc.)

Allocation of costs (Will the budget allow for increased design fee, increased contractor bids, training time for O&M personnel, the commissioning consultant's fee, etc.?)

Type of project (design-build, plan and spec, retrofit, etc.)

Note: Some utilities now have programs offering incentives/rebates for owners that may offset costs for commission or re-commission of facilities.

Establish Commissioning Plans

A written Commissioning Plan is essential to all commissioned projects and allows all project participants to anticipate and plan for commissioning requirements and milestones. The plan is first developed in the Pre-design phase as a Design Phase Commissioning Plan and is updated at or near design completion and released as a Construction Phase Commissioning Plan. During the Pre-Design phase, the commissioning plan focuses on assuring the owner's performance requirements are incorporated and properly integrated in the prepared and accepted construction documents. Details of systems teats and procedures, assembly specific checklists, and

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testing and documentation responsibilities are incorporated in Construction Phase Commissioning Plans. Commissioning Plans typically include the following sections or contents:

General Project Information Overview and Scope of the Project Commissioning Commissioning Protocols and Communications Commissioning Process, including Team Responsibilities Commissioning Schedule Commissioning Documentation Appendices

o Testing and Inspection Planso Pre-Functional and Functional Test Procedureso Construction Checklistso Issues Logs

Establish Commissioning Schedules

The team works closely with contractors to integrate commissioning activities into the overall construction schedule, to keep commissioning activities off the critical path, and to carry out site inspections with a focus on systems operations and maintenance. A commissioning schedule is developed as a section of (or appendix to) a commissioning plan and is updated throughout the project. The objective of scheduling commissioning activities is to integrate and coordinate them with other construction phase activities. Detailed integration of commissioning activities and tasks with the construction schedule is critical to maintaining project milestones. The following chart illustrates how commissioning activities and tasks relate to typically occurring project activities.

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ASHRAE GL-0-2005 Figure B.1—Commissioning Process Flowchart

Please see NIBS Guideline 3, which shows how the commissioning process relates to typical planning, design, and construction activities.

Establish Testing and Inspection Plans

A building cannot be expected to operate optimally if the personnel in charge of operating and maintaining the building systems are unfamiliar with how to service the equipment and do not fully understand how and why the systems operate the way they do. This is especially true with highly complex systems and automated controls. The commissioning planning process includes definition of the O&M training requirements,

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responsibilities, and documentation. Testing appropriate to a facility should be designed along four hierarchal levels: 1) Factory device testing; 2) Field component start-up; 3) System interface testing; and 4) Integrated system testing, which tests the overall facility resilience, under all probable risk scenarios, including failure mode.

Develop Commissioning Specifications

The Construction Specification Institute (CSI) has assigned commissioning to section number 01810. The commissioning specification details the roles and responsibilities of the contractors in the commissioning process throughout the project. A draft set of system readiness checklists (SRCs) and verification test procedures (VTPs) is included in the commissioning specification to communicate to the bidding contractor the level of rigor that can be expected during the testing phase of the commissioning process. Construction contractor responsibilities for commissioning are defined in the commissioning specifications which must be coordinated with other commissioning team members when planning the commissioning process.

Determine Special Testing Needs

As previously noted, the costs of commissioning can be approximately projected based on a percent range of construction costs. Commissioning services normally include elements of program review, planning and managing the commissioning process, and witnessing and documenting commissioning of specified systems and assemblies. When developing commissioning testing and inspection plans, the commissioning team should carefully review means and methods for testing and verification to determine special testing needs that outside of normally provided commissioning services. Examples of such special testing include thermo graphic (Infrared) scans of existing or new construction to identify envelope integrity, destructive testing of proposed assemblies to be commissioned (blast, wind, seismic), water penetration tests, Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) modeling of airflows, building pressurization tests, and the like.

Establish Re-Commissioning Plans

In re-commissioning, the initially commissioned systems are retested on a regular basis, whether needed or not. Retro-commissioning is the commissioning of facilities that have never been commissioned. Re-commissioning can only be applied to buildings that have been commissioned (or retro-commissioned) and requires a "baseline" performance measurement following the initial commissioning process (i.e., when the systems are fine tuned and operating as efficiently as possible). Re-commissioning is an essential element in operating buildings optimally and must be incorporated in initial planning and budgeting of the commissioning program.

Emerging Issues

Commissioning Authority Certification

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The Building Commissioning Association (BCxA) has created the Certified Commissioning Professional (CCP) program to raise professional standards and provide a vehicle for certification in the building commissioning industry. To earn CCP certification, participants must complete an application process that is reviewed by the Building Commissioning Certification Board and pass a two-hour written examination. The CCP Program is underwritten in part by the Northwest Energy Efficiency Alliance.

Other organizations, including The American Institute of Architects, are creating programs, training and contract documents to assist their members in providing commissioning as additional client services.

Relevant Codes and Standards

AIA B211™—2004 Standard Form of Architect's Services: Commissioning —This fixed scope of services requires the architect to develop a commissioning plan, a design intent document, and commissioning specifications, based on the owner's identification of systems to be commissioned.

ASHRAE Guideline 0 - 2005: The Commissioning Process —the industry accepted model Commissioning Guide

The Building Commissioning Guide , U.S. General Services Administration, 2005. Model Commissioning Plan and Guide Specifications , Version 2.05, PECI. Feb.

1998.—Available from PECI, 921 SW Washington, Suite 312, Portland, Oregon 97205; Phone (503) 248-4636; Fax (503) 295-0820; E-mail peci@peci.org

Additional Resources

NIH Commissioning Guidelines & Commissioning Plan Oregon. TECHINFO —USACE Technical Information website University of Washington —University Commissioning guide specifications

Publications

AFETL 90-10 Commissioning of Heating, Ventilating and Air Conditioning Systems Guide Specification

NIBS Guideline 3-2006 Exterior Enclosure Technical Requirements for the Commissioning Process

Commissioning Specifications C-2000 Program, Canada, 1995. C-2000 Program, Energy Mines & Resources, Energy Efficiency Division, 7th Floor, 580 Booth St., Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0E4.

Contractor Quality Control and Commissioning Program—Guidelines and Specification, Montgomery Co. Gov., St of Maryland, 1993. 301-217-6071.

ER 1110-345-723 Systems Commissioning Procedures Establishing Cx Fees , ASHRAE.

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HVAC Systems Commissioning Manual , Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association (SMACNA), 1994. SMACNA, 4201 Lafayette Center Dr., Chantilly, VA 22021.

Laboratory HVAC Systems: Design, Validation and Commissioning ASHRAE collection of 11 papers, 1994. ASHRAE Publications Dept., 1791 Tullie Circle, NE, Atlanta, GA 30329.

MIL-HDBK-353 Planning and Commissioning Wastewater Treatment Plants New Construction Commissioning Costs (PDF 144 KB) UFGS 23 08 00.00 10 Commissioning of HVAC Systems , DoD

Tools

Project Planning Tools (PPT) —A web-based resource that produces automated, project specific, Commissioning Plans to enable efficient planning, management, and delivery of building projects. PPT is offered by the U.S. General Services Administration's Public Buildings Service to assist public and private organizations in delivering quality projects, on time, and within budget.

Bibliography1. U.S. Department of Energy. Building Commission ["Citing sources on the internet"]. URL http://www.rebuild.org/attachments/guidebooks/commissioningguide.pdf

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Project Delivery & Controlsby the WBDG Project Management Committee

Last updated: 03-16-2007

Overview

Effective project management includes strategies, tactics, and tools for managing the design and construction delivery process and for controlling key factors to ensure the client receives a facility that matches scope and quality expectations, delivered on time and within budget. Successful project delivery requires implementation of management systems that will enable project delivery teams to control changes in the key factors of scope, costs, schedule, and quality.

Scope Management

Project scope is defined as the work that must be done to meet a client's program goals for space, function, features, and level of quality. In many ways, scope management is the foundation on which the other project elements are built. From project inception, project scope defines the boundaries within which the delivery team and the external stakeholders work. Effective scope management requires accurate definition of a client's requirements in the Planning and Development stage and a systematic process for monitoring and managing all the factors that may impact or change the client's program requirements throughout the project delivery process.

Cost Management

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Project costs are measured and analyzed in many ways throughout a project, from planning and design to bidding, construction, turnover, and beyond. First costs, cost-benefit, and life-cycle cost are a few examples of how a project's cost-effectiveness can be evaluated. However, the control of costs requires continual systematic cost management. These cost management processes start with the establishment of budgets that align with scope and quality requirements and continue with milestone estimates, value engineering, procurement strategies, and change order management through to claims avoidance and negotiation.

Schedule Management

A project schedule defines the process and establishes a timeline to be followed in delivering the project. Avoiding schedule slippage is a key objective of schedule management. Comprehensive project schedules will identify all of the project's stages, phases, and activities assigned to each team member mapping them to a timeline that measures key milestones (dates) that are used to keep track of work progress. Schedule management interfaces directly with scope, cost, and quality management when team member roles and activities are defined, coordinated, and continually monitored.

Quality Control

Quality control starts with matching expectations about quality levels with budget and scope during planning and design reviews and continues through construction delivery with a program of inspections, tests, and certifications. It requires a coordinated performance among the entire project team in order for a completed building program to fully satisfy a client's expectations.

Building Commissioning

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Building commissioning is an emerging quality assurance process that coordinates and integrates planning development and design decisions and verifies that the delivered facility operates efficiently and actually meets a client's project requirements.

Major Resources

WBDG

Design Objectiveso Cost-Effective Branch o Historic Preservation o Secure / Safe

Project Managemento Building Commissioning

Organizations

Association for the Advancement of Cost Engineering (AACE) Building Commissioning Association Construction Industry Institute (CII) Construction Management Association of America Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) Society for the Advancement of Value Engineering Society for Cost Estimating and Analysis

Publications

AIA Handbook of Practice Construction Extension to a Guide to the Project Management Body of

Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide). Project Management Institute, 2003. Format: CD-ROM

GSA LEED® Applications Guide GSA LEED® Cost Study ISO 9000 Standard ISO 9000 in Construction by Paul A. Nee. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996. Practice Standard for Work Breakdown Structure. Project Management Institute,

2001. Quality Management Guidelines. McLean, VA: Construction Management

Association of America, 2000.

Scheduling Software

Microsoft Project Pacific Edge Primavera Systems

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Prolog

Tools

Project Planning Tools (PPT) —A web-based resource that produces automated, project specific, Commissioning Plans to enable efficient planning, management, and delivery of building projects. PPT is offered by the U.S. General Services Administration's Public Buildings Service to assist public and private organizations in delivering quality projects, on time, and within budget.

Sample Construction Related Forms

Construction Phase Formso Change Request Log o Contractor's Daily Report o Request for Information (RFI) o RFI Log—Sample o Points of Contact o Preconstruction Conference—Sign In List

Construction Documents Checklistso Preconstruction Conference—Checklist and Minutes o Construction Inspection—Checklist o Design Requirements/Provisions/Considerations—Checklist

Comment On This Page Email This Page

Related Resource Pages Construction Phase Cost Management Cost Impact of the ISC Security Criteria Earned Value Analysis Estimating Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)

View All Related (6)

Risk Managementby Scott CullenHanscomb Faithful & Gould

Last updated: 12-10-2005

Introduction

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In design and construction, risk analysis can be described as a systematic methodology and ongoing process by which occurrences that may substantially affect the end product can be identified, quantified, modeled, managed, and monitored. This tool is especially useful as a method of good project management and planning, because the business of building is inherently risky—the risk mitigation methods can be applied to project cost, schedule, quality/performance, safety, and business operations, especially as construction risk increases with the size of the project. Good risk management procedures ultimately measure the team's confidence level in the project on an ongoing basis, and allow the introduction of corrective actions, monetary contingency, and schedule float in order to minimize losses to the project and increase the likelihood of the project being completed on schedule and within budget.

The application of risk management procedures in construction can give early visibility to potential "problem areas" and opportunities, where effort and money can be expended early in the design and construction phases to reduce vulnerability, insurance costs, business or mission interruption, and claims. Early risk identification ensures that design and team effort is concentrated in critical areas, focusing the project team's attention on actions and resources where there is a major risk exposure, or where the greatest time/cost savings can be made through reengineering and streamlined project management. The objective is proactive management of projects, where problems are reduced as they are identified, as differentiated from the traditional approach to construction, which waits until critical problems develop and then implements an immediate (and typically expensive) response which may reduce the impact to the project but likely does not avoid losses as effectively as early risk response. Over time, risk management allows the project team to build a historical profile of risk based upon experience and lessons learned, which will allow for better management of future projects.

Risk management is an organized method of identifying and measuring risk and then developing, selecting, implementing and managing options for addressing risks. There are several types of risk that an owner should consider as part of risk management methodology. These include:

Schedule risk Cost risk Technical feasibility Risk of technical obsolescence Dependencies between a new project and other projects Physical events beyond direct control

Risk management seeks to identify and ultimately control possible future events and should be proactive rather than reactive. To be effective, risk management must rely on tools and techniques that help predict the likelihood of future events, the effects of these future events and methods to deal with these future events. Risk management is the responsibility of everyone involved in a project.

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Tools and Techniques

Paying attention to detail and implementing appropriate cost and schedule control systems will assist in risk analysis and management. However, one area that deserves closer scrutiny is the use of range estimating as a risk analysis tool. Range estimating can be done in a rather simple fashion by selecting the 20 percent of the line items in an estimate that represent 80 percent of the cost then developing a range for each of those 20 percent and doing a simple process of adding the low and high ranges. A more advanced approach could take the same 20 percent items, establish the range and then use any one of several available software packages to perform a Monte Carlo simulation and produce a risk profile. This approach would give a more accurate projection of the logical highs and lows involved with 20 percent drivers. A sensitivity analysis can also be prepared to vary the key risk parameters.

Finally, it is possible to use a complete risk analysis package that includes range estimating and prepares a risk profile that estimates confidence ranges and contingency amounts. This type of an approach can establish contingencies for not only individual projects but for entire programs.

Monte Carlo or risk analysis is used when establishing a baseline or baseline change during budget formulation. The contingency developed from the Monte Carlo analyses should fall within the contingency allowance ranges presented previously. Monte Carlo analyses and other risk assessment techniques use similar methodology to obtain contingency estimates. There are a number of software packages both publicly and commercially available. The estimator must subdivide the estimate into separate phases or tasks and assess the accuracy of the cost estimate data in each phase. After the project data have been input and checked, the computer program will calculate various contingencies for the overall project based on the probability of project underrun. The random number generator accounts for the known estimate accuracy. Once the program has completed its iterations (usually 1,000), it produces an overall contingency for the project with certain accuracy.

The application of this type of quantitative risk analysis allows the construction project exposure to be modeled, and quantifies the probability of occurrence and potential impact of identified risks. The results can be used to produce a realistic representation, in graphic s-curve form, of the project's total uncertainty and risks. Referring to the s-curve figure below as an example, a contingency amount of approximately $4 million represents 65% confidence in achieving that project cost. For 80% confidence, contingency should be increased such that total project cost is $51 million.

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Sample project cost s-curve

Risk management with probabilistic modeling can be used to reduce project contingency from a guesstimate of 10-20% to a quantitatively determined amount, typically in the range of 3-8%. As the project progresses, and the confidence level in project cost increases, the early release of contingency amounts may be achieved and the money may be invested elsewhere.

Major Resources

Publications

Managing Risk in Construction Projects by Nigel Smith. Blackwell Publishers, January 1998.

Risk Analysis: A Quantitative Guide by David Vose and Howard A. Doughty. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., April 2000.

Risk Management and Construction by Roger Flanagan and George Norman. Blackwell Publishers, August 1993.

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Facilities Operations & Maintenanceby Don Sapp, Plexus Scientific

Last updated: 04-21-2008

Introduction

The operations and maintenance (O&M) of facilities covers all that broad spectrum of services required to assure the built environment is available to and will perform the functions for which they were designed and constructed. O&M is comprised of the day-to-day activities necessary for the built entities to perform their intended function. Operations and maintenance are combined into the one term O&M because an entity cannot operate without being maintained; therefore the two are discussed as one.

At this time the Operations and Maintenance section offers guidance in the following areas:

Real Property Inventory (RPI) —Provides an overview on the type of system needed to maintain an inventory of an organization's assets and manage those assets.

Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS) —Contains descriptions of procedures and practices used to track the maintenance of an organization's assets and associated costs.

Future updates to the Operations and Maintenance section will provide additional guidance in the areas described below.

The scope of O&M includes the activities required to keep the entire built environment as contained in the organization's Real Property Inventory of buildings and structures and their supporting facilities such as utility systems, parking lots, roads, drainage structures and grounds in condition to be used to meet their intended function during their life cycle. These activities include routine and breakdown maintenance and repairs, operations of utility systems and grounds care. It varies from O&M of a single building to a complex of many buildings and structures or groups of complexes. As the number of buildings and structures increases, the organization performing the O&M increases in size and complexity. In all cases it requires knowledgeable and skilled management and skilled and trained technical personnel to perform the many varied O&M functions.

Major Resources

A. Planning and Design Phase

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O&M activities start with the planning and design of a facility and continue through its life cycle. During the planning and design phases, O&M personnel should be involved and should identify maintenance requirements for inclusion in the design, such as equipment access, built-in condition monitoring, sensor connections, and other O&M requirements that will aid in their operations and maintenance when the built facility is turned over to the O&M organization.

WBDG—Construction Operations Building Information Exchange (COBIE) Benchmarking, a Reliability Driver by Ray Oliverson, SMRP Presented at the 8th

International Process Plant Reliability Conference (October 26, 1999) DOD UFC 3-270-06 Paver Asphalt Surfaced Airfields Pavement Condition Index

(PCI) DOD UFC 4-310-02N Design: Clean Rooms DOE/EE-0249 FEMP Low Energy Building Design Guidelines DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: Chapter 3: O&M

Management DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance: Pump Design / Selection DOE FEMP Utility Services Case Study—Thermal Energy Storage at a Federal

Facility EPA I-BEAM —The Indoor Air Quality Building Education and Assessment

Model (I-BEAM) is a guidance tool designed for use by building professionals and others interested in indoor air quality in commercial buildings.

o Chapter - Ductwork cleaning/standards o Chapter - Exhaust System Design

GSA 2003 Facilities Standards (P100)—Appendix 3: New Constructions and Modernizations

B. Construction Phase

During the construction phase and prior to turnover of the facility for O&M operations and maintenance manuals are provided to the O&M organization and O&M organization personnel are provided training required for their O&M of the new facility. Assurance that the manuals and training are provided is a part of the Building Commissioning process.

WBDG—Construction Operations Building Information Exchange (COBIE) DOE FEMP Commissioning Case Study—In-house Retro-commissioning at a

DOE National Laboratory DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: Chapter 7:

Commissioning Existing Buildings FEMP O&M Continuous Commissioning Guidebook Energy Star® Buildings Manual Recommissioning Example Retro-Commissioning Scope of Work GSA - Succession Planning Mechanical Systems Commissioning Society for Machinery Failure Prevention Technology

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TM 5-697 Commissioning of Mechanical Systems for Command, Control, Communications, Computer, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) Facilities

C. Life Cycle O&M

O&M of the elements included in buildings, structures and supporting facilities is complex and requires a knowledgeable, well-organized management team and a skilled, well-trained work force. The objective of the O&M organization should be to operate, maintain, and improve the facilities to provide reliable, safe, healthful, energy efficient, and effective performance of the facilities to meet their designated purpose throughout their life cycle. To accomplish these objectives, the O&M management must manage, direct, and evaluate the day-to-day O&M activities and budget for the funds to support the organization's requirements.

WBDG—Construction Operations Building Information Exchange (COBIE) DOD UFC 3-410-05N Heating Systems Operation and Maintenance DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: O&M

Management - Section 3.4 Measuring the Quality of Your O&M Program DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: Types of

Maintenance Programs - Section 5.1 through 5.5 DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: Types of

Maintenance Programs - Sections 5.5 and 5.6 Reliability Centered Maintenance DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: Chapter 8:

Metering for Operations and Maintenance Energy Star®Operation and Maintenance (O&M) Reports FEMP "Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide" by Greg Sullivan PE,

CEM, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Presented at the Energy 2003, August 18, 2003

FEMP Operations and Maintenance Society for Machinery Failure Prevention Technology

D. O&M Approach

The O&M organization is normally responsible for operating the utility systems and for maintenance of all of the built entities. In accomplishing these responsibilities, the O&M organization must operate the entities responsibly and maintain them properly. The utility systems may be simple supply lines/systems or may be complete production and supply systems. The maintenance work may include preventative and programmed maintenance, repairs, trouble calls, (e.g., a room is too cold,) replacement of obsolete items, predictive testing & inspection, and grounds care. Many O&M organizations are now utilizing a Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM) program that includes "the optimum mix of reactive, time- or interval-based, condition-based, and proactive maintenance practices… These principal maintenance strategies, rather than being applied independently, are integrated to take advantage of their respective strengths in order to maximize facility and equipment reliability, while minimizing life-cycle costs." The O&M organization is also

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normally responsible for maintaining records on deferred maintenance (DM), i.e. maintenance work that has not been accomplished because of some reason—usually lack of funds.

Air Force Instruction 32-1051 Roof Systems Management DOD UFC 3-600-02: O&M: Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Fire

Protection Systems DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: Types of

Maintenance Programs - Section 5.4 Predictive Maintenance DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: O&M Ideas for

Major Equipment Types - Section 9.3 Steam Traps DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: O&M Ideas for

Major Equipment Types - Sections 9.4.6 to 9.4.8 Maintenance of Chillers DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: O&M Ideas for

Major Equipment Types - Section 9.5 Cooling Towers DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: O&M Ideas for

Major Equipment Types - Section 9.6 Energy Management/Building Automation Systems

DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: O&M Ideas for Major Equipment Types - Sections 9.6.6 to 9.6.9 EMS Maintenance

DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: O&M Ideas for Major Equipment Types - Sections 9.10.6 to 9.10.9 Maintenance of Air Compressors

Elevator inspection/repair Energy Star® Buildings Manual Fan System Upgrades Energy Star® Buildings Manual Lighting EPA I-BEAM —The Indoor Air Quality Building Education and Assessment

Model (I-BEAM) is a guidance tool designed for use by building professionals and others interested in indoor air quality in commercial buildings.

o Chapter - Cooling Towers FEMP Operations and Maintenance Fans Maintenance FEMP Operations and Maintenance Lighting Technologies FEMP Operations and Maintenance Maintenance of Pumps FEMP Operations and Maintenance Steam Traps FEMP Operations and Maintenance Types of Motors Society for Machinery Failure Prevention Technology TM 5-617 Facilities Engineering - Maintenance and Repair of Roofs TM 5-692-1 Maintenance of Mechanical and Electrical Equipment at Command,

Control Communications, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) Facilities

TM 5-692-2 Maintenance of Mechanical and Electrical Equipment at Command, Control, Communications, Computers, Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) Facilities

VA Boiler Plant Operations - VHA Directive 2003-050 VA Electrical Power Distribution System Operations - VHA Directive 2006-056

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E. Computerized Maintenance Management Systems

In today's computer age, O&M organizations utilize Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS) to manage their day-to-day operations and to track the status of maintenance work and monitor the associated costs of that work. These systems are vital tools to not only manage the day-to-day activities, but also to provide valuable information for preparing facilities key performance indicators (KPIs)/metrics to use in evaluating the effectiveness of the current operations and for making organizational and personnel decisions.

DOE FEMP Operations and Maintenance Best Practices Guide: Chapter 4: Computerized Maintenance Management System

F. Non O&M Work

Most O&M organizations also perform work that is not O&M, but is so often performed by facilities maintenance organizations they become a part of their baseline. This work is facilities related work that is new in nature, and as such should not be funded with O&M funds but funded by the requesting organization. Examples of the work includes installation of an outlet to support a new copier machine, providing a compressed air outlet to a new test bench, and other minor facilities work of like nature.

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Real Property Inventory (RPI)by Don Sapp, Plexus Scientific

Last updated: 3-17-2008

Introduction

Know Your Assets and What They Cost!

A system to maintain an inventory of an organization's assets/real property is required not only to know what assets the organization has that must be maintained but also to manage those assets and meet asset record and reporting requirements placed on an organization. At one time inventory records were maintained only in paper files with a list of assets, their value and limited other information maintained for ready reference. With the dawn of the Computer age things have changed. Inventory records for ready reference have become easier to prepare and maintain as they are recorded in a computer database. These ready reference records have grown to include more information on each asset. As the inventory database/records have grown their use has expanded because the information can be more easily included in manage reports and other management documents and can be made available for use in other databases such as an operations and maintenance organization's Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS). Because of the expanded use of real property inventories (RPIs) they have become an important part of an organizations asset management. In fact in the federal government all agencies are required by Executive Order 13327, Federal Real Property Asset Management, to identify and categorize all real property owned, leased, or other-wise managed by the agency.

Description

In today's business environment RPIs are or should be maintained in computer databases with detailed inventory records maintained in paper files. The records should contain details of transactions that affect the organization's assets and should be maintained as permanent records for the life of each asset. The computer RPI size of course depends on the number of facilities and how the organization chooses to maintain the database. The database may be located at a site/complex/campus or at a central location where the assets of the company/university/ government agency are maintained in total. The inventory data on an asset will include information as determined by laws, government regulations and/or an organization's management. It will depend on the use of the data and what requirements have been placed on the organization such as information to meet tax requirements, government regulations, management reports, operations and maintenance (O&M) requirements and other requirements the organization may have.

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The RPI paper files and database should start with the acquisition of the asset whether by construction, purchase, lease, donation or any other source. When by construction the RPI records should follow project delivery, at the time the asset is turned over to the owner for O&M. When by other means the RPI should start with the owners assuming O&M responsibility for the asset. The decision to enter an asset or improvement to an asset in the RPI is determined by the value set by law, government regulation or the organization and the organizations definition of real property. In most cases real property includes land and anything permanently affixed to it, such as buildings including their installed systems and building equipment and in some cases other installed equipment, roads and parking facilities, fences, utility systems, structures, etc. The RPI for assets meeting the definition and value requirements imposed on the organization should then be maintained for the life of the asset whether in the private sector or in the government.

A. RPI Content

The RPI of an organization should include the detail paper files identifying the asset and its cost including its initial acquisition and improvements. The RPI database should include the asset's name (usually a descriptive title), its facility number or address, its book value, type of facility (may be a classification code or simply included in its descriptive title), its capacity and its unit of measure (UOM). Other asset data in the database will depend on the organization and its management. Some other data that may be included is its location, book value, its current replacement value, asset's use (may be a code) and status, listing of improvements and their costs, previous years O&M costs, and in the case of government agencies General Services Administration (GSA) Usage Codes.

B. Book Value (Cost)

The initial entry in the RPI includes the book value with asset improvements that meet an organizations guidelines being added to the book value as they occur. What is included in the book value of an asset will depend on tax laws and management requirements in the private sector and finical management rules and government regulations in the government organizations. An example of government requirements is that capitalized value (book cost) of a facility includes all costs incurred to bring the facility to a form and location suitable for its intended use. The cost may include the following, as appropriate for the type of facility to be capitalized and included as the book value of a new asset or in the case of an asset improvement added to the facility's book value:

Amounts paid to vendors or contractors, including fees; Transportation charges to the point of initial use; Handling and storage charges; Labor and other direct or indirect production costs (for assets produced or

constructed); Engineering, architectural, and other outside services for designs, plans,

specifications, and surveys; Acquisition and preparation costs of buildings and other facilities;

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An appropriate share of the cost of the equipment and facilities used in construction work, including depreciation (per FMM 9091-5c.);

Fixed equipment and related costs of installation required for activities in a building or facility;

Direct costs of inspection, supervision, and administration of construction contracts and construction work, including civil service costs;

Legal and recording fees and damage claims; Fair values of facilities and equipment donated to the Government, and Material amounts of interest costs paid.

C. Capital Improvements

Capital improvements to an asset are modifications whose cost equals or exceeds a value established by the organization or by law/regulation and 1) extends its useful life by two years or more or, 2) enlarges or improves its capacity or otherwise upgrades the asset to serve needs different from, or significantly greater than, those originally intended. Capital Improvements are capitalized and increase the book value of the facility.

Where a replacement occurs due to a capital improvement, the book cost of the asset should be appropriately adjusted to remove the original costs of items replaced where the costs exceeds a costs set by law, regulation or the organization. If only a portion of the property is being replaced, and that portion is not separately identifiable in the asset's records, the original value of the replaced portion should be estimated and the book value adjusted accordingly. The costs of items replaced do not include the costs of removal but only the original book costs.

D. Maintaining the RPI

The organization responsible for the RPI should develop and sponsor the establishment of guidance and procedures as required for the organization to ensure compliance with applicable laws, regulations, and organization policy. The guidance and procedures must include the assignment of responsibilities and establish controls necessary to ensure that the RPI records are kept current including the database, that periodic physical inventory are performed and that the records are reconciled based on the inventories.

Application

An RPI should be maintained by all organizations responsible for maintaining asset records. The records should include detailed paper records and a database containing the asset information needed by the organization to meet reporting requirements and recurring request for information. By having the data in a database reports and request for information can be answered easily without using manpower to extract the data from paper files. This is particularly applicable where the organization is responsible for a complex or campus with numerous assets as found at large corporations, universities and government agencies.

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Emerging Issues

The security of the data in a database is an issue that most organizations have already faced with their computer systems but it is a continuing problem that must be faced in the computer world.

Relevant Codes and Standards

In the private sector the federal and state tax codes establish requirements for asset records (RPIs) that must be maintained. Database files in the public sector will be based on the organizations' requirements.

For government agencies the following regulations apply:

40 U.S.C. 483 and 484, Sections 202 and 203 of the Federal Property and Administrative Services Act of 1949, as amended

41 CFR, Chapters 101 and 102, Federal Property Management Regulations Executive Order 13327 , Federal Real Property Asset Management (PDF 96 KB)

Major Resources

Army Real Property web site GSA Office of Government Wide Policy, Customer Guide to Reporting Real

Property Inventory Information (DOC 368 KB) Office of the Deputy Under the Secretary of Defense - Installations and

Environement Real Property Inventory Requirements NASA's Real Estate Management Program Implementation Manual U.S. Department of Energy Real Property Asset Management (PDF 188 KB)

Tools

Construction Operations Building Information Exchange (COBIE)

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Computer Aided Facilities Management (CAFM)by Dan Eckstein, Total Resource Management and Ozan Ozener, Texas A&M

Last updated: 11-26-2007

Introduction

Computer Aided Facilities Management (CAFM) is an approach in Facilities Management that includes creation and utilization of Information Technology (IT)-based systems in FM practice. The usage of CAFM systems in Facilities Management practice aims to support operational and strategic facility management, i.e. all of the activities associated with administrative, technical, and infrastructural FM tasks when the facility or building is operational, as well as the strategic processes for facilities planning and management¹.

CAFM systems consist of variety of technologies and information sources that may include object-oriented database systems, Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems, Building Information Models (BIM), and interfaces to other systems such as a Computer Maintenance Management System. Today most CAFM systems are web-based and provide a host of features including facilities related scheduling and analysis capabilities. Data may be stored, retrieved, and analyzed from a single data-store or collected from a variety of sources through technology interfaces or human transfer processes.

Description

Computer Aided Facilities Management (CAFM) evolved in the late 1980's leveraging the PC to automate the collection and maintenance of Facilities Management information. Widespread usage of IT systems in almost all disciplines eventually penetrated the construction and Facility Management industry as well. After the development of Internet-based database systems, usage of high-end tools in FM practices increased in that sector. CAFM systems provided the facility manager with the tools to track, plan, manage, and report on facilities information.

A mature CAFM system combines and analyzes complex data to improve facility management practices throughout a variety of industries including government, healthcare, educational, commercial, and industrial environments. The CAFM system gives decision makers the ability to automate many of the data-intensive facility management functions and typically results in continuous cost savings and improved utilization of assets through-out their entire lifecycle.

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A well developed CAFM system may include a variety of functions and features to meet the specific demands of the Facility Manager. Although there is no ideal model, suitable for all situations, a typical CAFM system provides and maintains information on floor plans, property descriptions, space utilization, energy consumption, equipment locations, and other critical infrastructure data that pertains to the sector it is serving.

Components of Integrated CAFM Systems and Capabilities

A typical CAFM system is defined as a combination of CAD and/or relational database software with specific abilities for facilities management. Parallel to this, some CAFM systems are equipped with new and intelligent interfaces, advanced automated Facilities Management functionalities and links between various external analysis packages. CAFM systems in the market today can provide different tools to perform various tasks. The following features are common to most CAFM systems.

Interactive Database: Since the data in crucial in Facilities Management practice, CAFM systems are based on fully developed relational databases that are designed around the functional requirements of the Facility or Space Manager.

Interactive Graphics: CAFM systems facilitate an interactive graphics module for basic drafting and modification of facility layouts, plans and other visual documents. A majority of CAFM systems on the market integrate industry standard CAD engines into the CAFM system to utilize common CAD file formats. Additionally, the graphics data may be maintained in a format compatible with Geographic Information System (GIS) standards that will allow CAFM information to be accurately shared across multiple platforms, including spatial environments.

Data Management Tools: CAFM systems reuse existing data and are able to recognize and/or convert external data for their own use. These tools usually provide a robust user interface to enable a user-friendly environment for data input, editing, and analysis.

Application

Most facility managers face a variety of constraints and challenges. The most common issues facing most managers today include:

Shrinking maintenance budgets Resource constraints Political priorities Unfunded mandates Distributed data and data disparities Organizational stovepipes

The challenge for facility managers is to overcome these obstacles by utilizing the resources available and convincing leadership that efficiencies and cost savings can be achieved with investments in technology, such as a well planned CAFM system. Mature

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CAFM systems are important to enable the facility managers to become effective decision makers and provide effective management of facility information. The mature CAFM system will help the facility's manager ensure the organization's assets are fully utilized at the lowest possible cost, while providing benefit to every phase of a building's lifecycle.

Usage Areas

CAFM systems can be used for different purposes in Facilities Management practices. Planning, monitoring, and reporting capabilities of typical CAFM systems provide vital information to perform tasks in the facility management arena. Typical facility functions that a CAFM can benefit include the following:

Strategic Planning: Tasks include analyses of property and space to provide capital planning of new or remodel assets to improve the mission of the organization. The CAFM tools will usually aid the Facility Management in determining space requirements, equipment locations, construction costs, environmental constraints, encroachments, and other critical planning functions.

Space Inventory and Management: The CAFM should define and standardize space attributes and data elements as well as the physical asset inventories of the organization. Typical functions of this module include analysis on space dimensions, utilization, hazardous material locations, evacuation routes, fire equipment locations, and buildings attributes such as:

Age Cost data Life expectancy Construction data Contract and Warranty data Building managers Telephone numbers Technology drops

Operations: Tasks include tracking energy consumption, utilities monitoring, lighting management, janitorial, and grounds maintenance responsibilities and cost.

Maintenance and Repairs: Tasks include monitoring routine repairs and preventive maintenance operations in the facility. Safety conditions, such as a lock-out/tag-out program can also be managed in this module.

Assessments: This function typically includes building condition inspections, condition reporting, security vulnerability, and risk assessments. Often these features have an interface for a GIS to achieve the benefits of a spatial reporting environment as well as CAFM.

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Space Forecasting: Includes the ability to determine current space utilization and to project future space requirements based on customer or mission requirements. This task typically includes the ability to manage the requirements for people, space, utilities, technology access, as well as the cost and move planning features.

Fig. 1. Usage of CAFM in the life cycle of a building² (Schürle and Fritsch, 2000).²

Benefits

Benefits of CAFM usage in Facility Management tasks can be grouped in various areas, including quality of life, cost reduction, cost avoidance, and information improvement. Specifically, a mature CAFM system will provide benefits similar to those listed below:

More efficient space utilization to achieve cost savings and potential reduction in asset inventories.

Reduction in moving and relocation activities resulting in greatly reduced relocation costs.

Continuous improvement in facilities management efficiencies. Improved project planning leading to reductions in A&E, construction, and

building maintenance costs. Fast and accurate reporting on critical facilities information. Existing processes will become more efficient and streamlined, using

standardized data that is shared across the enterprise. The CAFM will give facilities managers the tools necessary to become more

proactive instead of reactive to facilities' requirements and enable better decision making.

Improve safety and environmental planning capabilities, reducing risk from accident and regulatory compliance violations.

Disaster planning capabilities are significantly improved to reduce the potential for human injury or death in a disaster as well as to improve those required for operational recovery.

Data standardization across the organization and the elimination of redundant information held by multiple organizations in various degrees of quality and accuracy.

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Relevant Codes and Standards

Relevant standards for CAFM systems based on CAD, BIM, and Database file formats.

U.S. National CAD Standard® CAD-GIS-BIM Open Standard—OWS-4 W3C Fourth Edition and XML 1.1 Spatial Data Standards for Facilities, Infrastructure, and Environment (SDSFIE) International Alliance for Interoperability, IFCs (ISO PAS 16739) COBIE

Major Resources

Publications

Facility Management, 2nd Edition , Edmond P. Rondeau, Robert Kevin Brown, Paul D. Lapides, ISBN: 0-471-70059-2, Wiley, January 2006.

¹ Abel, J., Lennerts, K. 2005. "Where does CAFM really help? Current fields of application and future trends according to system users". In: Proceedings of CIB W78's 22nd International Conference on Information Technology in Construction, CIB Publication 304, ISBN 3-86005-478-3, The Westin Bellevue, Dresden, Germany, 19-21 June 2005.

² Schürle, T., Boy, A., Fritsch, D. (2000): IAPRS, Vol. 33, Working Group IV/III.1 – CAFM Data Structures: A Review And Examples, Published by German Institute for Photogrammetry (ifp), Stuttgart University, Germany.

Websites

FM Innovations

Organizations

BOMA International FIATECH IFMA (International Facility Management Association) International Alliance for Interoperability (IAI) NIBS (National Institute of Building Sciences)

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Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS)by Don Sapp - Plexus ScientificRevised and updated by Dan Eckstein - Total Resource Management

Last updated: 02-10-2008

Introduction

Know What Work Has Been Done on Your Assets and What it Costs!

Computerized Maintenance Management Systems (CMMS) enable the facility manager, subordinates and customers to track the status of maintenance work on their assets and the associated costs of that work. CMMS are utilized by facilities maintenance organizations to record and manage and communicate their day-to-day operations. The system can provide reports to use in managing the organization's resources, preparing facilities key performance indicators (KPIs)/metrics to use in evaluating the effectiveness of the current operations and for making organizational and personnel decisions. In today's maintenance world the CMMS is an essential tool for the modern facilities maintenance organization.

Prior to the computer age paper records were maintained to track the work. Reports were simple and costly to prepare. With the dawn of the computer age it was recognized computer software could be used to record work requirements, track the status of the work and analyze the recorded data for managing the work, produce reports and help control costs. With time computers have become more powerful, less costly, and easier to use and now provide tools to support improved maintenance practices. Facility professionals now have the tools to manage the planning and day-to-day operations and maintenance activities required for a single facility or a large complex, providing all of the information required to manage the work, the work force and the costs and provide management reports and historical data.

Description

The goal of a maintenance manager is to employ a management system that optimizes the use of scarce resources (manpower, equipment, material, and funds) to maintain the facilities and equipment that are the responsibility of the maintenance organization. The system should provide for integrated processes giving the manager control over the maintenance of all facilities and maintainable equipment from acquisition to disposal. The following lists what the system should do:

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Address all resources involved, Maintain maintenance inventory, Record and maintain work history, Include work tasks and frequencies, Accommodate all methods of work accomplishment, Effectively interface and communicate with related and supporting systems

ranging from work generation through work performance and evaluation, Support each customer's mission, Ensure communication with each customer, Provide feedback information for analysis, and Reduce costs through effective maintenance planning.

A modern CMMS meets these requirements and assists the facilities maintenance manager with work reception, planning, control, performance, evaluation, and reporting. Such a system will also maintain historical information for management use. The manager should evaluate management data requirements and establish electronic data needs prior to acquiring a system or additions to, or replacement of, an existing system. The evaluation should include a return on investment (ROI) analysis before investing in additional or new CMMS capabilities. The manager should only acquire what is necessary to accomplish the maintenance organization's goals. The following paragraphs include details of capabilities that may be included in a modern CMMS.

A. Operating Locations

The CMMS may include an application that allows an operator to enter and track locations of equipment (locations in which equipment operates) and organize these locations into logical hierarchies or network systems. Work orders can then be written either against the location itself or against the equipment in the operating location. Using locations allows for the tracking of the equipment's lifecycles (history) and provides the capability to track equipments' performance at specific sites.

B. Equipment

The CMMS may include a module that allows an operator to keep accurate and detailed records of each piece of equipment. This module would include equipment related data, such as bill of material, Preventive Maintenance (PM) schedule, service contracts, safety procedures, measurement points, multiple meters, inspection routes, specification data (name plate), equipment downtime, and related documentation. This equipment data is used for managing day-to-day operations and historical data that can be used to help make cost effective replace or repair decisions. The data can also be used to develop additional management information, such as building equipment downtime failure code hierarchies for use in maintenance management metrics.

C. Resources

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The CMMS may include a separate module to track labor resources. This module typically includes records for all maintenance personnel, including their craft or trade categories, such as mechanic, electrician, or plumber. Additionally, this module may include labor rates in order to capture and track true labor costs against any asset or piece of equipment. Some CMMS will allow maintenance managers to also track skill levels and qualifications for each resources to help in planning and scheduling of work. Grouping labor categories into common associations can help a manager assign work to particular shop rather than an individual.

D. Safety Plans

With the emphasis placed on safety throughout Government and industry a capability for safety plans/planning may be included in a CMMS. The following capabilities should be provided:

Manual or automatic safety plan numbering. Building safety plans for special work. Tracking hazards for multiple equipment and locations. Associating multiple precautions to a hazard. Tracking hazardous materials for multiple equipment and locations. Once hazards and precautions are entered they should be available for reference

and data entry. Tracking ratings for health, flammability, reactively, contact, and Material Safety

Data Sheets for hazardous materials. Defining lock-out/tag-out procedures. Define tag identifications for specific equipment and locations. Defining safety plans for multiple equipment or locations. Viewing and linking documents. Associating safety plans to job plans, to preventative maintenance masters and to

work orders. Printing safety plans automatically on work orders. Allowing tag-out procedures to be associated to hazards or directly to locations,

equipment, and safety plans or work orders.

E. Inventory Control

An inventory control module may be included to allow an operator to track inventory movement such as items being moved in or out of inventory, or from one location to another. Stocked, non-stocked, and special order items could be tracked. The module should also allow the tracking of item vendors, location of items, item cost information, and the substitute or alternate items that can be used if necessary. Some CMMS recommend and provide the ability to track tools and provide basic tool-room management features as part of the inventory module. This feature will allow work planners the ability to see what tools are in stock and assign tools to various work categories to reduce research effort on the part of mechanics and technicians working in the field.

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F. Work Request

A work request module should be an integral part of a CMMS. The module could provide the capability for a requestor to input a request, such as a trouble call, or it could be entered by the maintenance organization's work control. The data entry screen should be designed for minimal data entry. The work order number could be assigned manually or automatically. A requester could enter minimal data and work control could enter additional information as required. Data should be entered once, and pop-up tables in the system should eliminate the need to memorize codes.

G. Work Order Tracking

A CMMS must include work order tracking because it is the heart of a work order system. The data should be entered once, and pop-up tables should eliminate the need to memorize codes. The tracking system should provide instant access to all of the information needed for detailed planning and scheduling, including work plan operations, labor, materials, tools, costs, equipment, blueprints, related documents, and failure analysis. Of course, this is dependent on how many modules are installed and how much information has been entered in the system. The manager must evaluate data requirements and the practicality of adding modules.

H. Work Management

A work manager module may be a part of the CMMS. The module could provide the capability that would let a planner specify which labor to apply to specific work orders and when. The module would permit planning and dispatching.

Planning—In planning, labor assignments would be planned for future shifts. Each person's calendar availability would be considered when the assignments are made. The assignments would be created sequentially over the shift, filling each person's daily schedule with priority work for the craft. It could even split larger jobs over multiple shifts—automatically.

Dispatching—In dispatching, labor assignments would be carried out as soon as possible. This system could begin tracking labor time from the instant the assignment is made. The system operator could interrupt work already in progress in order to reassign labor resources to more crucial work.

I. Quick Reporting

The CMMS could provide a rapid and easy means for opening, reporting on, and closing work orders, and reporting work on small jobs after-the-fact. Labor, materials, failure codes, completion date, and downtime could all be reported.

J. Preventive Maintenance

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The following capabilities may be provided in a CMMS to manage a Preventive Maintenance (PM) program:

Support multiple criteria for generating PM work orders. If a PM master has both time-based and meter-based frequency information, the program should use whichever becomes due first, and then update the other.

Generate time-based PM work orders based upon last generation or last completion date. Next due date and job plans should be displayed.

Permit and track PM extensions with adjustments to next due date. Trigger meter-based PM by two separate meters. Print sequence job plans when wanted. Create a PM against an item so new parts have PM automatically generated on

purchase. Specify the number of days ahead to generate work orders from PM masters that

may not yet have met their frequency criteria. Consolidate weekly, monthly, and quarterly job plans on a single master. Assign sequence numbers to job plans to tell the system which job plan to use

when a PM work order is generated from a PM master. Permit overriding frequency criteria in order to generate PM work orders

whenever plant conditions require. Route PM with multiple equipment or locations. Generate work orders in batch or individually for only the equipment wanted. Should have the capability to be used with the system scheduler to forecast

resources and budgets.

K. Utilities

A utilities module may be included that contains detailed information on utilities consumption, distribution, use, metering, allocation to users, and cost. It could include modeling capability and linkage to utility control systems.

L. Facility/Equipment History

A history module may be included that would contain the maintenance histories of the facilities and equipment. It would contain summaries of PM, repairs, rehabilitation, modifications, additions, construction, and other work affecting the configuration or condition of the items. It would include completed and canceled work orders. The maintenance history records can be used to support proactive maintenance techniques such as root-cause failure analysis and reliability engineering.

M. Purchasing

A mature CMMS may also include a Purchasing module to initiate the requisition of material against a work order and track the delivery and cost data of the item when the material arrives. This capability will allow the maintenance manager improved visibility of matters that can impact work planning and efficiency. Procuring required material outside the CMMS can often leave information gaps that can inhibit the effectiveness of

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work execution and result in redundant parts orderings and non-standard procurement practices. The purchasing module may include many functions such as a vendor master catalog, invoicing, purchase orders, receiving, and even request for quotations.

N. Facilities Maintenance Contracts

A CMMS may contain a contracts module that includes information on maintenance contracts. With other database files, it provides a picture of each contractor's past performance, current loading, and planned work. It could include information on specifications, Government furnished property, quality assurance, payment processing, delivery orders issued, schedules, and related matters. It could cover both contracts for facilities maintenance and support services.

O. Key Performance Indicators/Metrics

The CMMS can be utilized to accumulate the data for KPIs for use in evaluating the organization's maintenance program. The maintenance management organization must select the metrics to utilize in establishing their goals and to measure progress in meeting those goals. The importance of Selecting the Right Key Performance Indicators cannot be overstated. The KPIs must be based on data that can be obtained and provide meaningful information that will be utilized in managing the organization.

P. Specialized Features

Some CMMS providers have also developed specialized capabilities and features for particular business sectors, functions, or requirements. Maintenance managers today are able to use their CMMS for tracking transportation and fleet inventory , including maintenance history, mileages, lease terms, rates, and accounting data. Other managers are using their CMMS to track deployed assets such as computers and other IT equipment. Through their CMMS the track changes, additions, and movement of equipment, including software inventory on PC. When selecting a CMMS; considering the full scope of asset management options, with a focus on consolidated IT solutions may a sensible course of action.

Application

A CMMS can be utilized in the management of a range of facilities from a single facility to a complex/campus. They can also be used to manage the maintenance program for a grouping of equipment such as a fleet of vehicles. The systems are very versatile since most are in modular form for the various maintenance functions and can be customized to fit the particular application. Whatever system or set of modules are selected for use, careful consideration needs to be given to Functional Requirements and a sound deployment plan. The CMMS must meet the needs, constraints, and opportunities of the business and be implemented in a way that users will welcome the technology and have a vision for the benefits it brings. Proper configuration, testing, and training can not be over

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emphasized when bringing a new CMMS or upgrading an exiting system to an organization.

Emerging Issues

Failure of CMMS implementations is a continuing problem voiced by industry experts. To avoid this pitfall a thorough management study of the proposed or existing system is required to evaluate the use of such a system in their organization and to determine the costs benefits. Not all maintenance organizations require the use of a complete set of CMMS modules. Those that have implemented CMMS programs without a complete study, typically fail to use the capabilities incorporated in the software and may eventually view the program as a failure.

Avoiding the pitfalls in decision-making concerning implementing or modifying CMMS in a maintenance organization eans research must be a high priority.

Major Resources

The Internet provides a wealth of information for use in making CMMS implementation decisions. Two of the sites offering this type of information are Maintenance Resources and Cmmscity.com. Maintenance Resources provides CMMS reference articles from "What is CMMS?" and articles dealing with various aspects of CMMS. Cmmscity.com is designed to provide the CMMS end user community with information, resources and education relating to preplanning purchases and making effective use of computerized maintenance management systems.

In evaluating the acquisition of a CMMS or adding to or replacing an existing CMMS an ROI should be performed to obtain data to justify the acquisition. An ROI calculator to determine an organizations potential savings from an improved management of their maintenance program is available at the following locations:

Business Industrial Network's CMMS ROI calculator , Datastream and Maintenance Resources

The following are some company web sites that offer CMMS software. There are many others that can be found on the Internet with a "CMMS" search.

Datastream , Micromain Corporation , IBM , Ivara Corporation , Champs Software, Inc. , Davison Software , TMA Systems ,

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fsc Limited and MaintSmart Software, Inc.

Whole Building Design Guide (WBDG) Resource Page Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM) provides information and guidance on preventive maintenance and on selecting KPIs.

The National Aeronautics and Spaces Administrations (NASA) provides insight into the use of Facilities Maintenance Management Automation in Chapter 6 of their procedures requirements document, Facilities Maintenance Management.

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Space TypesThere are many different types of spaces in a building, and each type of space has its own characteristics and requirements. This section of the WBDG provides information and guidance organized by functional space types, which complements the WBDG Building Types pages. For each Space Types page there is a discussion of the general attributes and requirements of the space as well as example configurations, layouts, and construction criteria. Space Types pages are also linked to related Building Types pages and Resource Pages that explain strategies, technologies, and emerging issues relevant to that specific Space Type. Further, all WBDG design objectives: accessible, aesthetics, cost effective, functional/operational, historic preservation, productive, secure/safe, and sustainable and their interrelationships must be understood, evaluated, and appropriately applied within the spaces. As such, each of these design objectives is presented in the context of the others throughout the Space Types pages as they apply.

Atrium Auditorium Automated Data Processing: Mainframe Automated Data Processing: PC System Child Care Clinic / Health Unit Conference / Classroom Courthouse: Courtroom Courthouse: Enhanced Office Courthouse: Judicial Chamber Firing Range Food Service General Storage Hearing Room Joint Use Retail Laboratory: Dry Laboratory: Wet

Library Light Industrial Loading Dock Lobby Mail Center Office Parking: Basement Parking: Outside / Structured Parking: Surface Physical Fitness (Exercise Room) Place of Worship

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Plaza Private Toilet Warehouse

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Family Service Centersby Eric G. MionLewis & Zimmerman Associates, Inc.

Last updated: 04-21-2008

Overview

The Family Service Center is a community-based facility that provides educational and support programs primarily for adults and families. The support programs offered will vary widely and can include the following:

Counseling. Counseling services may include clinical mental heath counseling, marriage or other family counseling, and abuse counseling.

Employment support. These services include resume preparation assistance, job search assistance, and interviewing techniques.

Financial management. These services include training and counseling for basic personal and family financial management such as balancing a checkbook, managing credit, applying for loans, etc.

Community orientation. These services provide information on local community services and recreational opportunities.

Some facilities may include aid- or charity-based services such as a food bank or financial aid. Military Family Service Centers support the programs required by the Department of Defense (DoD) Instruction 1342.22 Family Centers and must meet specific requirements defined in UFC 4-730-01, Family Service Centers and supporting documents.

Most of the facility's programs can be accommodated through three functional space types: classroom and training space, resource rooms (library/computer labs), and program or counseling offices. Additional functional areas include administrative spaces, dedicated storage spaces, and building support spaces.

Building Attributes

A. Space Types and Building Organization

A Family Service Center must accommodate both public spaces and very private spaces. This drives the facility layout and functional space adjacencies.

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Sample adjacency diagram for a family service center.Developed by DMJM Design, Arlington, VA.

Public spaces are areas that customers need ready access to and may enter unattended by staff. They should typically be located near the main entrance and include the following:

Lobby/waiting area Classroom(s) Resource room and Public toilets

Semipublic spaces are areas that customers need access to but will usually only enter accompanied by a staff member. They include the following:

Program offices for programs such as community orientation or employment support that do not require a high degree of privacy and

Material aid such as a food bank or lending locker

Private spaces are areas that customers will not normally enter or areas that a customer will only enter with a staff member and require a high degree of privacy. They include the following:

Clinical counseling offices Group therapy rooms Program offices that require a high degree of privacy such as financial

management Staff administrative offices and work areas and Building support spaces such as mechanical and electrical rooms

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Design the facility such that the entrances to the public spaces are clearly visible from the main entrance. The resource room shares many characteristics with a library. It should be designed to accommodate multiple computers with Internet access and the storage and easy retrieval of printed reference material. The resource room should also allow for display of informational brochures, such as for community resources and recreational activities.

Staffed program offices are directly adjacent to the resource room so customers using the resources can easily ask questions and interface with staff. Likewise, staff members that are meeting with customers in their offices can easily take the customer into the resource room and set them up for independent research.

The classrooms are configured like typical training facility rooms and should be designed for flexibility of use. Since prime class time is limited to the early evening hours after work, a flexible design will provide facility managers with more options for running multiple classes. If budget allows, consider providing a teaching kitchen as part of or in addition to the classrooms.

The private spaces should not be located in high traffic areas. The counseling spaces are similar to psychiatric facility spaces and should feel safe, confidential, and non-threatening. A beneficial additional space adjacent to counseling offices or group therapy rooms is a waiting and/or decompression room. This room provides a private space for a distraught customer waiting to see a counselor or for a customer to compose him or herself after an emotionally difficult session prior to reentering the public spaces.

B. Design Considerations

Key design goals and considerations for Family Service Centers include the following:

Non-threatening Environment

In order for customers to feel comfortable using the services of a Family Service Center, they must not feel intimidated. They also must feel that the information they share and the emotions they express will remain confidential. Therefore, the following design elements are critical:

Physically separate private spaces from public spaces. Provide acoustical privacy. Counseling and therapy spaces should use full-height

partitions that extend to the underside of the structure and include materials that reduce sound transmission.

Do not place a desk or other furniture between the customer and the staff member (see figure below).

Provide a sense of welcome and arrival at the entrance, lobby, and control desk. In the counseling and therapy spaces, use indirect lighting as main ambient

lighting, and Avoid "institutional" finishes, textures, and colors.

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Sample private counseling office.Developed by DMJM Design, Arlington, VA.

Include Appropriate Space for Staff

Provide space to assist staff in developing and maintaining the center's programs and business. Outside of normal day-to-day operations, staff must be able to accomplish the following:

Think and plan Meet and communicate Host visitors and Store equipment and records. Also review the psychiatric facility page for more

information on HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) regulations that address security and privacy of protected health information.

Also see the office space type for more information on staff space.

Maintain a Safe and Healthy Environment

Design the facility to accommodate equipment and operational strategies to both protect staff and customers and maintain a healthy environment. Consider the following critical elements:

Prevent unauthorized access by potentially dangerous personnel Provide an internal, silent duress alarm system with activation points at the

reception desk and the counseling and therapy areas and the alarm signal at the

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management areas. This alarm system allows a counselor or staff member to signal for help.

Provide easily-cleaned finishes Use nontoxic building materials and improved maintenance practices Ensure good indoor air quality and ample natural light

Flexibility

As with any program-based facility, flexibility is critical since programs will change as the community served evolves and grows:

Provide movable partitions and numerous data ports and electrical outlets in the classrooms

Orient as many program offices as possible around the resource room Design for the changing nature of work

Emerging Issues

One approach to the management of family service centers encourages staff to spend more time out in the community versus in the facility. If this operational approach is followed, it requires a smaller but more flexible facility design. Staff will normally work in an open office setting rather than private offices since they will spend more time outside of the facility. Staff-customer meetings will be performed in an expanded resource room or in dedicated interview rooms that can be reserved when a private meeting is necessary.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Standard federal and state building codes apply, as appropriate. Also review the codes and standards for the aforementioned related building types: psychiatric facilities, libraries, and training facilities.

Department of Defense

DoD Instruction 1342.22, Family Centers Department of the Air Force: Air Force Instruction (AFI) 36, 3009, Family Support Center Program Department of the Army: Army Regulation (AR) 608-1, Community Service Program UFC 4-730-01, Family Service Centers

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Community Services

Overview

The Community Services building type is distinguished by the wide range of different facility types that fall under it. While all Community Services facilities share a common purpose in the service of public needs, each facility is very specialized and the functional requirements are extremely varied. For example, facilities such as museums, visitor centers, and youth centers are recreational in nature, accommodate the general public, and are open and welcoming in design character. However, facilities such as police and fire stations, while sometimes being partially open to the public, comprise many spaces that are intended to be occupied only by highly trained professionals. Spaces such as the following will represent unsafe or high-risk areas to the general public:

Police holding cells, Police firing ranges, and Fire-fighting apparatus bays and equipment maintenance rooms.

Therefore, the design and functional layout of these facilities will vary widely. If there is one unifying theme to these building types, it is that the exterior architectural message should respect the cultural tastes and history of the community served.

Emerging Issues

As with all public buildings and buildings with a 24-hour staff, several design issues have gained increased attention over recent years:

Quality of life issues for staff, particularly overnight staff, and health and safety concerns for patrons drive issues such as daylighting, the specification of non-toxic building materials, and the quality of finishes and the environment they create;

Anti-terrorism/force protection measures are vital to protect life, protect physical assets, and to maintain operations in critical community service facilities such as police and fire stations; and

Return on investment is of paramount importance and can be enhanced through the use of renewable energy sources and sustainable design principles.

Classification

As noted, the range of Community Services facility types is vast and varied:

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Auditoriums Banks/Credit Unions Central Laundry/Dry-Cleaning Facilities Community Centers Fire Stations Fitness Center Museums Police Stations Post Offices Visitor Centers Youth Centers

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Clinic / Health Unitby WBDG Staff

Last updated: 03-13-2007

Overview

The Clinic/Health Unit space types are facilities where outpatient ambulatory health services are provided. Sub-space types, such as office spaces, private toilets, and filing and storage areas are included.

This space type does not include provisions for invasive surgery, in-patient services, medical diagnostic categories I, II, and III equipment (including exam lights and medical gas systems), radiological diagnostic services (including special structural elements and radiation shielding on ceiling and floor areas), darkroom revolving door systems, or medical laboratory spaces. Clinics where general anesthesia, invasive procedures, or overnight care are provided require Institutional Occupancy construction types and are not included.

See Health Care, Hospital, Nursing Home, Outpatient Clinic, and Psychiatric Facility for more information about inpatient and specialized care facilities.

Space Attributes

The Clinic/Health Unit space type should provide a sanitary and therapeutic environment in which patients can be treated by medical practitioners quickly and effectively. Typical features of clinic/health unit space types include the list of applicable design objectives elements as outlined below. For a complete list and definitions of the design objectives within the context of whole building design, click on the titles below.

Accessible

All areas should comply with the minimum requirements of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and, if federally funded or owned, with the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS). For more information, see WBDG Accessible Branch and Comply with Accessibility Requirements (historic facilities).

Functional / Operational

Cleanliness and Sanitation: The cleanliness of a facility is not only related to a patient's medical recovery, but can also affect the perceived level of care. To

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maintain a sanitary environment, spaces should be easy to clean and maintain. Use durable finishes and sterile/antimicrobial surfaces as necessary. For more information, see WBDG Therapeutic Environments.

Occupancy: The occupancy classification for the Clinic/Health Unit space type is Business Occupancy B2, with sprinklered protected construction and GSA Acoustical Class C2.

Productive

Efficiency and Flexibility: The layout of the Clinic/Health Unit should promote prompt and reliable medical attention. Relationship and flow diagrams created at the beginning of the design process will ensure a sensible programming of space. Office support spaces such as workrooms, file rooms, copier areas, coat storage, and lockers typically will be integrated into the clinic environment. Flexibility must also be a basic feature of any health care facility to keep it from rapid obsolescence in the face of changing needs and technologies.

Acoustic and Visual Privacy: The new HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accessibility Act) regulations address the security and privacy of "protected health information" (PHI). These regulations put new emphasis on acoustic and visual privacy, and may affect location and layout of workstations that handle medical records and other patient information-both paper and electronic-as well as patient accommodations. Flow diagrams created in the beginning of the design process should address controlled access areas.

Secure / Safe

Emergency Backup Systems: Typically, this space type will require emergency battery backup for 25% of lighting. Refer to individual utility requirements for specific medical equipment.

Example Program

The following building program is representative of Clinic/Health Unit spaces.

HEALTH UNIT

DescriptionTenant Occupiable Areas

Qty.SF Each

Space Req'd.

Sum Actual SF

Tenant Usable Factor

Tenant USF

Entry Lobby       240    

    Waiting 1 120 120      

    Reception/Registration 1 60 60      

    Payee Window 1 60 60      

General Patient Care       684    

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    Physician Office/Consult 1 120 120      

    Exam Room 3 108 324      

    Nurse Work Area 1 40 40      

    Patient Toilets 1 60 60      

    Clean/Supply Room 1 60 60      

    Medications Storage 1 20 20      

    Soiled Utility Room 1 60 60      

Medical Records       60    

    Medical Records Files 1 60 60      

Staff Support Spaces       216    

    Staff Toilet (Male) 1 60 60      

    Staff Toilet (Female) 1 60 60      

    Staff Break Room 1 60 60      

    Housekeeping 1 36 36      

             

    Tenant Suite     1,200 1,200 1.53 1,840

             

Tenant Usable Areas           1,840

Example Plans

The following diagram is representative of typical tenant plans.

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Example Construction Criteria

For GSA, the unit costs for the Clinic/Health Unit space type are based on the construction quality and design features in the following table (PDF 57 KB, 5 pgs). This information is based on GSA's benchmark interpretation and could be different for other owners.

Relevant Codes and Standards

The following agencies and organizations have developed codes and standards affecting the design of health facilities, including clinics. Note that the codes and standards are minimum requirements. Architects, engineers, and consultants should consider exceeding the applicable requirements whenever possible:

Americans with Disabilities Act Guidelines for the Design and Construction of Hospitals and Health Care

Facilities by AIA Academy of Architecture for Health. Washington, DC: The American Institute of Architects, 2001.

Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 , GSA International Building Code Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards Department of Veterans Affairs (VA): Office of Facilities Management Technical

Information Library contains many guides and standards, including: Design

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Guides for planning hospital based ambulatory care clinics, community based outpatient clinics, satellite outpatient clinics, and ambulatory surgery clinics. This information library also includes Design Manuals of technical requirements, equipment lists, master specifications, room finishes, space planning criteria, and standard details.

Major Resources

WBDG

Building Types

Community Services, Youth Centers, Educational Facilities, Child Development Centers, Training Facility, Health Care Facilities, Office Building, Research Facilities

Design Objectives

Accessible, Aesthetics—Engage the Integrated Design Process, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable

Products and Systems

Section 23 05 93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers, Building Envelope Design Guide

Project Management

Building Commissioning, Project Planning and Development

Publications

AIA Academy of Architecture for Health (AAH) —Contains AAH newsletters, reports, and other documents related to health care design

Architectural Graphic Standards, 10th Edition by Charles Ramsey, Harold Sleeper, and John Hoke. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.

Building Type Basics for Healthcare Facilities ed. Stephen A. Kliment. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.

Design That Cares: Planning Health Facilities for Patients and Visitors, 2nd ed. by Janet R. Carpman, Myron A. Grant and Deborah A. Simmons. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.

Innovations in Healthcare Design: Selected Presentations from the First Five Symposia on Healthcare Design ed. Sara Marberry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995.

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Design DisciplinesEvery building project has a unique set of program goals and technical requirements that demand assembling all the stakeholders and a team of professionals in various design disciplines. Each design discipline has a different set of skills, professional standards, and issues that drive how they operate in the building process. Traditionally, many disciplines provide a specialized technical service that is not always well coordinated with other aspects of the project. 'Whole building,' or integrated, design as a process requires the various stakeholders and disciplines to coordinate and interact as early as possible in the process, and throughout the life cycle of the project to achieve a holistic solution that may yield multiple benefits.

Architecture Cost Estimating Fire Protection Engineering HVAC and Refrigerating Engineering Information Technologies Engineering Interior Design

Landscape Architecture Planning Plumbing Engineering Architectural Programming Structural Engineering

This Branch of the WBDG has been developed to assist participants in planning, design, and construction programs understand how building design disciplines are organized and practice. This Branch also offers insight into creating opportunities for successful project delivery through a coordinated, integrated design, construction, and management process. Each Design Discipline page provides information and guidance from a 'whole building' perspective. In addition, each page includes a discussion of the discipline's professional services, legal definition, their roles and responsibilities in the emerging integrated design process, other emerging issues facing the professional discipline, the codes and standards governing or affecting their practice, and lists of numerous resources relating to each discipline. With this knowledge in hand, each professional will be able to move beyond conventional practice to a more comprehensive, integrated practice.

Design Discipline Pages are also linked to related Resource Pages, Design Objectives, Building Types, and Space Types that explain strategies, technologies, and emerging issues relevant to that specific Design Discipline. Each design discipline is encouraged to review the other design disciplines. By expanding your knowledge of their roles and responsibilities, you will be able to work together better, identify gaps and omissions, and resolve issues holistically.

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More Design Disciplines Pages will be posted when they are available. If you are a qualified professional and would like to develop a Design Discipline Page for any of the following disciplines, please contact us for more information:

Archaeologist Site Engineer Civil Engineer Surveyor Demolition Specialist Waste Management Specialist Soils Engineer Seismic Engineering Blast Resistance Expert Electrical Engineer Lighting Designer Building Envelope Specialist LEED® Specialist Commissioning Agent Historic Preservation Specialist Conveyance Specialist Space Planner Productivity Specialist Acoustical Engineer

Design ObjectivesEach design objective described herein is significantly important, yet it is just one aspect of what it takes to achieve a successful project. A truly successful project is one where project goals are identified early on and where the interdependencies of all building systems are coordinated concurrently from the planning and programming phase. Further, all WBDG design objectives: accessible, aesthetics, cost effective, functional/operational, historic preservation, productive, secure/safe, and sustainable and their interrelationships must be understood, evaluated, and appropriately applied. Each of these design objectives is presented in the context of the others throughout the WBDG web site.

Accessible

Pertains to building elements, heights and clearances implemented to address the specific needs of disabled people.

Related topics:

Provide Equal Access

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Plan for Flexibility: Be Proactive

Aesthetics

Pertains to the physical appearance and image of building elements and spaces as well as the integrated design process.

Related topics:

Engage the Appropriate Language and Elements of Design Engage the Integrated Design Process Select Appropriate Design Professionals Design Awards

Cost-Effective

Pertains to selecting building elements on the basis of life-cycle costs (weighing options during concepts, design development, and value engineering) as well as basic cost estimating and budget control.

Related topics:

Utilize Cost Management Throughout the Planning, Design, and Development Process

Use Economic Analysis to Evaluate Design Alternatives Consider Non-Monetary Benefits such as Aesthetics, Historic Preservation,

Security, and Safety

Functional / Operational

Pertains to functional programming—spatial needs and requirements, system performance as well as durability and efficient maintenance of building elements.

Related topics:

Account for Functional Needs Ensure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration Meet Performance Objectives

Historic Preservation

Pertains to specific actions within a historic district or affecting a historic building whereby building elements and strategies are classifiable into one of the four approaches: preservation, rehabilitation, restoration, or reconstruction.

Related topics:

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Apply the Preservation Process Successfully Update Building Systems Appropriately Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs Comply with Accessibility Requirements

Productive

Pertains to occupants' well-being—physical and psychological comfort—including building elements such as air distribution, lighting, workspaces, systems, and technology.

Related topics:

Integrate Technological Tools Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces Design for the Changing Workplace Promote Health and Well-Being Provide Comfortable Environments

Secure / Safe

Pertains to the physical protection of occupants and assets from man-made and natural hazards.

Related topics:

Plan for Fire Protection Ensure Occupant Safety and Health Resist Natural Hazards Provide Security for Building Occupants and Assets

Sustainable

Pertains to environmental performance of building elements and strategies.

Related topics:

Optimize Site Potential Optimize Energy Use Protect and Conserve Water Use Environmentally Preferable Products Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

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Accessibleby the WBDG Accessible Committee

Last updated: 04-28-2008

Overview

"We hold these truths to be self-evident: that all men are created equal..."- Declaration of Independence, July 4, 1776

In daily life, as we maneuver through society, nothing is more important yet taken for granted more often than access. For millions of people with disabilities, the access that most of us take for granted is difficult, impossible, or achievable only with the intervention of a third party. We live in what is considered an independent society, yet independent access to programs, facilities, and employment are not easily achievable by many. Physical access is historically the arbiter of success and the source of opportunity in education, employment, and social freedom. Thus, accessibility is a civil rights issue for many people with disabilities and for our society.

History of Accessible Building Design

The accessibility movement has common roots with the civil rights movement and the Civil Rights Act of 1964. These roots lie in the structure and implementation of laws dealing with accessibility.

The first nationally recognized accessible design standard American National Standards Institute (ANSI) A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities. Released in 1961, this standard was based upon research done by the University of Illinois and funded by the Easter Seals Research Foundation. It served as an important reference for private entities and local and state governments. In 1974, the standard received federal input when the Department of Housing and Urban Development joined the Secretariat of the committee in charge of the standard.

Since 1968, when the Architectural Barriers Act was passed, the federal government has taken steps to address accessibility and its enforcement in facilities designed, built, altered, or leased using certain federal funds. The timeline below details many of these steps.

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(Courtesy of Bill Brack)

Milestones of Accessible Design Requirements

1961 American National Standard Institute (ANSI) A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities—Became the private sector model for a technical standard for accessible features. This document was most recently updated and published in 2003.

1964 Civil Rights Act—Made racial discrimination in public places illegal, required employers to provide equal employment opportunities, stated that uniform standards must prevail for establishing the right to vote

1968 Architectural Barriers Act (ABA)—Requires that facilities designed, constructed, altered, or leased with certain federal funds be accessible to persons with disabilities

1973 Rehabilitation Act—Prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in programs conducted by federal agencies, in programs receiving federal financial assistance, in federal employment, and in the employment practices of federal contractorsSection 504—Each agency has its own set of section 504 regulations that apply to its programs. Agencies that provide federal financial assistance also have section 504 regulations covering entities that receive federal aid. Requirements common to these regulations include reasonable accommodation for employees with disabilities; program accessibility; effective communication with people who have hearing or vision disabilities; and accessible new construction and alterations.

1984 Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)—Contains accessibility scoping and technical requirements implementing the Architectural Barriers Act of 1968

1988 Fair Housing Amendments Act (FHAA)—Requires adaptable features in certain covered multi-family dwellings with 4 or more units

1990 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)—Prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability; establishes design requirements for the construction or alteration of facilities required to be accessible. It covers facilities in the private sector (places of public accommodation and commercial facilities) and the public sector (state and

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local government facilities).Title I—Access to workplaceTitle II—State and local government servicesTitle III—Places of public accommodation and commercial facilitiesTitle IV—Telecommunications: hearing or speech impairmentsTitle V—Miscellaneous instructions to Federal agencies that enforce the law

1991 Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines—Provides minimum technical and scoping criteria for compliance with the FHA

1991 American with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG)—Contains scoping and technical requirements for access to buildings and facilities by individuals with disabilities under the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990.As originally published in July 1991, ADAAG addressed places of public accommodation and commercial facilities in the private sector. ADAAG was updated in September of 1991 to cover transportation facilities in the private and public sectors.

1998 ADA Accessibility Guidelines—Amended to include guidelines for state and local government facilities and building elements designed for children's use

2000 ADA Accessibility Guidelines—Amended to include guidelines for play areas

2002 ADA Accessibility Guidelines—Amended to include guidelines for recreation facilities

2002 Help America Vote Act—Regulates equipment and voting booths for equal access voting areas

2003 Equal Opportunity Commission Management Directive 715—Provides a roadmap for creating effective equal employment opportunity (EEO) programs for all federal employees as required by Title VII and the Rehabilitation Act

2004 ADA and ABA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities—Updated and published in the Federal Register in July of 2004

Summary information about these regulations is available at the Department of Justice's Guide to Disability Rights Laws.

Definition and Goals of Accessible Design

(Courtesy of Bill Brack)

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If we live long enough, all of us may eventually have a disability that requires a modification of the built enviroment. The number of Americans having a disability is projected to grow rapidly as our population ages. One outgrowth of this is that the line between who is and who is not a person with a disability will steadily erode. We must redefine and redirect our traditional understanding of designing for accessibility to not only include those persons permanently disabled, but also those temporarily disabled due to an injury as well as any other potentially debilitating condition.

The Accessible branch of the WBDG is designed primarily to provide insight and raise awareness on accessible design issues. For information about compliance with accessibility guidelines and standards for a particular facility, contact the Department of Justice or the U.S. Access Board.

Two principles of accessible design are:

Provide Equal Access Accessible design benefits all of us at some point in our lives. The goal of accessible design is to provide equal use of the built environment for all people.

Plan for Flexibility: Be Proactive Being proactive by planning for flexible design features and products will increase the likelihood of providing equal access over the life cycle of the facility.

Note: Information in these Accessible pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high performance buildings.

Emerging Issues

Revision of ABA and ADA Accessibility Guidelines

The U.S. Access Board's guidelines issued under the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) have been completely updated and revised. The ADA Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) cover the construction and alteration of facilities in the private sector (places of public accommodation and commercial facilities) and the public sector (state and local government facilities). The accessibility guidelines issued under the ABA primarily address facilities in the federal sector and others designed, built, altered, or leased with federal funds. The guidelines under both laws have been combined into one rule entitled Americans with Disabilities Act and Architectural Barriers Act Accessibility Guidelines that contains three parts: a scoping document for ADA facilities, a scoping document for ABA facilities, and a common set of technical criteria that the scoping sections will reference. As a result, the requirements for both ADA and ABA facilities will be made more consistent. The updated guidelines were published as a final rule in the Federal Register in July of 2004.

Revision of Accessibility Standards

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The federal agencies that are responsible for setting the standards to enforce the ADA and ABA are revising their standards so that they are consistent with the updated guidelines. For the ADA, the responsible agencies are the U.S. Department of Justice and Department of Transportation. The responsible agencies for the ABA are the U.S. Postal Service, Housing and Urban Development, General Services Administration, and Department of Defense. Until an agency revises its standards, the current standards will remain in effect. For more information, contact the U.S. Access Board.

Relevant Codes and Standards

ADAAG 104 "Reference Standards" section ASME A17.1 Safety Code for Elevators and Escalators ASME A18.1 Safety Standard for Platform Lifts and Stairway Chairlifts International Code Council (ICC) —ICC is the secretariat for the ICC/ANSI

A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities, International Building Code, International Existing Building Code, International Residential Code

ICC Code Requirements for Housing Accessibility (CRHA) —Provides an opportunity for safe harbor in compliance with accessibility requirements in the federal Fair Housing Act

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) —NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm Code, NFPA 5000 Building Construction and Safety Code, NFPA 101 Life Safety Code

Major Resources

The major resource for guidance on accessible design is the U.S. Access Board (Access Board). The Access Board is an independent federal agency devoted to accessibility for people with disabilities. Key responsibilities of the Board include developing and maintaining accessibility requirements for the built environment, transit vehicles, telecommunications equipment, and electronic and information technology; providing technical assistance and training on these guidelines and standards; and enforcing accessibility standards for federally funded facilities. For additional resources, see the Access Board's Links Page.

Federal Mandates, Legislation, etc.

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) ANSI A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines Help America Vote Act Rehabilitation Act Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)

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Organizations

ADA&IT Technical Assistance Centers Adaptive Environments Center for Universal Design

Federal Agencies

ADA Information Line for documents, questions, and referrals:(800) 514-0301 (voice)(800) 514-0383 (TTY)

Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity (FHEO)—HUD enforces the Fair Housing Act and has issued guidelines under this law (the Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines) which cover multi-family housing. Information is also available on how to file a complaint with HUD under the Fair Housing Act. HUD's website also addresses access under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.

Department of Justice (DOJ) —DOJ offers technical assistance on the ADA Standards for Accessible Design and other ADA provisions applying to public accommodations and commercial facilities, including businesses, nonprofit service agencies, and state and local government programs and services; also provides information on how to file ADA complaints. Many of its technical assistance letters are available online.

Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)—Accessibility Program General Services Administration (GSA)—National Accessibility Program U.S. Air Force—Air Force Center of Expertise for Accessibility U.S. Army—TI 800-01 Design Criteria, Chapter 7, Provision for Individuals with

Physical Disabilities, Section 4, 20 July 1998. U.S. Navy—NAVFAC PDPS 94-01, Barrier Free Design Accessibility

Requirements, 26 May 1994 (Revised 1 June 1997).

Provide Equal Accessby the WBDG Accessible Committee

Last updated: 04-28-2008

Overview

For Americans with disabilities, access means simply being able to use, enjoy, and participate in the many aspects of society, including work, commerce, and leisure activities. While removing architectural barriers may allow people with disabilities to circulate within and around a facility, other factors, such as transportation, affect their

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ability to fully participate in activities. Designers and other suppliers of services and goods need to provide equal access for all without undermining the needs of people with disabilities.

What is "Equal Access"?

Providing equal access means ensuring all individuals can make use of transportation, buildings and facilities, programs and services, employment opportunities, and technology. It also means offering all users the same provisions for privacy, security, and safety.

Design professionals can promote equal access by incorporating accessible features throughout a building's program.

The renovated Post Office at Ronald Reagan National Airport provides equal access to the intake windows, Arlington, VA.Photos before and after the renovation by: Eric Taylor on behalf of the Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority

Why Provide "Equal Access"?

Providing equal access removes discrimination and protects human rights. An accessible built environment provides the opportunity for all people to fully participate in and contribute to their families, communities, and society. Equal access offers individuals the occasion to improve the quality of life and standard of living for themselves, their families, and other people in the world. Finally, providing equal access is required, to varying degrees, in order to meet applicable building codes, accessibility standards, and accessibility guidelines.

How Do We Achieve "Equal Access"?

Equal access must be an integral part of the life-cycle process (planning, programming, design, construction, operation, and maintenance) of buildings and facilities, not an afterthought. Accessible features should blend with the design. All stakeholders on the project should work together from the start to coordinate and optimize the design of the site and the building. A building and its site should be designed as an integrated whole,

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rather than as a collection of isolated systems (see also WBDG Functional—Ensure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration).

Design and construction decisions impact accessibility. Single building elements or systems should not be added, deleted, or modified anytime in the life of the building until they are coordinated and evaluated with the other elements and systems in the whole building package and with all parties involved.

Keep in mind that "equal access" applies to programs, services, benefits, transportation, fixtures, furnishings, equipment, employment opportunities, and technology. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in aspects of all programs conducted by Federal agencies, in programs receiving Federal financial assistance, in Federal employment, and in the employment practices of Federal contractors.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) ANSI A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines Rehabilitation Act Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)

Major Resources

WBDG

Products and Systems

Fenestration Systems—Exterior Doors

The major resource for guidance on accessible design is the U.S. Access Board (Access Board). The Access Board is an independent federal agency devoted to accessibility for people with disabilities. Key responsibilities of the Board include developing and maintaining accessibility requirements for the built environment, transit vehicles, telecommunications equipment, and electronic and information technology; providing technical assistance and training on these guidelines and standards; and enforcing accessibility standards for federally funded facilities. For additional resources, see the Access Board's Links Page.

Organizations

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International Code Council (ICC) —ICC is the secretariat for the ICC/ANSI A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities.

ICC Code Requirements for Housing Accessibility (CRHA) —Provides an opportunity for safe harbor in compliance with accessibility requirements in the federal Fair Housing Act.

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) —NFPA 72 National Fire Alarm Code

Federal Agencies

ADA Information Line for documents, questions, and referrals: (800) 514-0301 (voice) (800) 514-0383 (TTY) Department of Defense (DOD): U.S. Air Force—Air Force Center of Expertise for Accessibility U.S. Army—TI-800-01, Provision for Individuals with Physical Disabilities,

Chapter 7, Section 4, 20 July 1998. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)—Office of Fair Housing

and Equal Opportunity (FHEO)—HUD enforces the Fair Housing Act and has issued guidelines under this law (the Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines) which cover multi-family housing. Information is also available on how to file a complaint with HUD under the Fair Housing Act. HUD's website also addresses access under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.

Department of Justice (DOJ) —DOJ offers technical assistance on the ADA Standards for Accessible Design and other ADA provisions applying to public accommodations and commercial facilities, including businesses, nonprofit service agencies, and state and local government programs and services; also provides information on how to file ADA complaints. Many of its technical assistance letters are available online.

Department of Transportation (DOT)—People with Disabilities Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)—Accessibility Program General Services Administration (GSA)—National Accessibility Program

Publications

Mechanical Lift Analysis (Accessibility Method for Accommodation of Physically Disabled People in the U.S. Courthouse Courtrooms)

The Principles of Universal Design, Version 2.0 by The Center for Universal Design. North Carolina State University: 01 Apr 1997.

Others

Special thanks to Lex Frieden for his inspiring words in the speech "Toward a Barrier Free World for All," April 5, 2001.

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Plan for Flexibility: Be Proactiveby the WBDG Accessible Committee

Last updated: 04-28-2008

Overview

During the early stages of developing a building, when the planning, programming, and concept design are being shaped and molded, there may be many goals. An owner may talk about the ultimate design providing a "user-friendly work environment" and "future flexibility." What exactly does this mean? Physically, these concepts are demonstrated with spaces that can be easily modified and that can serve a variety of purposes for a diverse group of users. See also WBDG Productive and WBDG Functional.

Flexible design principles include spaces that:

are easy to modify (See also WBDG Productive—Design for the Changing Workplace.)

can serve multiple uses and/or users (See also WBDG Functional—Account for Functional Needs.)

accommodate future technologies (See also WBDG Productive—Integrate Technological Tools.)

are life-cycle cost-effective.

Flexibility in accessible design manifests in the concepts of Universal Design and Visit-Ability described below.

Universal Design and Visit-Ability

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This grade level building entrance utilizes universal design priciples. Student Union, University of Arizona—Tucson, AZ

In accessible design, "flexibility" manifests in the concepts of Universal Design and Visit-Ability described below.

Universal Design advocates addressing human needs within the mainstream of building and product design. Many of the design features that are user-friendly and flexible are simply good design practices, rather than requirements of a building code or accessibility standard or guideline. According to the Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University, the intent of universal design is to simplify life for everyone by making products, communications, and the built environment more usable by as many people as possible at little or no extra cost. Universal Design benefits people of all ages and abilities.

As such, one should note that providing Universal Design features in a building does not necessarily mean that one has complied with the legal and regulatory accessibility criteria, including those contained in the UFAS and ADAAG. These ideas must not be used interchangeably. Universal design concepts developed over the years promote environments, building components, and features designed to be "usable by all people, to the greatest extent possible, without the need for adaptation, specialized design, or significant additional cost." (Mace)

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The campus master plan at Carnegie Mellon University incorporates the principle that "All improvements to the physical environment shall adhere to the concept of universal design."

The Center for Universal Design at North Carolina State University defines Universal Design principles to include:

Equitable Use Flexibility in Use Simple and Intuitive Perceptible Information Tolerance for Error Low Physical Effort Size and Space for Approach and Use

©1997 NC State University, The Center for Universal Design

These seven principles may be applied to evaluate existing designs; guide the design process; and educate both designers and consumers about the characteristics of more usable products and environments.

The Center for Universal Design provides a comprehensive list of resources on their website.

Visit-Ability

Visit-Ability, a movement started by Atlanta-based Concrete Change, refers to including basic barrier-free features in single-family homes so that they can be visited by relatives, friends, and others who may have disabilities. Visitors with a disability can enter the home through an accessible entrance on an accessible route; easily negotiate spaces and hallways; and enter and use the bathroom. A visit-able home includes a zero-step entry, 32-inch clear width at user passage doors, and a bathroom or powder room on the entrance level. Routes through visit-able homes should also be a minimum of 36 inches wide.

An Additional Benefit of Flexibility: Life-Cycle Cost-Effectiveness

Studies have shown that the additional cost of providing many accessible features in new construction is minimal when compared to adding accessible features during alterations to existing construction. Features and systems that contribute to greater usability in the future should be integrated into the design at the onset of the project. For example, according to Concrete Change, on average and depending on the type of foundation, it costs approximately $150 extra for a zero-step entrance when it is included at the time of design and construction. Modifications to achieve a zero-step entry to an existing home could cost at least $1,000 and can be much higher.

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Design and analysis tools, such as ADA Design Assistant and CodeBuddy Version 5.0 Accessibility can be used during the design process to evaluate the benefits of providing accessible design features and products. See also WBDG Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA).

Relevant Codes and Standards

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Americans with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) ANSI A117.1 Accessible and Usable Buildings and Facilities Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines Rehabilitation Act Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)

Major Resources

The major resource for guidance on accessible design is the U.S. Access Board (Access Board). The Access Board is an independent federal agency devoted to accessibility for people with disabilities. Key responsibilities of the Board include developing and maintaining accessibility requirements for the built environment, transit vehicles, telecommunications equipment, and electronic and information technology; providing technical assistance and training on these guidelines and standards; and enforcing accessibility standards for federally funded facilities. For additional resources, see the Access Board's Links Page.

WBDG

Design Objectives

Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational—Account for Functional Needs, Historic—Comply with Accessibility Requirements, Productive—Integrate Technological Tools, Productive—Design for the Changing Workplace, Sustainable

Organizations and Associations

American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) —A nonprofit membership organization dedicated to addressing the needs and interests of persons 50 and older. Through information and education, advocacy and service, AARP enhances the quality of life for all by promoting independence, dignity, and purpose. Among other things, AARP seeks to promote independent living and aging-in-place.

Center for Inclusive Design and Environmental Access (IDEA) , School of Architecture and Planning, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY—The Center is dedicated to improving the design of environments and products by making them

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more usable, safer, and appealing to people with a wide range of abilities, throughout their life spans.

Center for Universal Design —A national research, information, and technical assistance center that evaluates, develops, and promotes universal design in housing, public and commercial facilities, and related products. They have an extensive publications list including material on many aspects of accessible and universal design, as well as slide shows and video tapes to supplement print resources.

Concrete Change —An Atlanta-based organization that started the visit-ability movement. Concrete Change is dedicated to promoting visit-ability in all single-family homes across the U.S. As a result of its advocacy, visit-ability legislation in several cities and towns across the U.S. requires that single-family homes incorporate basic barrier-free design.

Federal Agencies

ADA Information Line for documents, questions, and referrals: (800) 514-0301 (voice) (800) 514-0383 (TTY) Department of Defense (DOD): U.S. Air Force—Air Force Center of Expertise for Accessibility U.S. Army—TI-800-01, Provision for Individuals with Physical Disabilities,

Chapter 7, Section 4, 20 July 1998 Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)—Office of Fair Housing

and Equal Opportunity (FHEO)—HUD enforces the Fair Housing Act and has issued guidelines under this law (the Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines) which cover multi-family housing. Information is also available on how to file a complaint with HUD under the Fair Housing Act. HUD's website also addresses access under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.

Department of Justice (DOJ) —DOJ offers technical assistance on the ADA Standards for Accessible Design and other ADA provisions applying to public accommodations and commercial facilities, including businesses, nonprofit service agencies, and state and local government programs and services; also provides information on how to file ADA complaints. Many of its technical assistance letters are available online.

Department of Transportation (DOT)—People with Disabilities Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)—Accessibility Program General Services Administration (GSA)—National Accessibility Program

Publications

The 1995 Accessible Building Product Guide by John P.S. Salmen and Julie Quarve-Peterson. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995.

Access by Design by George A. Covington and Bruce Hannah. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.

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The Accessibility Checklist—User's Guide by Susan Goltsman, ASLA, Timothy A. Gilbert, ASLA and Wohlford, Steven D. Berkeley, CA: MIG Communications, 1992.

The Accessible Housing Design File by Barrier Free Environments, Inc. and Ronald L. Mace, FAIA. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1991.

The ADA Answer Book by Building Owners and Managers Association International (BOMA). 1992.

The Center for Universal Design (1997). The Principles of Universal Design, Version 2.0. Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State University

Mechanical Lift Analysis (Accessibility Method for Accommodation of Physically Disabled People in the U.S. Courthouse Courtrooms)

The Principles of Universal Design, Version 2.0 by The Center for Universal Design. North Carolina State University: 01 Apr 1997.

Universal Design Handbook by Wolfgang F.E. Preiser and Elaine Ostroff. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001.

Aestheticsby the WBDG Aesthetics Subcommittee

Last updated: 04-28-2008

Overview

aes•thet•ics: 1: a branch of philosophy dealing with the nature of the beautiful and with judgments concerning beauty…

Figure 1: Jose V. Toledo U.S. Post Office and Courthouse, Old San Juan, Puerto Rico.Credits: Finegold Alexander + Associates, and GSA.

Originating from the Greek, aesthetics is the term used since classical times for the study of beauty and the nature of the beautiful. In 1 B.C., Vitruvius the renowned Roman architect declared that all architecture must possess commodity, firmness, and delight (utilitas, firmitas, and venustas). Other aesthetic developments such as the Romanesque, Gothic, Baroque and Neoclassical periods occurred over the next several centuries. In the

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second half of the 19th Century, poets, writers, designers, and architects began to turn again to aesthetic concerns and to place more emphasis on ornament and the past, the result being the Aesthetic Movement and a new freedom in design. The 21st Century brought Art Nouveau, Art Deco, Expressionism, the Bauhaus, Functionalism, Hi-Tech and Post-modernism to name a few. So based on this triad, former Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, then Special Assistant to the Secretary of Labor, wrote in 1962 the Guiding Principles for Federal Architecture. Issued by the Kennedy Administration, it states that federal buildings must be "efficient and economical" as well as "provide visual testimony to the dignity, enterprise, vigor, and stability of the American Government." The study of aesthetics continues to evolve as social, political, and even industrial or technological developments contribute to new views on art, architecture, and design and their manifestations in the built environment.

Architects, interior designers, landscape architects, planners, and other design professionals today have the obligation to address these issues, particularly that of including "delight", and aesthetics. Additionally it is important to understand the vocabulary of aesthetics and how to apply it to the design process or project. (See WBDG pages on Form, Style, and Materials.) It is essential to consider aesthetics not just as it applies to the building façade, but also to interiors and the surrounding context including the landscape, other buildings, and the larger community. However, what qualifies as a beautiful building or place is open to a considerable amount of personal interpretation. Additionally the aesthetic architectural language or architectural expression selected by the architect, design professionals, or client will vary with consideration of context and program, the constructional means selected for the building or project, and personal or cultural inclination. Yet no matter what expression is selected, a good design will be accountable to the users' needs, the client's budget, and public judgment in its many forms. What is most notable today is that there is much variety in the expression of aesthetics occurring simultaneously.

Figure 2: National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Satellite Operations Facility, Suitland, MD.Credits: Morphosis and GSA.

Most designers would also agree that aesthetically satisfactory architecture most often comes from an integrated approach. Beginning with a correctly formulated problem (or program) developed with the client's participation to design reviews involving the

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delivery team to Facility Performance Evaluations conducted with building occupants, this process leads most effectively to the best aesthetics AND cost-effective, secure/safe, sustainable, accessible, functional/operational, etc. solution. Figures 1 and 2 demonstrate the variation in aesthetic solutions to very different architectural and aesthetic programs.

This branch of the WBDG is designed primarily to help those not familiar with architectural design terminology understand the basic process, technique, and language by which architectural aesthetic decisions are made. Towards this end, users are encouraged to investigate three essential principles of aesthetics and design:

Engage the Integrated Design Process The integrated design process involves steps that foster successful integration of the many factors and design disciplines that influence good building design. These steps provide an orderly flow that build on each other, and full and constructive participation of all members of the design and delivery team will help assure the best results.

Engage the Appropriate Language and Elements of Design The language of design describes fundamental visual elements of architecture and design. The appropriate application and thoughtful integration of these elements are key to achieving high quality facilities.

Select Appropriate Design Professionals Individual architectural design firms—including architecture, engineering, interior design, landscape architecture, and planning—may have formal predilections which will be evident in their portfolios. Just as important is the firm's demonstrated ability to conduct an inclusive, comprehensive, and well organized design process, and to produce buildings which are responsive to client and user needs. The appearance of the result may, in the end, derive from the satisfaction of these functional requirements.

The result of successfully integrating the three principles often leads to exemplary projects that are awarded through Design Awards Programs sponsored by professional societies, the federal government, and industry trade associations. These programs offer insight into aesthetic choices and values at a given time in history. For more information see Design Award Programs.

Note: Information in these Aesthetics pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high-performance buildings.

Major Resources

Federal Agencies

Department of Defense (DOD): DOD—UFC 3-120-10 Interior Design U.S. Army—Installation Design Guides

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U.S. Army Corps of Engineers—Engineering and Design Regulation - Interior Design ER 1110-345-122

NAVFAC—MIL-HDBK 1190 Facility Planning and Design Guide, Chapter 5, Section A.1, 1987

U.S. Air Force—Achieving Design Excellence

General Services Administration: Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P-100 , Chapter 1, Section 2 Standard Form 330, Architect-Engineer Qualifications —Architects and engineers

use this form to present their qualifications and experience when seeking federal projects and emphasizes qualifications-based selection for the procurement of A/E services. This form replaces SF 254/255.

Organizations

National Capital Planning Commission (NCPC) —The National Capital Planning Commission provides overall planning guidance for federal land and buildings in the National Capital Region

U.S. Commission of Fine Arts —The Commission of Fine Arts was established by Congress in 1910 as an independent agency to advise the Federal and District of Columbia governments on matters of art and architecture that affect the appearance of the nation's capital.

Associations

The work of many building professionals impact aesthetics decisions. These include architects, landscape architects, interior designers, lighting designers, and engineers. In part to help define the boundaries of professional and aesthetic responsibility, each of these professions is represented by a national trade association. In most cases, the trade association or organization publishes industry guidelines about the legal, ethical, and aesthetics role of their members in the building design process.

Profession Association

Architects The American Institute of Architects (AIA)Society of American Registered ArchitectsNational Council of Architectural Registration Boards      (NCARB) Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture      (ACSA)

Landscape Architects American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA)

Interior Designers American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)Council for Interior Design Accreditation (CIDA)International Interior Design Association (IIDA)National Council for Interior Design Qualification (NCIDQ)

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Lighting Designers Illuminating Engineering Society of North America      (IESNA) International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD)

Professional Engineers American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-      Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE)American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE)Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)Society of American Military Engineers (SAME)Structural Engineers Association International (SEA)

Planners American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP)American Planning Association (APA)

Others ASIS InternationalAssociated General Contractors (AGC) of AmericaAudio Engineering Society (AES)Building Commissioning AssociationBuilding Owners & Managers Association International      (BOMA) Construction Specifications Institute (CSI)Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA)Foodservice Consultants Society International (FCSI)International Facility Management Association (IFMA)

Publications

The Aesthetic Movement by Lionel Lambourne. London, England: Phaidon Press Limited, 1996. ISBN 0714830003.

Architectural Graphic Standards, 10th Edition by Charles Ramsey, Harold Sleeper, and John Hoke. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.

Architecture For Dummies by Deborah K. Dietsch and Robert A. M. Stern. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.

The Four Books of Architecture by Andrea Palladio and translated by Robert Tavernor and Richard Schofield. Dover Publications, 1965.

Design Professionals and the Built Environment: An Introduction by Paul Knox (Editor), Peter Ozolins (Editor). February 2001. ISBN: 0-471-98515-5.—Brings together many of the world's leading names from the UK, USA, Europe, and Asia; this is the first book to fully reflect the move towards a more synthetic approach in professional and student courses.

A History of Interior Design, 2nd Edition by John Pile. August 2004. ISBN: 0-471-46434-1.—Much like the history of art, the history of interior design encompasses numerous styles, movements and the international political and

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social developments that have informed or challenged its evolution. This lavishly illustrated book will be of interest to anyone who appreciates interior design as well as antiques, furniture design, textiles, decorative objects and the general evolution of the space where we work and live.

Interior Design Illustrated, 2nd Edition by Francis D. K. Ching, Corky Binggeli. October 2004. ISBN: 0-471-47376-6.—Ching's illustrated introduction to interior design is now completely revised to be even more clear and accessible. It includes new and updated material on finishes, furnishings and textiles, lighting, sustainability, acoustics, workstations, and much more.

Interior Graphic Standards by Maryrose McGowan (Editor-in-Chief), Kelsey Kruse (Graphics Editor). New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.

On the Art of Building in Ten Books by Leon Battista Alberti and translated by Joseph Rykwert and Neil Leach. MIT Press, 1988.

A Pattern Language by Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, with Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King, and Shlomo Angel. Oxford University Press, 1977.

The Ten Books on Architecture by Pollio Vitruvius and translated by Morris Hicky Morgan. Dover Publications, 1960.

Glossary of Architecture Terms

archiseek online architectural resources Art & Architecture Thesaurus Online Illustrated Architecture Dictionary

Sample of Great Buildings and Architecture

Architecture and Interior Design Through the 18th Century: An Integrated History by Buie Harwood, Bridget May and Curt Sherman. New York, NY: Prentice-Hall, December 2001. Exceptionally comprehensive, this single-source reference allows readers to compare and contrast architecture, interior design, interior architectural features, design details, motifs, furniture, space planning, color, lighting, textiles, interior surface treatments, and decorative accessories through many centuries—from antiquity to the 18th century—from the many regions of the world.

architekturphoto provides a large-scale, specialized online archive of carefully composed photographs of prominent projects.

The ArcSpace image archive includes brief descriptions of cutting-edge design. Exhibit reviews give a taste of architectural gallery installations.

The Art of Landscape Detail: Fundamentals, Practices, and Case Studies by Niall Kirkwood. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., August 1999. ISBN: 0-471-14044-9. A fresh, holistic approach to the theories, approaches, and practices of landscape detail. With the support of a wealth of graphic and written material taken from historic and contemporary landscape design work, Kirkwood clearly demonstrates the role that landscape detail plays in the design process. Going beyond theoretical considerations, the book outlines landscape detail as a primary

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design activity, both pragmatic and poetic, using a range of built landscape design examples.

The Evolution of American Urban Design: A Chronological Anthology by David Gosling. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., December 2002. ISBN: 0-471-98345-4. Covering a 50-year span, the book seeks to identify built urban design projects and traces the evolution and separation of American urban design theories up to the end of the twentieth century. It includes contemporary designs, projects, and writings in an attempt to identify future directions of the next century.

The Great Buildings Collection The Phaidon Atlas of Contemporary World Architecture is a gorgeous new

compendium of recent design from around the globe. This coffee-table book is so heavy, it's sold in its own carrying case.

Weimar University's Innovative Housing (in German) Website allows you to search by criteria, architect, or name of project. Pick "Kriteriensuche" or "Suche". If you have trouble reading a foreign site, try using the Babelfish translator to get a crude approximation.

Engage the Appropriate Language and Elements of Designby the WBDG Aesthetics Subcommittee

Last updated: 04-28-2008

Overview

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Detail of Louis Sullivan's Wainwright Building—St. Louis, MO

In the late nineteenth century, Chicago architect Louis Sullivan wrote, "Form follows function." This dictum became one of the rallying cries of twentieth century modern design, and remains one of the best known architectural aphorisms today.

What Sullivan implied was that design—or in his phrase, "form,"—is a natural consequence of meeting functional requirements. For many, particularly those uncomfortable with the subjective and decorative dimension of design, this was an appealing message.

But even a cursory look at Sullivan's own architecture reveals that his work is far from purely functional. Indeed, Sullivan is often described as one of the greatest ornamental detailers in American architectural history. It was this aspect of his work that attracted his most famous protégé, Frank Lloyd Wright.

Countering Sullivan's position, it has also been argued¹ that there is no such thing as a purely utilitarian object—that there are always at least two ways of meeting the same functional objective (for example, getting people from the first floor to the second; bringing light into a room; or making a hinge). Once a choice between these two alternatives has been made, an aesthetic consideration has come into play.

The architect is responsible for the design integrity of the building and will make decisions and selections which support this integration. The point is that while it is appealing to reduce design decision making to a brief set of rules or axioms, nearly all designers agree it is impossible to do so.

The Language of Design

It is relatively easy to determine if a given design contains the right square footage or the right number of rooms. It can be more difficult to evaluate its aesthetic success. Complicated, and often conflicting, formal and compositional desires must be weighed in the light of technical, economic, and social constraints.

To assist in this process, like most professionals, architects and other designers share a language and vocabulary that helps them reduce complex ideas into short phrases or highly charged terms. An architectural language is a vocabulary of forms arranged according to a particular grammar. The particular forms used become the 'words' of the language and how those forms are put together is the 'grammar' of the language. To the uninitiated, the use of the language and terms can be dismissed as jargon. But, to the designer, this shared terminology is very much at the heart of aesthetic communication. Indeed, designers must be aware that no matter what design language is used, key players on the project team must be able to understand and communicate well with each other (visually and verbally) to produce successful solutions.

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It is beyond the scope of the WBDG to provide a comprehensive list of design terms and their definitions. However, the fundamental visual elements of design that these terms describe are explained below.

Archetypical Building Elements

Vertical: o Wall, Arch, Beam Lintel, Quoin, Column, Orderso Base: Shaft, Capitalo Openings: Window, Door

Horizontal: o Plinth, Floor, Roof

Style

A distinctive manner of expression or fashion. In architecture, historical styles are often dignified by a specific name such as the Baroque, the Victorian, or the International Style.

Form

Mass and shape define form. Mass refers to the volume defined by a structure relative to its surroundings and to its solidity and weight. Shape is the composition and complexity of the surface planes.

Materials

Both exterior and interior building materials should be selected based upon their appropriateness for the building type, durability, impact on the environment, climatic conditions, and the prevailing architectural design and character of the installation.

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Major Resources

Useful introductions for the layman to architectural design, the design process, and design decision making include the following:

Publications

Architecture For Dummies by Deborah K. Dietsch and Robert A. M. Stern. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.

Architecture: Form, Space, & Order, 3rd Edition by Francis D.K. Ching. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007.

The Architecture of the Well-Tempered Environment by Reyner Banham. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1969.

Experiencing Architecture by S.E. Rasmussen. London, England: Chapman & Hall Ltd, 1959.

How Buildings Learn by Stewart Brand. New York, NY: Viking. 1994. The Nature of Design by David Pye. London, England: Studio Vista, 1964. A Pattern Language by Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray

Silverstein, with Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King, and Shlomo Angel. Oxford University Press, 1977.

The Two Cultures and the Scientific Revolution by C.P. Snow. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 1959.

Glossary of Architecture Terms

archiseek-online architectural resources Art & Architecture Thesaurus Online Illustrated Architecture Dictionary

Sample of Great Buildings and Architecture

The Great Buildings Collection

Engage the Integrated Design Processby the WBDG Aesthetics Subcommittee

Last updated: 02-08-2006

Overview

The design of buildings requires the integration of many kinds of information into a synthetic whole. An integrated process, or "whole building" design process, includes the active and continuing participation of users, code officials, building technologists, cost

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consultants, civil engineers, mechanical and electrical engineers, structural engineers, specifications specialists, and consultants from many specialized fields. The best buildings result from active, consistent, organized collaboration among all players. (See the Design Disciplines branch of the WBDG to learn more about the role of design disciplines in the whole building process.)

The integrated design process enables project team members to work together from the project outset to develop solutions that have multiple benefits.

A. The Integrated Design Process

Preparation for the project can be led by many players but generally comes from the user/client who identifies the need for building on the basis of quantifiable requirements for space and budgetary capacity to undertake the activity. A needs assessment often accompanies this planning activity—it can describe existing space use; develop realistic estimates of requirements, both spatial and technical; and arrive at a space program around which design activity can develop. For larger projects, a construction manager or a general contractor may be engaged at this point. See also WBDG Project Management and Programming.

Once the Pre-design activities are complete, the architect or other prime consultant, in consultation with his or her team of sub-consultants, may produce initial graphic suggestions for the project or portions of it. Such suggestions are meant to stimulate thought and discussion, not necessarily to describe the final outcome. Involvement of sub-consultants is a critical part of the process at this stage - their individual insights made at this point can prevent costly changes further along in the process. Gradually a design emerges which embodies the interests and requirements of all participants while also meeting the overall area requirements which the project budget will have established during Pre-Design activities. The resulting Schematic Designs produced at this stage show site location and organization, general building shape, space allocation, and an outline specification which makes an initial list of components and systems to be designed and/or specified for the final result. Depending on the size of the project, it is often useful to have a cost estimate performed by a professional cost estimator at this point. For smaller projects, one or more possible builders may perform this service as part of a preliminary bidding arrangement—selection can be made on the basis of an estimate at this stage. On larger projects, a cost estimate can be part of the selection process for a builder, assuming other prerequisites like bonding capacity, experience with the type, and satisfactory references are met.

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Design Development enlarges the scale of consideration—greater detail is developed for all aspects of the building—the collaborative process continues with the architect providing graphic focus for the various contributors. Greater detail is considered for all aspects of the building. The conclusion of this phase is a detailed design on which all players agree and may be asked to sign off.

The Development of Contract Documents involves translating the Design Development information into formats suitable for pricing, permitting, and construction. No set of contract documents can ever be perfect, but high quality can be achieved by scrutiny, accountability to the initial program needs by the design team and the client, along with careful coordination among the technical consultants on the design team. Decisions continue to be made with the appropriate contributions of all players. Changes in scopes during this phase will become more expensive once pricing has begun. Changes to the contract documents invite confusion, errors, and added costs. Cost estimates by an estimator may be made at this point, prior to or simultaneous with bidding, in order to assure compliance with the budget and to check the bids. Bids taken at this point may be used as a basis for selecting a builder.

After the general contractor is selected and during the Construction Phase, the designers and other members of the team must remain fully involved. Decisions previously made may require clarification; suppliers' information must be reviewed for compliance with the Contract Documents; and substitutions must be evaluated. Contract Documents are never perfect—clarifications will be required. If changes affect the operation of the building, it is especially important that the user/client be involved. User requirements may change, necessitating changes in the building—these changes require broad consultation among the consultants and sub-consultants, pricing, and incorporation into the contract documents and the building.

The design team is responsible for assuring that the building meets the requirements of the Contract Documents, but the building's success at meeting the requirements of the original program can be assessed by the construction management team or third parties in a process known as Commissioning. Here the full range of functions in the building is evaluated and the design and construction team can be called upon to make changes and adjustments as needed.

After the building is fully operational, it is often useful to conduct a Post-Occupancy Evaluation to assess how the building meets the original and emerging requirements for its use. Such information is especially useful when further construction of the same type is contemplated by the same user. Mistakes can be prevented and successes repeated.

This summary describes the standard operation of the integrated project team. Such a model is neither new nor exceptional. But it depends on:

1. clear and continuous communication2. rigorous attention to detail3. active collaboration among all team members

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—adherence to these principles will assure the best result.

B. The Integrated, Multidisciplinary Project Team

Team Members in a process like this may include the following:

The Owner's Representative: this person must speak for the owner and be prepared to devote the time needed to fully advocate, defend, clarify, and develop the owner's interests. This person may come from within the organization commissioning the project or may be hired as a consultant.

The Construction Manager: this professional is hired on a fee basis to represent the logistics and costs of the construction process. This person can be an architect, a general contractor, or specifically a consulting Construction Manager. It is beneficial for this person to be involved from the beginning of the project.

The Architect acts as the lead designer in most building projects, coordinating the sub-consultants, assuring compliance with the program, and assuring compliance with the budget. In some cases, the architect hires some or all of the sub-consultants; in larger projects the owner may contract directly with some or all of them. He or she provides the progressively more precise and detailed suggestions for the form of the result and manages the production of the contract documents. The architect usually participates in the construction phase of the project, assessing compliance with the contract documents by managing appropriate inspections, submissions approvals, and evaluations by the sub-consultants. The architect assists in the evaluation of requests for payment by the builder.

The Civil Engineer is essential for understanding the land, soil, and regulatory aspects of any construction project; early involvement is essential and the civil engineer is frequently hired directly by the owner in advance of the rest of the design team. The civil engineer prepares his or her own contract documents and assesses compliance of the work with the contract documents.

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The Landscape Architect is often part of the civil engineer's resources, but can also be involved as an independent consultant. In either case, the landscape architect should be involved early in the project to assess natural systems, how they will be affected by the project and the best ways to accommodate the project to those systems.

Consulting Structural, Mechanical, and Electrical Engineers can be engaged by the architect as part of his work or, on larger or more complex projects, may be engaged separately by the owner. They are responsible for the structural, heating, ventilating and air-conditioning and the power, signal, and illumination aspects of the project. Each produces his or her own portions of the contract documents and should be involved in assessing their part of the work for compliance with those documents.

Specialized Consultants should be involved as needed by the special requirements of the project. These may include specifications writers, materials and component specialists, sustainability consultants, and technical specialists like kitchen, audio-visual, materials handling, and parking. The size, complexity, and specialization of the project will suggest the kinds of additional experts who will be needed. Like all contributors to the integrated design process, they should be involved early enough to include their suggestions and requirements in the design, not so late that their contributions must be remedial.

C. Results

The best buildings in history are the result of high degrees of consistency at all levels of their realization. The simplicity in massing of the Seagram Building by Mies van der Rohe in New York City, for example, is supported by the building's subtle and spare details at every level. Design attention is applied to the massing and the drinking fountains, the site plan, and the door details. Good buildings result from an appreciation by all involved of the importance of formal consistency throughout the design.

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Left: The Seagram Building by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, New York, NY in 1950s.And Right: This U.S. Courthouse in Seattle, Washington by NBBJ won a 2004 GSA Citation Award for architecture and interior design and an honor award for construction excellence.

Frank Lloyd Wright referred to this process as "organic design"—he used the phrase to refer to the integral relationship in good architecture between the parts and the whole—setting out the architect's obligation to assure consistency throughout the project and at every level of detail.

The WBDG features successful projects that have engaged the integrated design process in the Case Studies section. Among them are:

Center for Neighborhood Technology DOE's Strategic Computing Complex EPA's New England Regional Laboratory U.S. Navy's Building 33

You are encouraged to share your project successes and challenges by submitting a case study write-up. Click here to download the WBDG Case Study Template (MS WORD 48 KB).

Major Resources

WBDG

Design Objectives

Aesthetics, Aesthetics—Select Appropriate Design Professionals, Accessible, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable

Project Management

Project Delivery Teams, Project Planning and Development, Building Commissioning, Project Delivery and Controls

WBDG News

The "Whole Building" Design Approach

Publications

Betterbricks.com—Integrated Design Process Buildinggreen.com—Articles related to Integrated Design Process

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"Efficiency and Comfort: An Integrated Approach" by Clark Bisel and Peter Simmonds. Consulting Specifying Engineer, Jan 1998.

"Finding the Opportunities in Integration" by Anil Ahuja. Consulting Specifying Engineer, Sept. 1994.

Green Federal Facilities, Section 4.1 Integrated Building Design by U.S. Department of Energy. 2001.

"Integrated Building Design" by Ira Krepchin. E Source, ER-00-15, Sept. 2000. Integrated Building Design for Energy Efficiency by DOE Building Technologies

Program. "Strategic Issues Paper: Energy-Efficient Buildings: Institutional Barriers and

Opportunities" by Amory Lovins. E Source, Dec. 1992.

Select Appropriate Design Professionalsby the WBDG Aesthetics Subcommittee

Last updated: 04-24-2008

Overview

Design professionals play a critical role in the quality of our built environment. The capabilities of the architects and engineers (A/Es) on the integrated design team constitute the single most important factor in determining the success of the overall design—from image and attributes of the building and landscape to construction costs and life-cycle costs. Building in today's marketplace is a complex undertaking requiring many different skills and materials. Successful designs are the result of an integrated design process that addresses not only client needs and requirements, but also climate, context, and quality while complying with public health, safety, and welfare building requirements. Well qualified design professionals who understand these complexities can deliver thoughtful and innovative designs that satisfy the client's programmatic needs while addressing the unique characteristics of a given site and community.

The clinic's unique design promotes efficient and cost-effective medical care, and enhances quality of life for military personnel in an environment equal to off-base civilian facilities while adhering to Air Force design standards and guidelines. Medical Clinic, McChord Air Force Base, WA.

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Credits: NBBJ, Seattle District U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence, and Air Force Surgeon General-Facilities.

Federal sites and buildings are with us for centuries. Therefore, government agencies are often committed to design excellence, sustainability, the development of a world-class workplace, and the legacy that quality federal buildings provide. A/E teams and customer agencies are encouraged to explore new technologies and foster alternative solutions to the numerous challenges of designing a facility, while expending the taxpayers' dollars effectively and efficiently. They are encouraged to address the needs of the community and to work within the context of broader issues—not just the functionality of a facility, but its appropriateness to the surrounding landscape, its responsiveness to our limited resources, and its representation of the federal government to the public.

The selection of the design team should be undertaken as early in the life of a project as possible. Every design and construction project is unique, with a variety of services required to transform the generalized concept into reality. A qualified design professional can guide an owner through the intricacies of the design process; standard phases include pre-design, concept design, design development, construction documentation, bidding and negotiations, and construction. Building design professionals can assist in defining the project at the outset in terms that provide meaningful guidance for design. Pre-design services might include site selection, existing facilities surveys, environmental studies and reports, feasibility and programming studies. Design services, in addition to the standards phases of design, might include Building Information Modeling, LEED certification, and commissioning. It is important to begin the process of selecting design professionals with a consideration of delivery method, and site, programmatic, schedule, and budget issues. These factors contribute to defining the scope of work for projects, which in turn inform the selection of appropriate design professionals and delivery team composition.

A. Selecting Design Professionals

When a building project is initiated by an agency representing the public, the selection of a qualified building professional becomes a reflection of how tax dollars will be spent. When selecting a design professional, a public owner's primary concerns are to get the best available design services and outcome, and to conduct a fair and equitable selection process. Once that selection has been made, it is then the responsibility of the agency to negotiate the best value for those services; but first, the selection panel should ensure the selection of the best available firm for the project. A building project is a long-term investment, and the realized, built project will be a testament to how well thought-out the selection process is.

For public projects, there are two main methods for selecting design professionals: Qualifications-Based Selection and Design Competitions. In either method, the individuals responsible for selecting the design professional should have an understanding of the needs of a specific project and should be able to evaluate the achievements of the potential firms. Selection panels evaluate firms on criteria such as

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previous experience, past performance, portfolio review, awards and recognitions, level of commitment to project, and overall customer service.

To ensure the selection panel will make a well informed choice, it is important that any procurement for professional design services take into consideration:

The goals of the project. Solicitations for qualifications and requests for proposals should be specific about the goals and parameters of the project, the anticipated scope of work, and any specialty disciplines that will be required. Be clear about what will be expected of the design team and what evaluation factors will be used to select them.

The design team's suitability for the project. This does not mean an AE must have done the same type of project, but that his/her experience demonstrates a competency in projects of similar complexity or context.

Who is in charge. Complex needs may be addressed by a complex team; make sure you know who is in charge and how the team is structured.

Engineering News Record, a national magazine, publishes an annual listing of the top design, construction, and international firms.

Qualifications-Based Selection (QBS)

Qualifications-Based Selection - When a building project is initiated by an agency representing the public, the selection of a qualified building professional becomes even more important. When selecting a design professional, a public owner's primary concerns are to get the best available design services, and conduct a fair and equitable selection process. Federal project solicitations are announced in FedBizOpps.gov, a website that lists government-wide notices for all types of services.

Recognizing the need for a qualifications-based approach to procuring design services, the U.S. Congress established as federal law in 1972 (P.L. 92-582), commonly referred to as the "Brooks Act", that requires that architects and engineers be selected for projects on the basis of their qualifications subject to negotiation of fair and reasonable compensation. Selection panel members must be highly qualified professionals with experience in design and construction related fields. Most states and numerous local jurisdictions also use Brooks Act procedures.

Qualifications-Based Selection (QBS) usually involve the following steps:

1. The owner prepares a description of the project to be built or problem to be solved, referred to as a preliminary scope of services.

2. The owner invites design professionals to submit statements of qualifications for the project at hand.

3. Statements of qualifications are evaluated and several individuals or firms are selected, or "short-listed," for further consideration.

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4. The individuals or firms are then interviewed and ranked according to an evaluative scoring system.

Design Competitions

A design competition is a method of awarding a design contract based on design excellence and is a permitted selection method allowed by FAR 36.602-1b. When the use of a design competition is approved by the agency head or designee, the agency may evaluate firms based on their conceptual design of a project. Design competitions are typically used for significant Federal projects, such as monuments or those of unusual national significance. Since selection of the design firm takes longer when a competition is used as the selection method, there must be sufficient time in the project schedule to produce and evaluate conceptual designs. There must also be a significant benefit to the project to use a competition as this selection vehicle also costs more.

There are two types of federal design competitions:

Open design competitions are open to all design professionals. These are usually design teams headed by an architectural firm with a registered architect at the helm. An example of this is the World War II Memorial Competition, won by Freidrich St. Florian.

Invited design competitions are competitions where a selected group of design professionals, usually highly regarded or recognized architects, are invited to submit a design on a project. This is often the last stage of a qualifications-based selection process. An example of this is the proposed Federal Courthouse in Rockford, IL, won by Koetter Kim Architects.

Competitions are structured as a one-stage, two-stage, or in some cases, a three-stage process:

In a One-Stage design competition, the selected firm is chosen by a jury from all submitted entries. The winner is then awarded the design contract. Because of the nature of projects that lend themselves to Federal Design Competitions, this type of competition is not used very often.

A Two-Stage design competition is also open to all design professionals. The goal of the first stage is to solicit design portfolios from Design Firms and Lead Designers. Based on the jury evaluation of the submitted portfolios, a short-list of Design Firms and Lead Designers is selected to proceed to Stage II. The highest ranking competitors are then invited to form complete A/E teams, and submit additional written material on the teams for further evaluation by the agency's A/E Evaluation Board. During Stage II, team interviews are also held. A final ranking of the teams is completed by the A/E Evaluation Board, who then makes the final selection.

A Three-Stage competition incorporates the same components as the One- and Two-Stage competition, however final selection is made following completion of a "vision" for the project. The evaluation of the design concepts by an

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independent jury, as well as the evaluations of the Stage I and Stage II components, will be used by the A/E Evaluation Board to prepare the final ranking of the Stage III Teams. Because of the additional expense associated with preparing project "vision" submittals, teams are compensated with an amount that is specified in the original announcement in FedBizOpps.gov

.

For information on how to run a design competition, see WBDG Running a Design Competition.

This Federal Courthouse in Las Vegas, NV was designed via GSA's Design Excellence Program.(Courtesy of Cannon Dworski Architects)

U.S. General Services Administration's (GSA) Design Excellence Program streamlines the way GSA selects architects and engineers for construction and major renovation projects. It is a qualifications-based selection process that simplifies proposal requirements, reduces GSA's evaluation time, and lowers costs for both the government and the competing private firms. Stage 1 is the selection of a short list of lead designers; stage two is completion of AE teams followed by team interviews. There is also a procedure in place for limited and full design competitions.

The Design Excellence Program recognizes the GSA's commitment to the "Guiding Principles for Federal Architecture" which states that "The policy shall be to provide requisite and adequate facilities in an architectural style and form which is distinguished and which will reflect the dignity, enterprise, vigor, and stability of the American National Government. Major emphasis should be placed on the choice of designs that embody the finest contemporary American architectural thought".

B. Design Recognition

Architecture has a robust tradition of awards and recognition for design. Each year, many of the periodicals, journals, and organizations affiliated with the profession hold open competitions under which firms anonymously compete for architecture, planning, urban design, and research awards and recognition.

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Design Award Programs

Design award programs serve as the vehicle to honor the creative strengths of building design professionals and to publicize the enduring results of their efforts. For more information and a listing of agency and industry-sponsored design awards, see WBDG Aesthetics—Design Awards.

Participation in Design Competitions

Design competitions can bring many different design ideas, innovations, and publicity to a project, an issue, or to the designer/design team. They broaden the field of opportunity for client and architect alike and can often be a means for younger, less established architects to gain acclaim and win projects that they might not have been awarded under a qualifications-based selection process. Examples of this are the Vietnam War Memorial in Washington DC, awarded to Maya Ying Lin, a 21-year old undergraduate architecture student at Yale University, and the Evanston Public Library Competition, an international design competition won in 1991 by 28-year old Joseph Powell. See Section on Design Competitions.

Publications

Winners of design awards and competitions are often published in professional journals and architectural periodicals where they receive additional publicity and recognition. In addition, some publishing houses routinely publish monographs or reviews of architectural design, practice, and theory. They include:

MIT Press Oxford University Press McGraw-Hill Princeton Architectural Press Wiley Publishers Architectural catalogue

Periodicals

Mass market and trade periodicals present articles and photographs of current projects and current issues. Often they present the latest in contemporary theory, design, and technologies—from urban planning principles to smart buildings and materials—as well insights on specific building types. These articles can be a useful tool in gaining an understanding of contemporary architectural practices and practitioners. See the Periodical list below.

C. Professional Organizations

The involvement of many building professionals has an impact on aesthetic decisions throughout the design and construction process. This may include architects, landscape architects, urban designers, interior designers, lighting designers, engineers, and

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representatives from throughout the construction industry. In part to help define the boundaries of professional and aesthetic responsibility, each of these professions is represented by a national trade association. In most cases, the trade association or organization publishes industry guidelines about the legal, ethical, and aesthetic role of their members in the building design and construction process.

Profession Association

Architects The American Institute of Architects (AIA)Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture       (ACSA) National Council of Architectural Registration Boards      (NCARB) Society of American Registered Architects

Landscape Architects American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA)

Interior Designers American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)Council for Interior Design Accreditation (CIDA)International Interior Design Association (IIDA)National Council for Interior Design Qualification (NCIDQ)

Lighting Designers Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA)International Association of Lighting Designers (IALD)

Professional Engineers American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-      Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)American Society of Plumbing Engineers (ASPE)American Society of Sanitary Engineering (ASSE)Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)Society of American Military Engineers (SAME)Structural Engineers Association International (SEA)

Planners American Institute of Certified Planners (AICP)American Planning Association (APA)

Others Building Commissioning AssociationConstruction Specifications Institute (CSI)

Major Resources

WBDG

Design Disciplines

Applicable to all pages within the Design Disciplines branch

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Federal Agencies/Organizations

General Services Administrations, Design Excellence Program National Endowment for the Arts National Institutes of Health, Office of Research Facilities U.S. Air Force, A-E Services with Air Force U.S. Department of State, Office of Overseas Buildings Operations

Organizations/Associations

Mayor's Institute on City Design

Architecture/Engineering Periodicals

Architectural Record Architectural Review Architecture Magazine Contract Design Designarchitecture.com —An electronic journal of architecture and design

updated daily on the Internet Design Build Magazine Engineering News Record —A national magazine that publishes an annual listing

of the top design, construction, and international firms. Environmental Design and Construction Landscape Architecture Metropolis

Design Competitions

AIA Guide to Architectural Design Competitions by The American Institute of Architects. Available: The American Institute of Architects Committee on Design.

WBDG Running a Design Competition

Selecting Design Professionals

American Architecture The American Institute of Architects, Locating an architect AIA Issue Briefs: Qualifications-Based Selection in the Federal Sector, January

2001, and Qualifications-Based Selection in the Public Sector by The American Institute of Architects. The American Institute of Architects, State and Local Government Affairs, January 2003.

Architects USA designguide.com

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Qualifications-Based Selection: A Process for the Selection of Architects by Public Owners by The American Institute of Architects. The American Institute of Architects, State and Local Government Affairs, January 1992.

Questions and Answers on the Procurement of A/E Services by Public Owners. Professional Engineers in Private Practice, National Society Professional Engineers, and The American Institute of Architects. NSPE Publication Number 1976.

Selecting Architects and Engineers for Public Building Projects: An Analysis and Comparison of the Maryland and Florida Systems. The American Institute of Architects.

Standard Form 330, Architect-Engineer Qualifications —Architects and engineers use this form to present their qualifications and experience when seeking federal projects and emphasizes qualifications-based selection for the procurement of A/E services. This form replaces SF 254/255.

U.S. Architects You and Your Architect by The American Institute of Architects. Resource

booklet to selecting an architect.

Publications on the Sociology and Structure of the Architecture Profession

Architects and Firms: A Sociological Perspective on Architectural Practice by Judith R. Blau. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1984.

Architectural Practice: A Critical View by Robert Gutman. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton Architectural Press, 1988.

Architecture: The Story of Practice by Dana Cuff. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press, 1991.

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Cost—Effectiveby the WBDG Cost-Effective Committee

Last updated: 04-03-2007

Overview

"We no longer build buildings like we used to, nor do we pay for them in the same way. Buildings today are... life support systems, communication terminals, data manufacturing centers, and much more, They are incredibly expensive tools that must be constantly adjusted to function efficiently. The economics of building has become as complex as its design." (Wilson, in foreword to Ruegg & Marshall, 1990)

Every owner wants a cost-effective building. But what does this mean? In many respects the interpretation is influenced by an individual's interests and objectives.

Is it the lowest first-cost structure that meets the program? Is it the design with the lowest operating and maintenance costs? Is it the building with the longest life span? Is it the facility in which users are most productive? Is it the building that offers the greatest return on investment?

While an economically efficient project is likely to have one or more of these attributes, it is impossible to summarize cost-effectiveness by a single parameter. Determining true cost-effectiveness requires a life-cycle perspective where all costs and benefits of a given project are evaluated and compared over its economic life.

In economic terms, a building design is deemed to be cost-effective if it results in benefits equal to those of alternative designs and has lower life-cycle costs. For example, the HVAC system alternative that satisfies the heating and cooling requirements of a building at the minimum life-cycle cost, is the cost-effective HVAC system of choice.

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The federal government has numerous mandates that define program goals with the expectation that they be achieved cost-effectively.

The challenge is often how to determine the true costs and the true benefits of alternative decisions. For example, what is the economic value in electric lighting savings and productivity increases of providing daylight to workplace environments? Or, what is the value of saving historic structures? Alternately, what is the cost of a building integrated photovoltaic system (BIPV), given that it may replace a conventional roof?

The following three overarching principles associated with ensuring cost-effective construction reflect the need to accurately define costs, benefits, and basic economic assumptions.

Utilize Cost Management and Value Engineering Throughout the Planning, Design, and Development ProcessAs most projects are authorized/funded without a means of increasing budgets, it is essential that the project requirements are set by considering life-cycle costs. This will ensure that the budget supports any first-cost premium that a life-cycle cost-effective alternative may incur. Once a budget has been established, it is essential to continually test the viability of its assumptions by employing cost management throughout the design and development process. An aspect of cost management is a cost control practice called Value Engineering (VE). VE is a systematic evaluation procedure directed at analyzing the function of materials, systems, processes, and building equipment for the purpose of achieving required functions at the lowest total cost of ownership.

Use Economic Analysis to Evaluate Design Alternatives In addition to first costs, facility investment decisions typically include projected cost impacts of, energy/utility use, operation and maintenance and future system replacements. At the beginning of each project, establish what economic tools and models will be used to evaluate these building investment parameters. The methodologies of life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) will typically offer comparisons of total life-cycle costs based upon net present values. Other methods usually used as supplementary measures of cost-effectiveness to the LCCA include Net Savings, Savings-to-Investment Ratios, Internal Rate of Return, and Payback.

Consider Non-Monetary Benefits such as Aesthetics, Historic Preservation, Security, and SafetyMost economic models require analysts to place a dollar value on all aspects of a design to generate final results. Nevertheless it is difficult to accurately value certain non-monetary building attributes, such as formality (for example, of a federal courthouse) or energy security. The objective of a LCCA is to determine costs and benefits of design alternatives to facilitate informed decision-making. Costs can be more readily quantified than benefits because they normally have dollar amounts attached. Benefits are difficult because they often tend to have more intangibles. In some cases, these non-monetary issues are used as tiebreakers to quantitative analyses. In other instances, non-monetary issues can override quantitatively available cost comparisons, for example, renewable energy

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application. These cost-effectiveness principles serve as driving objectives for cost management practices in the planning, design, construction, and operation of facilities that balance cost, scope, and quality.

Note: Information in these Cost-Effective pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high performance buildings.

Major Resources

Mandates

Code of Federal Regulations, 10 CFR 436.a Executive Order 13423, "Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and

Transportation Management" National Energy Conservation Policy Act OMB Circular A-94—Guidelines for Benefit-Cost Analysis of Federal Programs

WBDG

Design Objectives

Aesthetics, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable

Project Management

Project Planning, Management, and Delivery

Publications

A Guide to Integrating Value Engineering, Life-Cycle Costing and Sustainable Development Federal Facilities Council, 2001.

Air Force Military Construction and Family Housing Economic Analysis Guide 1996.

Building Economics for Architects by Thorbjoern Mann. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. ISBN 0-442-00389-7.

Building Economics: Theory and Practice by Rosalie Ruegg and Harold Marshall. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990. ISBN 0-442-26417-8.

Facilities Standard for the Public Buildings Service, P100 (GSA)—Chapter 1.7 Life-Cycle Costing

GSA LEED® Cost Study Life-Cycle Costing Manual for the Federal Energy Management Program (PDF

9.73MB, 224 pgs) NIST HB 135 1995 Edition. NAVFAC Economic Analysis Handbook 1993. Project Estimating Requirements, P120 (GSA)

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Standards on Building Economics, 5th ed. ASTM, 2004. ASTM Stock #: BLDGEC04, ISBN# 0-8031-3148-8.

Others

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) Office of Federal Energy Management Programs (FEMP)

Utilize Cost Management Throughout the Planning, Design, and Development Processby the WBDG Cost-Effective Committee

Last updated: 04-28-2008

Overview

Throughout a project's planning, design, and construction phases, Cost Management is employed as a means of balancing a project's scope and expectations of quality and budget. The approach can be summarized as requiring the following three steps:

1. Define the scope, the level of quality desired, and the budget2. Ensure that the scope, quality, and budget are aligned3. Monitor and manage the balance of these three components throughout the life of

the project

Cost Management encompasses more than cost estimates however—it includes Risk Management and in the federal arena in particular, can include Earned Value Analysis. Risk Assessment and Management are important as identified risks on construction projects are typically financial in nature. Therefore early in the project an assessment of risk is crucial to establish the budget parameters within which the project must be completed. The calculation of project contingencies should be based on an assessment of the risk surrounding the project (site issues, availability of bidders, method of procurement, general market conditions etc). As risks are mitigated (site investigation is done, market survey completed, program finalized, design started, and so forth) then contingencies can be reduced and the range of estimated final cost narrowed.

The firm charged with managing the costs of the project should ideally be hired directly by the owner, early in the process, and should be independent of both the architect/engineer and the construction contractor.

Planning Phase

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Cost Management differs from Building Economics in that it is typically concerned with the initial costs—or first costs—of accomplishing new construction or renovation projects. A project must start right in order for it to finish right, so the establishment of an appropriate budget is critical. Early in the planning stages, both building owners and designers must agree on an anticipated cost of the project at bid award. This is a critical stage in the cost management process—an inaccurate budget can doom a project to continual stress and compromise, with neither the owner, end-user nor design team being completely satisfied at the end. A common mistake at this stage is to take a program of areas and apply those to historical costs without making adjustments for the myriad factors which affect construction costs—size of the project, renovation versus new, location (has a market survey been done?), price increases since the date of the data used, method of procurement, overall quality of the space envisioned, etc.

Preliminary Estimates are employed in the early planning phases of a proposed project to match an owner's needs, expressed as written programmatic requirements, with budget constraints in order to establish its overall scope (size) and quality expectations.

The method of procurement selected should be identified at this stage. The options available today are more numerous than in the past—Lump Sum, Construction Manager as Constructor (CMC) (also known as CM at Risk), Design/Build and so forth. Each method has pros and cons relative to cost and risk, so the method selected should also be factored in to the project budget.

Value Engineering should also be considered at this stage. Any changes to the program at this early phase have very little, if any, impact on schedule and A/E time and redesign costs, but the benefits in terms of solidifying the program and establishing project goals can be huge.

Design Phase

Chesapeake Bay Foundation Philip Merrill Environmental Center—Annapolis, MD

Once an initial budget has been established, the scope set and the quality expectations documented, it is important to monitor the estimated cost of the project by employing a series of increasingly precise cost estimating techniques that coincide with further development of design and construction details.

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Intermediate Estimates are employed at various stages of project design development as part of ongoing cost management, and as a means of evaluating competing alternative construction assemblies, systems, and materials. On large projects it is common practice for an owner to employ a construction manager or professional estimator to continually update project estimates and provide feedback on budget impacts of decisions on major design elements. The drawings and specifications should also go through a constructability review, wherein an independent review team analyzes the construction documents for completeness, coordination between disciplines, cost-effective design solutions, and general code compliance. The specifications should also be reviewed to ensure that the General Requirements included in division 1 are not overly restrictive (e.g. working hours, noise restrictions and so forth) and that the use of proprietary materials is minimized. A market survey should be carried out on sizable projects to determine where the bidders will come from—is the local market sufficiently large to accommodate the project, or will the major subcontractors be at capacity and therefore likely to bid high, if at all?

Earned Value Analysis is a useful tool in cost management, in that costs for each component of the project (in a Work Breakdown Structure, or WBS) can be tracked against the initial budget, and adjustments made to ensure the overall budget is on track. Movements between components are common; however, without tracking where costs are changing, the budget is in danger of being exceeded leading to re-design or extensive value engineering. Similarly future cost planning can be improved by the use of Earned Value Analysis, by tracking where the money really goes in a project.

Construction Phase

At the bid stage, the drawings should be 100% complete; however, in many instances this does not happen, leading to addenda being issued to clarify details, resolve conflicts or to complete the design. Often the estimate is not adjusted to account for these design changes, leading to a so-called final estimate that really does not represent the scope of work being bid. The estimate should therefore be adjusted during bidding to reflect the same information the bidders receive. Also a read of the market at bid stage is still useful, and can be included in a risk assessment to determine a range of bids expected. In a particularly volatile market, the use of bid options may allow the owner some flexibility in achieving the budget on bid day.

The preparation of the bidding documents is also crucial in an overall cost management strategy. Consideration should be given to contract clauses that govern changes in the work and how they will be valued (e.g. by reference to a published price book or trade manual); allowable mark-ups on changes by the various levels of contractors and sub-contractors; notice requirements for delays; the use of unit prices for changes and any other clauses that may affect the final cost of the project.

During construction the focus shifts from predictive cost estimating to reactive cost management of any changes in the work. Changes arise from a number of different sources—unforeseen conditions, owner-generated changes, drawing errors and

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omissions, code issues or contractual claims. Also changes can arise from on-going proactive cost management, either generated by the design team or the general contractor, where one of the parties proposes a better-value substitution (sometimes known as Value Engineering Change Proposals or VECPs). For all reviews of changes the owner should first establish the ground rules as delineated in the contract documents, agree a format with the general contractor, and require the general contractor to first review change proposal from subcontractors before compiling and forwarding to the owner. Changes should also be reviewed by the design time for entitlement—is it really a change to the scope and are there any credits due? Then the agency Construction Manager or independent cost consultant should review the pricing against the contract and industry norms, leading to an independent government estimate for presentation to the general contractor.

Earned Value Analysis is often used in this phase to determine at any given point in time the likely financial and schedule outcome of the project.

Post-Occupancy Evaluation

To provide data for future cost management, an evaluation is often carried out to prepare a detailed cost analysis of the completed project and to develop lessons learned to inform future design decisions.

Major Resources

Associations

American Society of Professional Estimators (ASPE) International Cost Engineering Council Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) Society of Cost Estimating and Analysis (SCEA)

Publications

Architect's Essentials of Cost Management by Michael Dell'Isola. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.

Building News International website From Concept to Bid…Successful Estimating Methods by John D. Bledsoe, PhD,

PE. Kingston, MA: R.S. Means Company, Inc., 1992. GCCRG—General Construction Cost Review Guide GSA Project Estimating Requirements R.S. Means website

Others

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ER 1110-3-1300 Military Programs Cost Engineering (PDF 90 KB, 24 pgs) by U.S. Army. 1999.

Historical Cost Analysis Generator (HAG)—Used by the Tri-Services to collect historical costs on awarded military construction projects

Micro Computer-Aided Cost Engineering Systems (MCACES) by U.S. Army Corp of Engineers.

P-120 Project Estimating Requirement for the Public Buildings Service by GSA. P-442 Economic Analysis Handbook by NAVFAC. SuccessEstimator by Tri-Services. UFC 3-700-02A Construction Cost Estimates by DOD.

Use Economic Analysis to Evaluate Design Alternativesby the WBDG Cost-Effective Committee

Last updated: 04-28-2008

Overview

During the energy crisis and inflationary cycles of the 1970s and 1980s, the federal government, as the nation's largest owner and operator of built facilities, was faced with increasing initial construction costs and ongoing operational and maintenance expenses. As a result, facility planners and designers began to use economic analysis to evaluate alternative construction materials, assemblies, and building services with a goal to lower costs. Today, building owners wishing to reduce expenses or increase profits utilize economic analysis to improve their decision making during the course of planning, designing, and constructing a building. Moreover, federal, state, and municipal entities have all enacted legislative mandates—in varying degrees—requiring the use of building economic analysis to determine the most economically efficient or cost-effective choice among building alternatives.

The Economic Analysis Process

The steps to estimate the economic consequences of a decision, as listed in Ruegg's and Marshall's Building Economics—Theory and Practice, are summarized below:

1. Define the problem and the objective.2. Identify feasible alternatives for accomplishing the objective, taking into account

any constraints.

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3. Determine whether an economic analysis is necessary, and if so, the level of effort which is warranted.

4. Select a method or methods of economic analysis.5. Select a technique that accounts for uncertainty and/or risk if the data to be used

with the economic method are uncertain.6. Compile data and make assumptions called for by the economic analysis

method(s) and risk analysis technique.7. Compute a measure of economic performance.8. Compare the economic consequences of alternatives and make a decision, taking

into account any non-quantified effects and the risk attitude of the decision maker.

Types of Economic Analysis Methods

There are many methods available to calculate specific economic performance measures. Used appropriately, these methods allow the planning and design team to analyze the economic consequences of particular design decisions and fairly evaluate alternative approaches.

Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA) is the basic method recommended in 10 CFR 436A and OMB Circular A-94 for evaluating the economic performance of federal investments in buildings or building systems. It involves computing the Life-Cycle Cost (LCC) for competing design alternatives, considering all significant costs over the economic life of each alternative (expressed in equivalent dollars), then comparing them, and choosing the alternative with the lowest LCC. LCCA is particularly useful in evaluating building performance from an energy consumption perspective (i.e., MEP systems and building envelope). The other methods described below are usually used as supplementary measures of cost-effectiveness to the LCCA.

Value Engineering

The solar photovoltaic system, cool roofing, and energy efficiency upgrades installed at Alameda County's Santa Rita Jail have resulted in net savings of $410,000 in its first year of operation.(Courtesy of R. Solari)

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Apart from, but related to economic analysis methods, Value Engineering (VE) is a systematic evaluation procedure directed at analyzing the function of materials, systems, processes, and building equipment for the purpose of achieving required functions at the lowest total cost of ownership.

According to VE experts Kirk and Dell'Isola, "Value Engineering is a team approach that analyzes a function by systematically developing the answers to such questions as: what is it?; what does it do?; what must it do?; what does it cost?; what other material or method could be used to do the same job without sacrificing required performance or degradation to safety, reliability, or maintainability?" VE is concerned with elimination or modification of anything that adds costs without contributing to the program functional requirements. Reductions in a project's scope or quality to get it into budget are not considered VE—those decisions are simply "cost cutting".

Major public works projects may undergo both VE studies and LCCA, and while the two practices serve separate purposes, their consideration of design alternatives is often interrelated. For example, value engineering can be used to complement a life-cycle cost analysis when selected LCC alternatives cannot be adopted without exceeding the project budget. VE can be utilized to reduce initial costs of design features other than those under study in a LCCA. If the VE effort results in sufficient reduction in initial costs, savings may allow selected LCC alternatives to be adopted within the overall program budget, thus optimizing the long-term cost-effectiveness of the project as a whole.

Perhaps the most challenging aspect of a VE analysis is the evaluation of the non-quantifiable benefits of design, materials, or system attributes. Aesthetics, occupant comfort and performance, environmental impact, historic preservation, and the like may be key design objectives that drive budget decision making and contribute enhanced value to the project.

It is important to understand that while some alternatives are quantifiable, qualitative elements such as better aesthetics and increased worker productivity can also influence the economic analysis and decision-making process. Refer to the WBDG page on "Consider Non-Monetary Benefits such as Aesthetics, Historic Preservation, Security, and Safety." Also, note that economic analysis needs to be combined with thorough architectural and engineering analyses. That is, all project alternatives considered should be technically sound and practical, and must meet the project's performance requirements.

Relevant Codes and Standards

In varying degrees, the federal government, state and municipal entities have all ratified legislative mandates requiring building economics analysis be performed on most capital investment programs. Some of the key federal mandates and standards are listed below.

Life-Cycle Cost Analysis (LCCA)

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10 CFR 436 Subpart A—Federal Energy Management and Planning Programs, Methodology and Procedures for Life-Cycle Cost Analyses

DOD Tri-Services Memorandum of Agreement (MOA) on "Criteria/Standards for Economic Analyses/Life-Cycle Costing for MILCON Design" (PDF 265 KB, 3 pgs) 1991. Provides guidance on LCCA for military construction design.

Facilities Standard for the Public Buildings Service P100 - Chapter 1.7 - Life- Cycle Costing by GSA.

OMB Circular A-94-Guidelines for Benefit-Cost Analysis of Federal Programs

Value Engineering (VE)

DOD 5000.2-R, Mandatory Procedures for Major Defense Acquisition Programs and Major Automated Information System Acquisition Programs (PDF 2.2 MB, 193 pgs)

Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR), Part 52.248, Value Engineering Parts and Clauses (PDF 126 KB, 27 pgs)

Federal Acquisition Regulation (FAR), Part 48, Value Engineering OMB Circular A-131—Value Engineering Public Law 104-106, Section 4306 of the National Defense Authorization Act—

Value Engineering for Federal Agencies United States Code (U.S.C.), Title 41 - Public Contracts, Chapter 7 - Office of

Federal Procurement Policy, Section 432 - Value Engineering Value Engineering Program Guide for Design and Construction PQ-250 GSA.

Major Resources

WBDG

Design Objectives

Cost-Effective—Utilize Cost Management Throughout the Planning, Design, and Development Process, Cost-Effective—Consider Non-Monetary Benefits such as Aesthetics, Historic Preservation, Security, and Safety

Publications

Architect's Essentials of Cost Management by Michael Dell'Isola. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2002.

Building Economics for Architects by Thorbjoern Mann. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1992. ISBN 0-442-00389-7.

Building Economics: Theory and Practice by Rosalie Ruegg and Harold Marshall. New York, NY: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1990. ISBN 0-442-26417-8.

DOD 4245.8-H, Value Engineering Handbook GSA P-120 Project Estimating Requirements for the Public Building Service

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Life-Cycle Costing for Design Professionals, Second Edition by Stephen Kirk, AIA and Alphonse Dell'Isola, PE. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1995.

Life-Cycle Costing Manual for the Federal Energy Management Program by Sieglinde Fuller and S.R. Peterson. NIST Handbook 135. National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1995.

MIL-HDBK-115A DOD Handbook U.S. Army Reverse Engineering Handbook (Guidance and Procedures)

NAVFAC P-442 Economic Analysis Handbook

Others

Federal LCCA Software Tools: Building Life-Cycle Cost Program Version 5 (BLCC5) —an economic analysis

tool developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology for the U.S. Department of Energy Federal Management Program.

ECONPACK for Windows—an economic analysis tool developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in support of DOD funding requests.

eVALUator: Building Life-Cycle Cost Assessment Program by DOE. Life-Cycle Cost in Design WinLCCID Program —developed for MILCON

analyses by the Construction Engineering Research Laboratory of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. For password contact lawrie@dilbert.me.uiuc.edu.

Consider Non-Monetary Benefits such as Aesthetics, Historic Preservation, Security, and Safetyby the WBDG Cost-Effective Committee

Last updated: 02-01-2007

Overview

The essential aspects of conducting a life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA) and determining the cost-effectiveness of any given construction alternative are the identification of all the relevant inputs and outputs and quantification, when possible, of these as costs and benefits to facilitate informed decision making. Costs can be more readily quantified than benefits because they normally have dollar amounts attached. Benefits are difficult because they often tend to have more intangibles. In analyses, benefits should be as important as costs and deserve to be brought to the attention of decision makers.

Other Quantifiable Benefits

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Many investment decisions, especially in industrial applications, have a stated goal defined in terms of required or expected output (e.g. number of kilowatt-hours of electricity produced per year, number of aircraft overhauled per year). The goal is not always quantified, but it is often susceptible to quantification and thus provides a potential measure of benefits associated with the investment. A Benefit/Cost Ratio (BCR) may be determined when the output from the investment can be quantified and a uniform annual cost derived from the life-cycle cost analysis (LCCA). Using the examples provided, typical output of this type would be number of kilowatt-hours of electricity produced (benefit) or completed aircraft overhauls (benefit) per $1,000 (cost). These ratios may be compared for several different alternatives to assist in selection of the most cost-effective.

Non-Quantifiable Benefits

Despite best efforts to develop quantitative measures of benefits, there are situations that simply do not lend themselves to such an analysis. Certain projects may provide benefits such as improved quality of the working environment, preservation of cultural and historical resources, safety and security of the building occupants, and other similar qualitative advantages. Although they are most difficult to assess, these benefits should be documented and portrayed in a life-cycle cost analysis.

Owners of the West Bend Mutual Insurance credited the energy efficient strategies implemented in the new Headquarters Building, West Bend, IN for 99% reduction in personnel complaints about IAQ and 16% improvement in productivity.

In such instances, written and accurate descriptions of qualitative benefits must be done. This is the least preferred method of analyzing benefits due to its subjectivity and inherent lack of precision. However, under certain conditions, this method must suffice; and if the following guidelines are observed, qualitative statements can make a positive contribution to the analysis.

1. Identify all benefits associated with each alternative under consideration. Give complete details.

2. Identify the benefits common in kind but not to the same degree among the alternatives. Explain all differences in detail.

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To formalize the inclusion of non-monetary costs or benefits in the decision-making process, the analytical hierarchy process (AHP) should be employed. AHP is one of a set of multi-attribute decision analysis (MADA) methods that consider non-monetary attributes (qualitative and quantitative) in addition to common economic evaluation measures when evaluating project alternatives. Standard Practice E 1765 Guidelines for Applying the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) to Multi-Attribute Decision Analysis of Investments Related to Buildings and Building System published by ASTM International presents a procedure for calculating and interpreting AHP scores of a project's total overall desirability when making building-related capital investment decisions.

Following these general guidelines will help to enhance the difficult task of documenting these intangibles that are measured in non-economic terms like aesthetics, safety, or morale, and enhance the value of benefit/cost analyses and make informed decision-making easier.

Quantifying Negative Aspects

It is also noted that in addition to benefits, information concerning negative aspects of alternatives, quantified where possible, should also be included to ensure the objectivity and completeness of the analysis. This information is important in decision making and possibly to the community at large; and may be a determining factor in deciding between possible investment alternatives.

Externalities

Externalities (also referred to as external effects or spillovers) are an important class of outputs that may be benefits or disadvantages. They are generally defined as outputs involuntarily received or imposed on a person or group because of an action by another and over which the recipient has no control. Air pollution is an example of an externality that is not a benefit. The recipients accrue potential health, aesthetic, and other disadvantages from a polluter for which they receive no compensation.

For most investment decisions (particularly with respect to the public sector), it is not necessary to analyze in depth externalities such as environmental impacts and community economic impacts as part of the life-cycle cost analysis. These aspects of alternatives being considered are usually treated in detail as part of the Environmental Impact Assessment/Environmental Impact Statement process or environmental documentation associated with local and state processes for addressing environmental impacts of construction projects. However, the mention of anticipated impacts (both quantified and qualitative) in life-cycle cost analysis documentation is appropriate.

Summary

There is no standard or recommended format prescribed for benefit analysis information. What is important is the content; and in the case of benefits, content is critical. No

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analysis is truly complete unless it addresses benefits attending all the alternatives under consideration.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Facilities Standard for the Public Buildings Service, P100 - Chapter 1.7 - Life-Cycle Costing by GSA.

Standard Practice E 1765-98 Guidelines for Applying the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) to Multi-Attribute Decision Analysis of Investments Related to Buildings and Building System published by ASTM International.

Standards on Building Economics, 5th ed . ASTM International, 2004. ASTM Stock #: BLDGEC04, ISBN# 0-8031-3148-8.

Major Resources

WBDG

Design Objectives

Cost-Effective—Utilize Cost Management Throughout the Planning, Design, and Development Process, Cost-Effective—Use Economic Analysis to Evaluate Design Alternatives, Productive

Publications

GSA P-120 Project Estimating Requirements for the Public Building Service NAVFAC P-442 Economic Analysis Handbook

Functional / Operationalby the WBDG Functional / Operational Committee

Last updated: 04-29-2008

Overview

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Exterior lateral bracing created open interior spaces at the John Hancock Building—Chicago, ILCourtesy of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill LLP

A client's/owner's intent to develop a project is derived from a need, a purpose or mission, and a desired result. When the design and use of a facility serves the people who use them and the programs it houses, the project is functionally successful. Program and functionality are also characterized by building type. When designs fall short of this goal, the cost can be modest to extreme, but the failures are generally noted more significantly than the expected successes. A clear understanding of the functional and physical requirements of a project is essential to ensuring its success.

Development in the building sciences in the late 1900's has pointed to the need to refocus on programming, designing, constructing, and operating facilities that function well, while at the same time incorporating new technologies, and creatively meeting other design objectives such as sustainability, accessibility, safety, energy, and environmental (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®)). Post-occupancy evaluations have shown that early programming and design decisions have significant impact on the functional quality, and long-term efficiency and effectiveness of buildings, initially and over their life cycle. By adopting a methodical approach that extends through all phases of a project, from pre-design through owner occupancy and operation to disposal, with checks at each stage of the process to ensure validation of decisions to meet the owner's program and design requirements, buildings can be functionally successful and thus more safe, productive, and inspiring places that enhance work and/or livability.

This branch of the WBDG is designed primarily to help those not familiar with architectural and engineering design understand the basic process, technique, and language by which functional decisions are made.

A building that functions as it is intended is the underpinning of a quality "whole" building. The qualities of such a building may not even be noticed or recognized, but a poorly functioning building can be costly to correct, if the opportunity to correct ever becomes available. There are three overarching principles associated with ensuring functional building design and operations:

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Account for Functional Needs Accounting for spatial needs is a primary element of the planning process that translates to an owner's spatial and service requirements for a building or facility. This process seeks to establish goals; collect and analyze facts; establish functional relationships; uncover and test concepts; determine needs; and state the problem. There is also a need to design for flexibility of programmed space.

Ensure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration A successfully designed building that functions properly in all respects is composed of building systems, materials, and technologies that are selected and integrated to be mutually supportive as a cohesive "whole" system.

Meet Performance Objectives Meeting performance objectives is not achieved by simply a "Final Inspection" of the finished product, but is a sustained effort from inception and planning through turnover and operation to assure the delivery of a project that satisfies all of the owner's functional and operational requirements. There are many aspects involved in assuring performance objectives are met, from assembling a qualified project delivery team; to adequately coordinating team member roles and responsibilities; to instituting systematic quality assurance programs, like Building Commissioning.

Relationship of Function/Operation and Cost

Care should always be used when undertaking cost management practices (i.e., Value Engineering, cost cutting, etc.) not to compromise the functional or operational performance of the interrelated and often interdependent systems.

Design Lessons Learned

Key to improving the facility planning, design, and delivery process is continual improvement of team performance through learning from and avoiding repeated design errors, omissions, or flaws in project execution. "Lessons Learned" is a common term that refers to an organization's compilation and publication of the lessons for the knowledge and benefit of future project teams.

Design of facilities that meet or exceed the functional expectations of owners and facility managers will require the application of these principles as well as thorough understanding of historical precedent and knowledge of current design practices for the building type.

Note: Information in these Functional pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high performance buildings.

Major Resources

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Codes and Standards

Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 , GSA—Establishes integrative performance standards for federal facilities.

Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) Green Building Rating System™ is a program of the U.S. Green Building Council.

Standards on Whole Building Functionality and Serviceability by ASTM. 2000. ASTM Stock #: WBDG2000, ISBN# 0-8031-2734-0.

Publications

Architectural Graphic Standards, 10th Edition by Charles Ramsey, Harold Sleeper, and John Hoke. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000—The most widely recognized reference manual for architectural design guidance on planning, design standards, building systems, materials, methods, and construction techniques.

The Architect's Studio Companion: Rules of Thumb for Preliminary Design, 4th Edition by Edward Allen and Joseph Iano. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2006.

ASHRAE Handbook of Fundamentals by ASHRAE Handbook Committee. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. 2001.

ASHRAE Handbook of Systems and Equipment by ASHRAE Handbook Committee. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. 2001.

Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings, 10th Edition by Ben Stein, John S. Reynolds, Walter T. Grondzik, Alison G. Kwok. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005.

Project Planning Guide, The, by the U.S. General Services Administration, Public Building Service, Washington, DC, 2004.

Time-Saver Standards for Building Types, 4th Edition by Joseph DiChiara and Michael Crosbie. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 2000—A comprehensive reference for building type design guidance, including sample projects with plans and illustrations of functional features and details.

Associations

The following are major associations representing design professions that publish resources and set practice standards for the planning and design of facilities.

The American Institute of Architects (AIA) American Planning Association (APA) American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers

(ASHRAE) American Society of Interior Designers (ASID)

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American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) SAVE International

Account for Functional Needsby the WBDG Functional / Operational Committee

Last updated: 03-13-2007

Overview

Primary Systems diagram of the Wieden + Kennedy Ad Agency building—Portland, ORCourtesy of Allied Works Architecture

Programming should begin with a clear definition of the work activities to be performed. Accounting for functional needs is a primary purpose of the planning process that defines an owner's functional and physical requirements for each spatial element in a building or facility. This process seeks to state the problem; establish goals; collect and analyze facts; establish functional relationships; uncover and test concepts; and finally state the problem to direct a course of action. Adequate programming performed in the project planning phase will clearly delineate functional requirements and relationships of occupant activities and spaces required for all supporting building systems and equipment.

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However, a truly functional building will require a thorough analysis of the parts of the design problem and the application of creative synthesis in a solution that integrates the parts in a coherent and optimal operating manner. 'Whole Building' design is characterized by a design solution that functions well from an occupant activity and building systems point of view.

There are several key steps in the development of project requirements that fully describe the design problem. They are:

Understand how the work processes support the mission and purpose of a facility; Define spatial requirements for occupant activities and equipment; Understand functional relationships among the programmed spaces; Anticipate installation, O&M practices, spatial change, and replacement of

building equipment; Accommodate information technology (IT), communication, and other building

systems equipment; and Consider serviceability (clearance) requirements.

Effective programming will include all pertinent stakeholders to ensure "Whole Building" functions have been identified. Conducting programming and design charrettes with these stakeholders is an effective means of enhancing integrated functionality and mutual agreement on a design approach.

Recommendations

Understand How the Work Processes Support the Mission and Purpose of a Facility

Determine facility use, occupancy, and activities to be housed. Balance the owner's needs and goals for space, quality, budget, and time. Set owner's design objectives in the early planning stage. Reference building type guidelines. See also WBDG Building Types.

Define Spatial Requirements for Occupant Activities and Equipment

Consult all pertinent stakeholders for their requirements. Consult planning guides and specialists on programmed activities. Document all regulatory requirements, such as building codes, accessibility laws,

ATFP, etc. Explore the possible necessity of making spaces flexible to accommodate changes

in business practices, work activities, and technologies. Consider building operations and maintenance activities in the design of spaces.

Understand Functional Relationships Between Program Spaces

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Engage user groups in facilitated discussions to brainstorm solutions. Examine patterns of activity in facility program and consider how those patterns

create spatial relationships. Account for physical security requirements in the layout of space planning. Consider impacts of building systems and engineering needs on spatial

relationships in both occupied and unoccupied spaces. Leverage opportunities for quality environmental aesthetics such as natural light,

spatial volume, views, texture, and materials. See also WBDG Aesthetic Opportunities and Aesthetic Challenges.

Anticipate Installation, Operation, Spatial Change, and Replacement of Building Equipment

Incorporate structural and mechanical systems as integral parts of early design concepts.

Account for structural loads (dead and live) of building systems and equipment. Ensure that mechanical system equipment and furniture, fixtures, and building

equipment (FF&E) can actually be installed, operated, and replaced. Consult facility O&M personnel in the programming and early design stage. Plan infrastructure for flexible spatial modifications or "churn".

Accommodate Information Technology (IT), Communication, and Other Building Systems Equipment

Determine the owner's goals and needs for spatial and mechanical support of the organization's IT program.

Incorporate IT system needs as an integral part of the design concept. Design for configuration flexibility within workspaces that promotes occupant

productivity. See also WBDG Accessible—Plan for Flexibility. Accommodate network support and servicing requirements in the design of

spaces.

Vontz Center for Molecular Studies—Cincinnati, Ohio. This 150,000 gsf., $35 milllion interdisciplinary research center is designed to accommodate neuroscience and cancer research. It includes core science research labs, offices, support areas, and seminar rooms with fully accessible mechanical, electrical, and support spaces between the main

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laboratory floors.Courtesy of BHDP Architecture

Consider Serviceability (Clearance) Requirements

Design for vehicular clearances in the site design (e.g., drives, gates, ramps, parking).

Design for vehicular clearances in building design (e.g., doors, docks, obstructions).

Design for durability. Design for maintainability (including housing of maintenance equipment). Consult facility O&M personnel in the design process.

Emerging Issues

Computer-based space programming applications Appropriate accommodation for the changing nature of work (productivity) Virtual workplaces and increased use of "Hoteling" for flexible space Building Information Modeling (BIM) (defining object functionality for facility

life cycle)

Relevant Codes and Standards

Functionality and Serviceability Standards: Tools for Stating Functional Requirements and for Evaluating Facilities. Paper published in Federal Facilities Council (FFC) Report #145.

For spatial requirements related to fire safety (ingress/egress): Building Officials and Code Administrators International (BOCA) International Code Council (ICC) International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO) Southern Building Code Congress International (SBCCI)

Major Resources

Publications

A Handbook for Planning and Conducting Charrettes for High Performance Projects by Gail Lindsey, Joel Ann Todd and Sheila J. Hayter. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), 2003.

A Pattern Language by Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, with Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King, and Shlomo Angel. Oxford University Press, 1977.

Interior Graphic Standards New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003. Problem Seeking, Third Edition by William Pena (CRSS). Washington, DC: AIA

Press, 1969, 1987.

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Professional Practice in Facility Programming by Wolfgang Preiser. New York: Van Nostrand-Reinhold Co., 1992.

Programming for Design: From Theory to Practice by Edith Cherry. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998.

Time-Saver Standards for Building Types, 4th Edition by Joseph DiChiara and Michael Crosbie. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 2000.

Associations

American Council of Engineering Companies (ACEC) The American Institute of Architects (AIA) American Society of Interior Designers International Interior Design Association National Charrette Institute National Society of Professional Engineers (NSPE)

Others

CCB documents and publications (for Building-Type Design Guides) Compendium of Lessons Learned CD, Volume I by General Services

Administration. July 2001. Contact Office of the Chief Architect, GSA Public Buildings Service.

Ensure Appropriate Product/Systems Integrationby the WBDG Functional / Operational Committee

Last updated: 05-02-2008

Overview

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Centre Georges Pompidou—Paris, France(Courtesy of Rogers and Piano)

"There is no separation of utility and beauty. You cannot determine where a tree stops being beautiful and starts becoming utilitarian." Richard Neutra

A successfully designed building has also been compared to a beautiful symphony. The parts of a building, like individual instruments in an orchestra, have the capacity to make up a whole that is greater than if they were played alone. Imagine, for instance, that an office space had a beautifully designed interior and state-of-the-art furniture and computer equipment, but could not be heated and cooled properly. The lack of adequate climate control would be as apparent as if a loud "off-key" note were played during a symphony.

Like musical instruments, building systems, materials, and products incorporated into a design must be "integrated" in a supporting way to create a unified whole that achieves the desired functional purpose. See 'Whole Building' Design Approach.

An integrated solution results from a methodical design approach that considers the characteristics and properties of each system or product, its role in the greater whole of the design, and its needs for installation, coordination with other building systems and O&M serviceability. For example, the selection of a ceiling light fixture has implications that must be considered in terms of light as well as energy use, heat, noise, and radiation. An integrated design solution will:

Develop design concepts that meet functional needs of the building program; Understand the integral relationship of form and function; Evaluate product/system selection for the specific application; Seek design solutions that fully integrate product/systems; and Consider how the facility will be operated and maintained.

Davies Symphony Hall in San Francisco

Recommendations

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Develop Design Concepts that Meet Functional Needs of the Building Program

Understand the needs of occupants required to perform programmed activities (space, environmental qualities, furniture, fixtures, equipment, communications, information technologies, etc.).

Explore a variety of design solutions and consider the merits of each alternative on the basis of functional performance.

Facilitate discussions with users to evaluate and test assumptions made involving functional issues. See WBDG Planning and Conducting Integrated Design (ID) Charrettes.

Understand design implications and space needs of unique "mission critical" activities requiring permanent construction as compared to more flexible spaces that can be configured to support multiple activities and functions.

Track decisions to maintain focus on design intents.

Understand the Integral Relationship Between Form and Function

The glazed wall on the south contributes to passive solar heating and daylighting. Chesapeake Bay Foundation's John Philip Merrill Environmental Center—Annapolis, MD(Courtesy of David Harp/Chesapeake Bay Foundation)

Functional characteristics of building systems (e.g., air distribution systems) can serve as unique design opportunities in shaping the facility's form and aesthetics. See WBDG Aesthetic Opportunities and Aesthetic Challenges.

Accept environmental conditions as a primary influence on the building's form. Develop design concepts that provide the user with a clear sense of the facility's

functional purpose. Address functional requirements and aesthetic goals through integrated solutions.

For example, in the Chesapeake Bay Foundation's John Philip Merrill Environmental Center, the need for sun control resulted in an interior shading system that mimics sailboat rigging and an external structure supporting a "Brise Soleil", or solar shades.

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Evaluate Product/System Selection for the Specific Application

Select systems and products that are "use-appropriate" and support functional goals of individual spaces as well as the entire facility.

Avoid a "one size fits all" design approach. Also see WBDG Accessible—Plan for Flexibility. More

Look at design problems as unique opportunities for creativity and innovation. See WBDG Aesthetic Opportunities and Aesthetic Challenges.

When resolving conflicts in the design and selection of products and systems, coordinate with consideration of opportunities and impacts affecting design and constructability of all involved building systems.

Consider energy conservation and Life-Cycle Cost Analysis in the selection of systems and equipment, especially for facilities with longer expected/designed service life (such as institutional and governmental buildings).

Seek Design Solutions that Fully Integrate Product/Systems

Integrated design strikes a balance between all design objectives, including Aesthetics and Functional/Operational.

Adopt a 'Whole Buildings' approach—Systems integration involves the awareness of all affected trades and disciplines. Design with functional attributes of systems and products in mind.

Select materials and products that are compatible with design objectives for both appearance and function.

Carefully research the owner's equipment requirements and integrate them with the design.

Consider How the Facility Will Be Operated and Maintained

Anticipate the needs of the building-cleaning program, including refuse storage and disposal.

Provide adequate space for maintenance equipment, materials, and storage. Design for regular building systems maintenance, including easy access to light

fixtures, HVAC filters, sensors, and surfaces requiring scheduled cleaning. Plan for eventual replacement of major systems components. Give careful thought to designing delivery drives, loading docks, and storage

rooms. Allow ample maneuvering room and clearance width and height. See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices and Reliability-Centered

Maintenance (RCM).

Emerging Issues

Increased use of extranets and new communication tools that enhance interdisciplinary design coordination

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Use of object-oriented CAD programs (Building Information Modeling) to check for conflicts

Trend towards using "Total Building Commissioning" throughout the planning, design, construction, operation, repair/alteration, and disposal life cycle

Relevant Codes and Standards

The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) Green Building Rating System™ is a program of the U.S. Green Building Council.

Major Resources

WBDG

Products and Systems

Wall Systems Branch, Fenestration Systems Branch, Roofing Systems, Atria Systems

Publications

Architectural Graphic Standards, 10th Edition by Charles Ramsey, Harold Sleeper, and John Hoke. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.

The Building Systems Integration Handbook by Richard D. Rush. Butterworth-Heineman, 1991.

Construction Materials Evaluation and Selection by Harold Rosen and Philip Bennett. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1979.

Design & Planning of Engineering Systems by Dale Meredith, Kam Wong, Ronald Woodhead, and Robert Wortman. Princeton, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1985.

Design for Maintainability Guidebook by Construction Industry Institute (CII). Oct 1999. IR142-2.—Designed to assist owners and others by providing specific instructions on using tools for improved design for maintainability. Includes a self-assessment that will define the user's "level of maintainability," and then provides specifics on more than 22 maintainability best practices as well as 16 tools to help in implementing the best practices.

Dictionary of Architecture and Construction by Cyril M. Harris. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 2000. Oct. '99, 96 pages.

Environmental Control Systems by Fuller Moore. New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993.

Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and Methods, 4th Edition by Edward Allen and Joseph Iano. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.

The Integrated Workplace: A Comprehensive Approach to Developing Workspace by Office of Real Property in the Office of Government wide Policy of the U.S. General Services Administration. May 1999. Developed by GSA's Office of Real Property to provide guidelines to help federal agencies define important issues and needs for an organization's workspace; to identify

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measurement tools that can be used to track the workplace's effects on people and organizations; and to define the basic elements of the Integrated workplace—people, technology, and space—and discusses how each of these should be considered when providing new or reconfigured offices.

Time-Saver Standards for Architectural Design Data by Donald Watson, Michael Crosbie, and John Hancock Callender. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc., 1997.

Associations

Building Commissioning Association (BCA) Construction Industry Institute (CII) Construction Specifications Institute (CSI) Fully Integrated and Automated Technology (FIATECH) Specification Consultants in Independent Practice

Others

Products and Systems Information Sources ARCAT CMD First Source Pierpoint Building Poducts and Materials by Sweets Network 4.specs.com

Communications Technologies and Tools Design Intent Tool (by Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratories) Dr. Checks website The Extranet List (by Extranet News)

Meet Performance Objectivesby the WBDG Functional / Operational Committee

Last updated: 04-29-2008

Overview

Meeting performance objectives is a sustained effort from inception and planning, through turnover and operation, to assure the delivery of a project that satisfies all of the owner's functional requirements. There are many aspects involved in assuring performance objectives are met; from assembling a qualified project delivery team; to adequately coordinating team member roles and responsibilities to instituting systematic quality assurance programs, like an appropriate level of Building Commissioning.

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The ability of a building to perform in a way that fully meets an owner's functional expectations—both qualitative and quantitative—requires a coordinated effort by a multi-disciplined team of experts who understand and apply a 'Whole Buildings' design approach.

Some practical ways to approach developing a proactive performance assurance program for a project include:

Assure that appropriate programming occurs; Establish design objectives and priorities that will drive design concepts; Review "Lessons Learned" to leverage corporate knowledge and assure past

mistakes are not repeated; Institute a project delivery quality assurance (QA) program; Understand the role of Facility Management and Operations; and Use Facility Performance Evaluations (FPE's).

Recommendations

Assure that Appropriate Programming Occurs

Facilitate discussions with key stakeholders in establishing project requirements and goals.

Facilitate good communication between project team members during programming and throughout the facility acquisition process.

Identify mission critical programs and requirements. Clearly describe all functional needs and design intents. Communicate owners' special knowledge of what works well and what does not. Document all performance expectations. Address information technology (IT) and communication needs—both current

and future.

Establish Design Objectives and Priorities that Will Drive Design Concepts

Set performance goals for both building envelope and building systems. Look for unique aspects of the project to feature and enhance. Reconcile conflicting priorities (i.e. physical security vs. fire safety needs). Define qualitative and quantitative performance measures (e.g., design for

sustainability, maintainability, etc.)

Review "Lessons Learned" to leverage corporate knowledge and assure past mistakes are not repeated

Several organizations have compiled "Lessons Learned" on past projects that are available in the following resources.

o GSA Compendium of Lessons Learned

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o GSA Facilities Performance Toolo NAVFAC Facility Quality Survey [requires NAVFAC account access]o NIBS Building Operations Manualso VA Technical Library o VA Design Alerts & Quality Alerts

Institute a Project Delivery Quality Assurance (QA) Program

This Environmental Management System (EMS) enables facilities engineering personnel to maintain comfort and ventilation levels at the high standards set by the stakeholders at the beginning of the project.

Conduct thorough owner reviews of A-E designs and documentation. Track critical decisions to focus on design intents. Establish owner's measurable quality standards and metrics for performance

expectations. Identify owner's tests and certification expectations. Hire an owner's representative, if necessary, to oversee performance assurance. Focus enhanced performance assurance measures on mission critical systems and

features. Use the building commissioning process, as appropriate. Include training of facility operators on the interdependent function of systems

integration.

Understand the Role of Facility Management and Operations

Involve O&M staff in all design phases. See WBDG Aesthetics—Engage the Integrated Design Process.

Bring forward special knowledge and experiences of O&M staff into the design phases.

Anticipate what it will take to maintain and operate the facility. See WBDG Sustainable—Optimize O&M Practices.

Perform energy analysis in design phases; make sure operating budgets are addressed. See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.

Consider O&M stakeholders as partners in the performance optimization program.

Document O&M procedures that contribute to optimal facility performance.

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Use Facility Performance Evaluations (FPE's)

Seek feedback from users and include it in performance optimization efforts through Post-Occupancy Evaluations.

Use prototypes to evaluate the performance of designs to be repeated. Assure functional reliability through continued monitoring and analysis, and

acting to correct degradation. OMSI (Operations & Maintenance Support Information) is NOT monitoring and analysis. It is the "Operating Manual" so to speak. More

Emerging Issues

Computer-Aided modeling for predicting performance Building Commissioning procedures Re-commissioning and continuous commissioning Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM) International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP)

Savings from Continuous Commissioning Program in laboratory building at Texas A&M University

Relevant Codes and Standards

ASTM Standards on Whole Building Functionality and Serviceability (2000)

Major Resources

Publications

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Adding Value to the Facility Acquisition Process: Best Practices for Reviewing Facility Designs by Ralph S. Spillinger in conjunction with the Federal Facilities Council, Standing Committee on Organizational Performance and Metrics, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1999. Report #139.

Functionality and Serviceability Standards: Tools for Stating Functional Requirements and for Evaluating Facilities—Paper published in Federal Facilities Council (FFC) Report No. 145.

Journal of Architectural and Planning Research (Vol. 1-18) edited by Andrew Seidel. Locke Science Publishing Co.

Learning From Our Buildings by the Federal Facilities Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001. Report #145.

Post-Occupancy Evaluation by Wolfgang Preiser, Harvey Rabinowitz, and Edward T. White. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., 1988.

Problem Seeking, Third Edition by William Pena (CRSS). Washington, DC: AIA Press, 1987.

Associations

Building Commissioning Association (BCA) International Facility Management Association (IFMA)

Others

Texas Engineering Experiment Station (TEES), Energy Systems Laboratory, Texas A&M University

Usable Buildings Trust (UK)

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Historic Preservationby the WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee

Last updated: 04-29-2008

Overview

Tacoma Union Station, Tacoma, WA. Tall ceilings, generous daylight, and grand ceremonial spaces give historic buildings enduring investment value and make them attractive for a variety of uses.

Realizing the need to protect America's cultural resources, Congress established the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966, which mandates the active use of historic buildings for public benefit and to preserve our national heritage. Cultural resources, as identified in the National Register for Historic Places, include buildings, archeological sites, structures, objects, and historic districts. The surrounding landscape is often an integral part of a historic property. Not only can significant archaeological remains be destroyed during the course of construction, but the landscape, designed or natural, may be irreparably damaged, and caution is advised whenever major physical intervention is required in an extant building or landscape. The Archaeological Protection Act established the public mandate to protect these resources.

Some practical and/or intangible benefits of historic preservation include:

Retention of history and authenticity o Commemorates the pasto Aesthetics : texture, craftsmanship, styleo Pedestrian/visitor appealo Human scale

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Increased commercial value o Materials and ornaments that are not affordable or readily availableo Durable, high quality materials (e.g., old growth wood)

Retention of building materials (refer also to WBDG Sustainable Branch) o Less construction and demolition debriso Less hazardous material debriso Less need for new materials

Existing usable space—quicker occupancy Rehabilitation often costs less than new construction Reuse of infrastructure Energy savings

o No energy used for demolitiono No energy used for new constructiono Reuse of embodied energy in building materials and assemblies

Following passage of the NHPA, the Secretary of the Interior established Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties to promote and guide the responsible treatment of historic structures and to protect irreplaceable cultural resources. Today, the Standards are the guiding principles behind sensitive preservation design and practice in America.

Work on historic properties requires specialized skills. The Secretary of the Interior has identified professional qualification standards for a variety of preservation disciplines.

Four Treatment Approaches

Within the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties there are Standards for four distinct approaches to the treatment of historic properties: preservation, rehabilitation, restoration, and reconstruction.

Preservation focuses on the maintenance stabilization, and repair of existing historic materials and retention of a property's form as it has evolved over time.

Rehabilitation acknowledges the need to alter or add to a historic property to meet continuing or changing uses while retaining the property's historic character.

Restoration depicts a property at a particular period of time in its history, while removing evidence of other periods.

Reconstruction re-creates vanished or non-surviving portions of a property for interpretive purposes.

Additional Standards and Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Resources—landscapes, archaeological and maritime resources, etc. are maintained by the National Park Service.

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While each treatment has its own definition, they are interrelated. For example, one could "restore" missing features in a building that is being "rehabilitated." This means that if there is sufficient historical documentation on what was there originally, a decorative lighting fixture may be replicated or an absent front porch rebuilt, but the overall approach to work on the building falls under one specific treatment.

Treatment Plan

Alexander Hamilton Custom House. Original drawings, photographs, and other archival documents are used to determine the original appearance of missing features to be replicated within restoration zones.

Determine the appropriate treatment for a historic property BEFORE work begins, at project initiation. This includes making sure that the proposed function for the historic property is compatible with the existing conditions in order to minimize destruction of the historic fabric. Generally, the least amount of change to the building's historic design and original architectural fabric is the preferred approach. To develop a treatment plan, site assessments are conducted to identify character-defining features and qualities. These assessments also examine the building or property as a whole to establish a hierarchy of significance, or "zones," corresponding to specific treatments. Zoning establishes preservation priorities.

Of concern to design and preservation professionals is the cumulative effect of various seemingly minor changes to a cultural resource over time, which can greatly diminish its integrity. Therefore, to ensure the maximum protection of America's cultural resources, specifically historic buildings and properties, it is useful to identify four major preservation design topics for the Whole Building Design Guide:

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San Francisco Court of Appeals, San Francisco, CA. Onsite surveys identify significant features to be retained as part of a comprehensive preservation plan.

Apply the Preservation Process Successfully —The preservation process involves five basic steps: Identify, Investigate, Develop, Execute, and Educate. Successful preservation design requires early and frequent consultation with a variety of organizations and close collaboration among technical specialists, architects, owner/occupants, and preservation professionals.

Update Building Systems Appropriately —Updating building systems in historic structures requires striking a balance between retaining original building features and accommodating new technologies and equipment. Building system updates require creativity to respect the original design and materials while meeting applicable codes and tenant needs.

Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs —The accommodation of new functions, changes in technology, and improved standards of protection provide challenges to the reuse of historic buildings and sites. Designers must address life safety, seismic, and security issues in innovative ways that preserve historic sites, spaces and features.

Comply with Accessibility Requirements —Accessibility and historic preservation strategies sometimes conflict with each other. Designers must provide access for persons with disabilities while meeting preservation goals.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Federal Mandates

36 CFR 67 , The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for Rehabilitation 36 CFR 68 , The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic

Properties 36 CFR 61 , Professional Qualifications for Historic Projects

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48 FR 22716, The Secretary of the Interior's Professional Qualification Standards, Sep 1983

Executive Order 11593, Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment (1971)

Executive Order 13006, Locating Federal Agencies in Historic Buildings in Historic Districts in Our Central Cities

Executive Order 13287, Preserve America National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966 Section 106 , 36 CFR Part 800, Protection of Historic Properties Section 110

For a list of other Federal Historic Preservation and cultural resource laws click here

Standards and Guidelines

Cultural Resource Management Guideline, NPS-28 Guidelines for Federal Agency Responsibilities, Under Section 110 of the

National Historic Preservation Act The Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines for Archeology and

Historic Preservation (As amended and annotated by the National Park Service)

Major Resources

WBDG

Historic Preservation—Additional Resources

Federal Agencies

Department of Defense (DoD): DoD Instruction 4715.3, Environmental Conservation Program (3 May 96) (PDF

200 KB, 45 pgs) Department of Defense Conservation Program Department of the Army: AR 200-4 Cultural Resources Management (Oct 97) Center of Expertise for the Preservation of Historic Buildings and Structures U.S. Army Corps of Engineers—Tribal Affairs and Initiatives U.S. Army Environmental Center—Cultural Resources Department of the Navy: Naval Facilities Engineering Command Historic and Archaeological Resources Protection Planning Guidelines, January

1997. SECNAV 4000.35A Department of the Navy Cultural Resources Program (9 Apr

01) (PDF 120 KB, 17 pgs) U.S. Air Force:

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Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence—Cultural Resources Air Force Instruction 32-7065 Cultural Resources Management Program (1 June

2004.) (PDF 707 KB, 39 pgs) Department of Veterans Affairs: Office of Facilities Management—Historic Preservation Heritage Preservation Services National Park Service National Register of Historic Places U.S. General Services Administration—Historic Preservation

Organizations/Associations

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers (NCSHPO) National Trust for Historic Preservation National Preservation Institute Smithsonian Institution Architectural History and Historic Preservation Division Office of Facilities Engineering and Operations

Publications

Federal Historic Preservation Laws National Park Service.

Other

PreservationDirectory.com —an online resource for historic preservation, building restoration and cultural resource management in the United States & Canada.

Historic Preservationby the WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee

Last updated: 04-29-2008

Overview

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Tacoma Union Station, Tacoma, WA. Tall ceilings, generous daylight, and grand ceremonial spaces give historic buildings enduring investment value and make them attractive for a variety of uses.

Realizing the need to protect America's cultural resources, Congress established the National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966, which mandates the active use of historic buildings for public benefit and to preserve our national heritage. Cultural resources, as identified in the National Register for Historic Places, include buildings, archeological sites, structures, objects, and historic districts. The surrounding landscape is often an integral part of a historic property. Not only can significant archaeological remains be destroyed during the course of construction, but the landscape, designed or natural, may be irreparably damaged, and caution is advised whenever major physical intervention is required in an extant building or landscape. The Archaeological Protection Act established the public mandate to protect these resources.

Some practical and/or intangible benefits of historic preservation include:

Retention of history and authenticity o Commemorates the pasto Aesthetics : texture, craftsmanship, styleo Pedestrian/visitor appealo Human scale

Increased commercial value o Materials and ornaments that are not affordable or readily availableo Durable, high quality materials (e.g., old growth wood)

Retention of building materials (refer also to WBDG Sustainable Branch) o Less construction and demolition debriso Less hazardous material debriso Less need for new materials

Existing usable space—quicker occupancy Rehabilitation often costs less than new construction Reuse of infrastructure Energy savings

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o No energy used for demolitiono No energy used for new constructiono Reuse of embodied energy in building materials and assemblies

Following passage of the NHPA, the Secretary of the Interior established Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties to promote and guide the responsible treatment of historic structures and to protect irreplaceable cultural resources. Today, the Standards are the guiding principles behind sensitive preservation design and practice in America.

Work on historic properties requires specialized skills. The Secretary of the Interior has identified professional qualification standards for a variety of preservation disciplines.

Four Treatment Approaches

Within the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties there are Standards for four distinct approaches to the treatment of historic properties: preservation, rehabilitation, restoration, and reconstruction.

Preservation focuses on the maintenance stabilization, and repair of existing historic materials and retention of a property's form as it has evolved over time.

Rehabilitation acknowledges the need to alter or add to a historic property to meet continuing or changing uses while retaining the property's historic character.

Restoration depicts a property at a particular period of time in its history, while removing evidence of other periods.

Reconstruction re-creates vanished or non-surviving portions of a property for interpretive purposes.

Additional Standards and Guidelines for the Treatment of Cultural Resources—landscapes, archaeological and maritime resources, etc. are maintained by the National Park Service.

While each treatment has its own definition, they are interrelated. For example, one could "restore" missing features in a building that is being "rehabilitated." This means that if there is sufficient historical documentation on what was there originally, a decorative lighting fixture may be replicated or an absent front porch rebuilt, but the overall approach to work on the building falls under one specific treatment.

Treatment Plan

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Alexander Hamilton Custom House. Original drawings, photographs, and other archival documents are used to determine the original appearance of missing features to be replicated within restoration zones.

Determine the appropriate treatment for a historic property BEFORE work begins, at project initiation. This includes making sure that the proposed function for the historic property is compatible with the existing conditions in order to minimize destruction of the historic fabric. Generally, the least amount of change to the building's historic design and original architectural fabric is the preferred approach. To develop a treatment plan, site assessments are conducted to identify character-defining features and qualities. These assessments also examine the building or property as a whole to establish a hierarchy of significance, or "zones," corresponding to specific treatments. Zoning establishes preservation priorities.

Of concern to design and preservation professionals is the cumulative effect of various seemingly minor changes to a cultural resource over time, which can greatly diminish its integrity. Therefore, to ensure the maximum protection of America's cultural resources, specifically historic buildings and properties, it is useful to identify four major preservation design topics for the Whole Building Design Guide:

San Francisco Court of Appeals, San Francisco, CA. Onsite surveys identify significant features to be retained as part of a comprehensive preservation plan.

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Apply the Preservation Process Successfully —The preservation process involves five basic steps: Identify, Investigate, Develop, Execute, and Educate. Successful preservation design requires early and frequent consultation with a variety of organizations and close collaboration among technical specialists, architects, owner/occupants, and preservation professionals.

Update Building Systems Appropriately —Updating building systems in historic structures requires striking a balance between retaining original building features and accommodating new technologies and equipment. Building system updates require creativity to respect the original design and materials while meeting applicable codes and tenant needs.

Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs —The accommodation of new functions, changes in technology, and improved standards of protection provide challenges to the reuse of historic buildings and sites. Designers must address life safety, seismic, and security issues in innovative ways that preserve historic sites, spaces and features.

Comply with Accessibility Requirements —Accessibility and historic preservation strategies sometimes conflict with each other. Designers must provide access for persons with disabilities while meeting preservation goals.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Federal Mandates

36 CFR 67 , The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for Rehabilitation 36 CFR 68 , The Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic

Properties 36 CFR 61 , Professional Qualifications for Historic Projects 48 FR 22716, The Secretary of the Interior's Professional Qualification Standards,

Sep 1983 Executive Order 11593, Protection and Enhancement of the Cultural Environment

(1971) Executive Order 13006, Locating Federal Agencies in Historic Buildings in

Historic Districts in Our Central Cities Executive Order 13287, Preserve America National Historic Preservation Act (NHPA) in 1966 Section 106 , 36 CFR Part 800, Protection of Historic Properties Section 110

For a list of other Federal Historic Preservation and cultural resource laws click here

Standards and Guidelines

Cultural Resource Management Guideline, NPS-28 Guidelines for Federal Agency Responsibilities, Under Section 110 of the

National Historic Preservation Act

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The Secretary of the Interior's Standards and Guidelines for Archeology and Historic Preservation (As amended and annotated by the National Park Service)

Major Resources

WBDG

Historic Preservation—Additional Resources

Federal Agencies

Department of Defense (DoD): DoD Instruction 4715.3, Environmental Conservation Program (3 May 96) (PDF

200 KB, 45 pgs) Department of Defense Conservation Program Department of the Army: AR 200-4 Cultural Resources Management (Oct 97) Center of Expertise for the Preservation of Historic Buildings and Structures U.S. Army Corps of Engineers—Tribal Affairs and Initiatives U.S. Army Environmental Center—Cultural Resources Department of the Navy: Naval Facilities Engineering Command Historic and Archaeological Resources Protection Planning Guidelines, January

1997. SECNAV 4000.35A Department of the Navy Cultural Resources Program (9 Apr

01) (PDF 120 KB, 17 pgs) U.S. Air Force: Air Force Center for Environmental Excellence—Cultural Resources Air Force Instruction 32-7065 Cultural Resources Management Program (1 June

2004.) (PDF 707 KB, 39 pgs) Department of Veterans Affairs: Office of Facilities Management—Historic Preservation Heritage Preservation Services National Park Service National Register of Historic Places U.S. General Services Administration—Historic Preservation

Organizations/Associations

Advisory Council on Historic Preservation (ACHP) National Conference of State Historic Preservation Officers (NCSHPO) National Trust for Historic Preservation National Preservation Institute Smithsonian Institution Architectural History and Historic Preservation Division

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Office of Facilities Engineering and Operations

Publications

Federal Historic Preservation Laws National Park Service.

Other

PreservationDirectory.com —an online resource for historic preservation, building restoration and cultural resource management in the United States & Canada.

Apply the Preservation Process Successfullyby the WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee

Last updated: 04-30-2008

Overview

Work on historic buildings, landscapes, archaeological sites, or other cultural resources, requires knowledge of a unique process of compliance and review. This process differs from work on existing buildings or on new construction and should be considered in concert with other project goals requiring close collaboration between preservationists and design disciplines. To ensure a balanced, economically viable, and preservation-sensitive project, the outline below should be followed.

A. Initial Project Planning Stage

Determining What Makes a Building Historic and Who Makes this Determination

In the United States, a property—either public or private—is considered historic if it meets a set of criteria established by the National Register of Historic Places, a division of the National Park Service that lists cultural resources worthy of preservation. The nomination process is initiated by a property owner and/or interested citizen in collaboration with the following entities (these entities also determine if a property is eligible for listing): State Historic Preservation Officers (SHPOs) for properties in their state, Federal Preservation Officers (FPO) for properties under federal ownership or control, and Tribal Historic Preservation Officers (THPO) for properties on tribal lands or with tribal interests. These organizations process the nominations and then forward them to the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, DC for final approval.

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Eligibility for listing in the National Register is based on a set of criteria, which are used by those involved in the decision making process on local, state and federal levels. There are also local and state registers who evaluate their resources in a similar manner.

A general threshold for eligibility in the National Register, or state or local registers, is that the property be at least 50 years old, although there are exceptions to this rule. The four principal eligibility criteria are:

A. Resources that are associated with the events that have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of historic; or

B. Resources that are associated with the lives of persons significant in our past; orC. Resources that embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method

of construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose components may lack individual distinction; or

D. Resources that have yield or may be likely to yield information important in prehistoric or history.

Monticello, Charlottesville, VA, Thomas Jefferson, 1768 to 1782.Credit: Library of Congress, Prints & Photographs Division, FSA-OWI Collection, John Collier Photographer. Reproduction number, e.g., LC-USF35-1326

Eligible properties that meet these criteria and successfully complete the formal nomination process are then "listed" in national, state, and/or local registers. Buildings are either located within the boundaries of a designated "historic district", or are "individually listed" for their architectural and/or historical merit. A listed building may also become eligible for tax credits and other financial incentives.

A completed register nomination form may be a valuable source of information on a building's (or other resource's) history. Nominations are generally available through State Historic Preservation Offices, or through the National Register of Historic Places.

Conduct Investigation and Research

Completing a state and/or national historic register nomination requires general knowledge of the resource type being considered (building, landscape, archaeological site), which necessitates investigation and historical research requiring qualified preservation professionals. Procuring qualified preservation professionals can make the

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process more efficient. (Refer to section on Form a Qualified and Experienced Project Team in Section B below.) There may also be regulations, guidelines, and applicable codes that must be followed. Preparing a nomination should be done in consultation with the consulting agencies (State Historic Preservation Office, the Federal Preservation Office, and the Tribal Historic Preservation Office) to make certain all requirements are met. Nominations for federal properties in certain historic districts must also be reviewed by the local historic preservation commission.

Understand the History of a Property

For the long-term preservation of a historic property, it is very important to understand its history before any construction begins. Consider the following:

When was it built? With what materials and methods was it built? Who was the architect or designer? What are its architectural characteristics or features?

o Are these features unique in some way? What is their condition and will they be lost if not repaired in a timely manner? Are original drawings or other planning documents for a building still available? Has the building changed over time? If so, how?

Gamble House, Pasadena, CA, Greene and Greene, 1909.(Courtesy of National Park Service)

Archival research to verify the original appearance of the building and site is helpful in establishing preservation priorities and in preparing treatment alternatives.

An excellent planning tool for successfully completing a project for any historic resource is to develop a Preservation Management Plan. This document records a resource's history, why it is significant, what are the most important features to preserve if work is completed. The plan delineates which areas require special protection or which areas first merit rehabilitation. The preservation management plan guides future maintenance, repairs, and alterations. Some also provide detailed guidance for rehabilitation or adaptive use.

The following are sources to aid in archival research concerning the property:

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National Sources American Association of State & Local History American Historical Association Historic American Buildings Survey (HABS) —for architectural drawings Historic Americal Engineering Record (HAER) —for architectural drawings Library of Congress National Archives National Register of Historic Places—National Register Research

State Sources State Historic Preservation Offices State Nonprofit Preservation Alliances State archives, newspapers, historical societies, libraries, and genealogical

societies

Local Sources Local preservation commissions, archives, newspapers, historical societies,

libraries

Determine the Regulation, Guidelines, and Standards That Affect the Proposed Work

When work is proposed for a historic property, compliance involving a variety of public agencies may be required. Compliance with federal preservation laws is mandatory if the property is using federal funds, leases, grants, permits, or licenses (even if the historic resource is privately owned), is on federal land, or is under the jurisdiction of the federal government. To save time and money, determine ahead of time who must review the preservation project and learn what is required for approval (at all governmental levels).

Section 106 and Section 110 of the National Historic Preservation Act

Section 106, 36 CFR Part 800, Protection of Historic Properties: Section 106 regulations require that the head of any federal agency "prior to the approval of the expenditure of any federal funds on the [construction] undertaking … take into account the effect of the undertaking on any [historic] district, site, building, structure, or object". Or, more simply, if federal funds are used to do work on an individual property, then studies must be conducted to determine the potential effect of the work on the property. If any historic or cultural resource (building, land, structure, object, or feature) will be adversely affected by the work, then mitigation and/or remedial plans must be made, as well as a plan to suitably document any resource to be lost. The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation establishes policy on this process.

Section 110: Section 110 regulations require that each federal agency establish and maintain a "preservation program for the identification, evaluation, and nomination to the National Register of Historic Places, and protection of historic properties" for all

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properties owned by or under the jurisdiction of the agency, thus providing responsible management of current and future historic properties under their care.

For more information on compliance with Section 106 and Section 110, refer to the following:

The Advisory Council on Historic Preservation Federal Preservation Officers (FPO)—For projects affiliated with an agency of

the federal government State Historic Preservation Officers (SHPO) Tribal Historic Preservation Officers (THPO)—For projects affiliated with a

property located on or owned by a Sovereign Tribe recognized by the United States federal government

Legal Agreements

Sometimes there are historic easements, covenants, mechanisms of title transfer, or other legal agreements placed on historic properties that can restrict work undertaken.

For more information on easements, refer to the following:

The Conservation Easement Handbook : Managing Land Conservation and Historic Preservation Easement Programs by Janet Diehl and Thomas S. Barrett. Land Trust Alliance.

Façade Easements Preservation Easements—An Important Legal Tool for the Preservation of

Historic Places What is a Historic Preservation Easement?

There are also binding commitments that federal agencies make with specific regulators that must be taken into consideration. These arrangements are established to protect significant historic, archeological, or cultural resources, and to ensure that the property's intrinsic values will be preserved for future generations through subsequent ownership.

Local Compliance

For information on compliance to local regulations, refer to the following:

Certified Local Governments Historic Preservation Review Boards (contact local historic or preservation

society, permitting board, or county clerk) National Environmental Protection Act (NEPA)

Codes Compliance—Building Codes and Historic Buildings

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Until recently, building codes were generally written exclusively for new construction with few provisions made for historic buildings and their unique requirements. New codes are now being developed for older structures on local, state, and national levels. These include those listed in the Codes & Standards.

Additionally, significant older buildings often qualify for zone or code variances if provisions are not explicitly made for historic buildings in the state or local code. Federal Agencies must adhere to other mandates, such as those listed in the WBDG Mandates/Reference section. Federal employees embarking upon a project involving a historic building in addition to checking with the agency's Federal Preservation Officer (FPO), should check with their environmental compliance office, preservation office, and/or facilities division for immediate requirements that must be adhered to.

Identify the Character-Defining Features of the Historic Property

U.S. CapitolCourtesy of Architect of the Capitol

The terms "character-defining" or "architectural character" refer to all those distinctive elements and physical features that comprise the appearance of every historic building. Character-defining aspects of a historic building include its massing, materials, features, craftsmanship, decorative details, interior spaces and features, as well its site and environment.

Consider the following in identifying the character defining features of the historic property:

Site o Setting, landscape features, district, or neighborhood

Plan o Spatial definition and volume

Envelope o Roof profileo Window and door patterno Elements and assemblieso Envelope materials

Finishes

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o Interior materialso Color and textureo Decoration (ornamentation and artwork)o Fixtures and furnishings

Following are recommended sources to aid in the investigation and to help identify a building's most salient features:

National Park Service: Preservation Brief 17—Architectural Character: Identifying the Visual Aspects of Historic Buildings as an Aid to Preserving Their Character

National Park Service: The Walk Through—Identifying the Visual Character of Historic Buildings

National Park Service: The Good Guides—A group of websites developed by the National Park Service to help people new to the preservation field understand how to care for historic buildings.

National Park Service: The Illustrated Guidelines for Rehabilitating Historic Buildings—the online version of the book. The print version is available through the Government Printing Office.

National Park Service: A Checklist for Rehabilitating Historic Buildings

Fit the Program to the Historic Building

This former rail station depot was converted to a hotel with reception areas. This program fit the extant building well.Courtesy of National Park Service.

The goal of preservation is to protect the historic integrity of an individual building and its surroundings. Once the important features of a property are identified, their protection is a priority. The design process should respect and respond to the historic features.

Consider the following:

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Will the building's proposed new use compromise its integrity? Can the design include provisions for protecting the property from the wear and

tear associated with active use? What should tenant do to ensure long-term protection of the resource? Does it involve removing too much of the original architectural materials,

changing the plan, or adding an addition that will adversely affect the historic construction?

Are there alternative approaches that will save more historic fabric? Is it feasible to adapt this property to meet the programmatic needs? Is it possible to satisfy federal, state, and local regulations and compliance that

deal with historic preservation?

Instead of demolishing the former train shed, it was converted into an indoor ice arena. This program fit the extant building well.Courtesy of National Park Service; Photo of indoor ice arena: Audrey Tepper

For more information, click here.

B. Planning Stage

Form a Qualified and Experienced Project Team

A historic property's architectural integrity and successful long-term preservation rest on decisions made throughout the entire design and construction process. Therefore, assembling an experienced, competent project team is extremely important. The selected preservation professionals should have experience working on similar historic preservation projects (e.g., the same building type or property), and understanding their unique requirements.

Historic building surveys, planning documents, and technical studies concerning repair and alteration of historic material and spaces should be prepared only by firms and individuals meeting, at a minimum, Department of Interior qualification standards for the applicable preservation professions. This should also be done in accordance with the Secretary's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties. These individuals include but are not limited to architectural conservators, architectural historians, preservation architects, preservation engineers, and other allied preservation professionals.

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Some agencies have developed criteria and procedures for evaluating the competency of preservation professionals and construction contractors.

There are many sources for finding good expertise in historic preservation, including:

Federal Preservation Officer (FPO)—For Federal Agencies. Some agencies also have preservation professionals on staff or on contract.

GSA Preservation Professionals Construction Contractors State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO)—SHPOs often have lists of

individuals with this type of experience. How to Find Preservation Professionals

Develop Individual Preservation Management Plans

Continuing the preservation process with sound preservation planning is the next course of action. Prior to construction, it is essential to create a planning document outlining the significance of a historic building, documenting the qualities and elements that contribute to its historic character, establishing preservation priorities, and addressing how the building is to be treated. This type of plan is often called a "preservation management plan" or "Historic Structures Report." In government agencies, this type of document may also be referred to as an Integrated Cultural Resource Management Plan (ICRMP) and Building Preservation Plan (BPP). In addition, a "Cultural Landscape Report or Inventory" may also need to be prepared.

For additional information on preservation management plans, click here.

Federal regulation requires development of individual preservation management plans if the property is federally owned or uses federal funds. The plan can take many forms, but MUST include the following types of information:

Key Historical Information (when, who, what, where) o Archival Research (including historic drawings and photographs if

available) Site Survey Information Statement of Significance Identification of Character Defining Features Documentation of Existing Conditions

o Captioned and Mapped Photos of Existing Conditions (interior and exterior)

o Description of Existing Physical Conditions (on the interior and exterior) Materials Analyses

o Overall Conditions Assessmento Structural Analysiso Fabric Analysis, Including Paint Analysis; Masonry

Recommendations for Appropriate Treatments

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Future Compliance Requirements (where applicable as required by law)

The following types of information may be included in a preservation management plan or Historic Structures Report:

Disaster Mitigation/Management Plan Preservation Maintenance Plan Establishment of Preservation Zones Design Concept (for preservation, rehabilitation, and restoration of building) Feasibility Study for Reuse of Building Narrative History of Use (construction campaigns, alterations, and additions) Description as Built Project Scope of Work and Specifications Structural Analysis Life-Cycle Analysis

Plan Suitable Spaces for Program Needs

This late 19th century hotel ballroom conversion into a parking garage is not a suitable use or program for this type of highly articulated finished space.Courtesy of National Park Service

Preservation management plans identify character-defining qualities and establish preservation priorities for matching program functions to specific buildings or spaces. The goal is to make the best possible use of existing historic features, minimizing the need for interventions that might compromise the historic character of the building or site. Comprehensive planning is encouraged so that all changes, large or small, are part of a well-integrated building plan, as opposed to piecemeal alterations undertaken without regard to long-term effects.

Preservation zoning establishes a hierarchy based on architectural merit, historic significance, and historic integrity, or the extent to which original materials and design remain intact. These zone categories are then correlated to appropriate levels of treatment, in accordance with the Secretary of the Interior's Standards. The proportion of zones dictating a stricter vs. more lenient design approach is unique to each building. In some buildings, every space is highly significant and all changes must be taken with great care, under the guidance of an experienced preservation professional or team. Other

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buildings can accommodate greater change while still maintaining their historic character.

Buildings well matched to their tenants and functions require very little change. Whenever changing building occupancy or functions, seek uses and tenants suited to the building. Suitable uses are functions that minimize the need to alter character-defining features or spaces. The less modification required by the proposed program, the more suitable the program.

Accommodating new functions demands ingenuity. The success of which rests, to a great extent, upon the ability to successfully integrate old and new so that the property retains its historic character and the parts still relate to the whole.

In addressing changing space requirements, first consider options that enable the historic building to continue serving the function for which it was originally constructed. When the historic function is no longer viable, feasibility studies are undertaken to assess the financial and practical achievability of treatment options.

C. Design Development Stage

Design to Minimize Changes to Historic Property

Federal Courthouse, Scranton, PA. Adding an adjoining or freestanding annex has enabled many federal courts to remain in historic courthouse buildings, allowing continued public access to ceremonial courtrooms.

The underlying philosophy behind any preservation project is to keep to a minimum the proposed changes to a historic property. For its long-term protection, the historic property must always come first. Therefore, any changes should play a secondary role to the historic property and new work must not dictate what occurs on site. The role of the preservation design team or specialist is to help ensure that these changes contribute to, rather than detract from, a building's historic character and design unity.

If a historic property is on federal land or using federal funds and changes are proposed, the State Historic Preservation Officer (SHPO) in which the property is located must be consulted to comply with Section 106. The Secretary of the Interior's Standards provide the framework for responsible preservation design. Technical guidance is available to help resolve common preservation challenges.

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For more detailed design guidance, refer to the following WBDG pages:

Update Building Systems Appropriately Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs Comply with Accessibility Requirements

Select Competent and Qualified Contractors

Similar to the selection of the project team, the construction team should consist of qualified contractors and subcontractors with experience working on similar historic properties. Select contractors early enough to include them in developing solutions that meet the project goals (where the contract process so permits).

GSA has developed contract language and evaluation criteria to verify the competency of architectural and engineering firms, as well as, construction contractors that propose to work on historic buildings. GSA's preservation project management online guidance also includes a model scope of services for architectural and engineering design work involving historic buildings. For more information, visit the GSA Historic Buildings website.

D. Construction Stage

Provide Temporary Protection

Construction activity during the course of a project can damage historic resources. Therefore, providing temporary protection of a building or site during this time should be incorporated in planning and construction documents. On-site supervision with regular inspections ensures that historic fabric is not at risk. For additional information on temporary protection see the National Park Service TechNote section on Temporary Protection.

Ensure Fire Safety During Construction

Many historic buildings are destroyed as a result of fires during construction. Fire-safe clean-up, including removal of flammable solvents and rags and debris, is critical. Fire suppression systems must be maintained and augmented when appropriate. Leave pathways to exits clear, and ensure that fire doors remain closed. Additional supervision may be required while high risk construction activities are underway.

Educate Workers and Public on Significance of Historic Property

Educating everyone involved in the project—from the property owner, to the consultants (architectural, structural, mechanical, plumbing, electrical, civil), to the contractors and laborers, and to the eventual property users—about why the property is worthy of preservation is vitally important. The better informed one is the more likely one is to treat the property with care.

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Regular on-site supervision and good communication between the preservation team and the construction team can protect a historic building while construction is underway. Sometimes features worthy of preservation are uncovered as work progresses and this can ensure these and other important elements are not compromised.

Wayside signs or exhibits describing construction/preservation work can generate interest in the project while building good will among tenants and visitors who are inconvenienced by construction. The costs of these installations can be offset by reduced effort required to respond to questions and complaints.

Develop Building Maintenance Manual

For the long-term protection of a historic resource, operational guidelines should be developed for not only tenants, but also for the building staff. These guidelines should provide:

Documentation on building systems Facilities management programs to record important information on the operation

of a building or property Schedules for cyclical maintenance and custodial procedures Schedules for regular inspections of important features

E. Occupancy Stage

Modify Leasing Agreements and Provisions

Tenants must know what they can and cannot do prior to leasing. This type of information may be included in leasing documents and through the development of tenant guidelines.

Historic properties must also be protected when tenants move in or relocate to a property. Transporting furniture and office equipment can often cause damage unless care is taken to protect important features during increased levels of activity. Once again, accommodations for temporary protection should be made early on in the planning process and in construction documents.

Leases should also include procedural guidance for Section106 compliance when alterations are unavoidable.

Develop Special Events Policies

Historic properties are often used for special events (e.g., exhibitions, exceptions, parties, demonstrations, etc.). These activities increase the wear and tear on a property and can damage an historic resource. Temporary protection of the architectural fabric and landscapes when equipment is moved in and out, and when the space is being used,

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should be provided. The following actions are recommended to minimize the effects of special events on the historic property:

Confer with code officials to determine the types of activities that are appropriate for the space. Develop specific special events guidelines, noting that some activities are inappropriate for the property.

Establish a permitting process when public or private buildings are leased for uses beyond their usual function, such as using a museum for a social event.

Establish that lessees should submit in advance how they propose to use a historic property; some activities may be inappropriate.

Determine beforehand who is responsible for protection and incidental damage as a result of leasing out a space. Consider mandatory security deposits.

Ensure that the property (or lessee) is adequately insured to cover any damage. Ensure that appropriate on-site supervision is present throughout the event and

clean-up.

Update Individual Preservation Management Plans

Technical guidance provided in the preservation management plans and other preservation plans should be periodically updated to ensure that the plans reflect current conditions. Updating also ensures that recommendations take into account technical advancements in treatment technologies that may have occurred since the plan was initially created. Updates should be undertaken by a specialist firm meeting the Department of Interior qualification standards, preferably by the firm who prepared the original plan.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Federal Mandates

16 U.S.C. 470 et seq. National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended through 1992

Section 106 , 36 CFR Part 800, Protection of Historic Properties Section 110

Standards and Guidelines

National Historic Landmark Designation National Park Service, Caring for Your Historic Building Secretary of the Interior's Standards for Treatment of Historic Properties National Register Nomination Process Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Cultural Landscapes Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Buildings Standards and Guidelines also exist for: archaeology, maritime resources, and

other cultural resources

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Federal

General Services Administration Historic Preservation Technical Procedures

State/Local

Contact your State Historic Preservation Officer

Codes

1997 Uniform Code for Building Conservation 2001 Maryland Building Rehabilitation Code 2003 International Building Code California Historic Building Code (2001) HUD's Guideline on Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies Massachusetts Building Code Section 780 CMR 3409.0 (2000)—Historic

Building exceptions New Jersey Rehabilitation Sub-Code (1999) Uniform Code for Building Conservation by International Code Council. International Conference of Building Officials, 1997. Refer also to Section A. of this page Determine the Regulations, Guidelines, and

Applicable Codes That Will Affect the Proposed Work Vermont Department of Labor and Industry's Fire Prevention and Building Code

Compliance for Historic Buildings: A Field Guide

Major Resources

WBDG

Historic Preservation—Additional Resources

Publications

General For more information about the preservation field in the United States please see

the ICOMOS Document, A Brief Overview of Preservation in the USA Conservation of Historic Buildings, Third Edition (Conservation of Historic

Buildings) by Bernard Feilden. Architectural Press: July 2003. National Park Service, National Register Bulletins and Brochures Note #1: Eight Guiding Principles in the Conservation of Historic Properties

Architectural Conservation Notes. Ontario Ministry of Citizenship, Culture, and Recreation.

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Codes Building Codes for Heritage Buildings Heritage Society of British Columbia—

Examples of historic building codes and some code exceptions. Smart Codes: A New Approach to Building Codes by Elizabeth G. Pianca. Forum

News: May/June 2001, Vol.7, No. 5.

Technical Guidance Association for Preservation Technology International (APTI) Bulletin Conservation of Historic Buildings, Third Edition by Bernard Feilden. Boston,

MA: Architectural Press, 2003. Conserving Buildings: Guide to Techniques and Materials, Revised Edition.

Martin E. Weaver. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997. Cultural Landscapes Charrette Background Paper English Heritage Publications GSA Preservation Note Series Historic Scotland Technical Publications National Park Service National Center for Preservation Technology and Training

(NCPTT) National Park Service, Preservation Brief Series

Investigation House Histories: A Guide to Tracing the Genealogy of Your Home by Sally Light

and Margaret Eberle (Illustrator). Golden Hill Press, September 1989. Preservation Brief 35—Understanding Old Buildings: The Process of

Architectural Investigation by Travis C. McDonald, Jr. National Park Service, 1994.

Specifying Buildings, A Design Management Perspective by Stephen Emmitt and David T. Yeomans. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001.

Preservation Management Plans The Conservation Easement Handbook : Managing Land Conservation and

Historic Preservation Easement Programs by Diehl, Janet, Barrett, Thomas S. Land Trust Alliance.

CRM (Cultural Resources Management Bulletin) Issue 1984 7-01, Page 15: Historic Structures Report (PDF 94 KB, 29 pgs) by Frances Joan Mathien.

A Historic Structure Report Symposium Proceedings by Lonnie J. Hovey. The American Institute of Architects Press, October 1996.

House Histories: A Guide to Tracing the Genealogy of Your Home. Sally Light, Margaret Eberle (Illustrator). Golden Hill Press, September 1989.

Preservation Plan for the Cruiser Olympia —Example of an individualized preservation plan

Specifying Buildings, A Design Management Perspective, Stephen Emmitt, David T. Yeomans. Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001.

What is Preservation Planning? (As it pertains to collections.) Sherelyn Ogden. Northeast Document Conservation Center.

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Special Events Policies The Lincoln Memorial: Guidelines for Special Events and Demonstration,

December 1996 by National Park Service, National Capital Parks-Central (NACC). Washington, DC, December 1996.—available through the National Park Service, Lincoln Memorial Park or National Capital Region Office.

Understanding Old Buildings; The Process of Architectural Investigation. Preservation Brief 35 by Travis C. McDonald, Jr. National Park Service, 1994.

Training Advisory Council for Historic Preservation 106 Training National Council for Preservation Education National Preservation Institute, Historic Structures Reports: A Management Tool

for Historic Properties—Seminar National Preservation Institute, Preservation Maintenance: Understanding and

Preserving Historic Buildings—Seminar

Update Building Systems Appropriatelyby the WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee

Last updated: 04-30-2008

Overview

For many historic structures, "building systems" are new additions that must be incorporated with as much sensitivity to the original fabric as possible. However, more recently constructed buildings, such as early 20th century commercial buildings, may contain early systems that may be historic themselves and can be reused. For example, decorative ventilation grilles and switch plates may contribute to a building's significance as much as marble wainscoting or decorative stenciling.

Careful planning is required to balance preservation objectives with interior systems, such as HVAC, electrical, plumbing, structural systems, information and communication technologies, and conveyance systems. Since new mechanical and other related systems, such as electrical and fire suppression, can use up to 10% of a building's square footage and 30%-40% of an overall rehabilitation budget, decisions must be made in a systematic and coordinated manner. While it might not be always possible to completely conceal the presence of new technology, it may be possible to lessen the impact on a building's integrity and retain as much of the original building fabric as possible.

Changes—both big and small—can have a significant cumulative impact over time. Care must be taken during initial project design and periodic upgrades to avoid the incremental loss of integrity. Following are four basic principles to keep in mind when upgrading systems in historic properties:

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Sympathetic Upgrades: Building systems upgrades should be sympathetic to the architect's specific design intent, e.g., utilitarian spaces vs. highly finished spaces.

Reversibility: Building systems upgrades should be installed to avoid damage to —or to be removable without further damaging—character-defining features and/or finishes.

Retention of Historic Fabric: 'Work around' the historic fabric as much as possible. The basic mind-set prescribes forethought and respect for historic materials. For example, design systems efficiently enough to fit into existing openings or be accessible off site.

Life-Cycle Benefit: Long-term preservation emphasizes life-cycle benefits of reusing historic properties and planning for changing needs. As such, consider the following:

o Minimize intrusions and long-term impact on historic materials as future repairs and replacements are made.

o Complex systems will require more maintenance to perform properly.o Explore alternatives that will allow the reuse of existing system elements,

e.g., reuse ducts to avoid replacement costs.o Design zone systems that will allow repairs to be done without disrupting

the entire building.o Take advantage of financial benefits of historic properties, such as special

use rental or increased rental rates, of restoring lobbies and other significant spaces previously altered.

Early Planning

During the initial design phase, preservation zones are defined within the individual preservation management plan, giving a hierarchy of significance to the building's spaces and features (i.e., primary, secondary, and tertiary spaces). An understanding of the building's most important spaces and features is critical to evaluating preservation trade-offs and preserving character-defining qualities. It is better to install new equipment in secondary or tertiary spaces, and avoid or minimize intrusions in primary architectural spaces. Basements and attics are usually good locations for horizontal routing of systems; existing chases such as fireplaces, flues, and utility closets are good for vertical routing of systems; and use existing penetrations and chases to the greatest extent possible. Be aware that some basements may contain valuable archeological sites that should not be disturbed. Also, janitorial closets can be good locations for electrical equipment. Where possible, use this opportunity to improve on the placement and function of a building's systems so as to emphasize the building's integrity.

Recommendations

A. HVAC—Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning

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Installation of a dropped ceiling in a historically significant room. Notice the detrimental affects to both the scale and windows of the room.Photo courtesy National Park Service

Choose a system and/or equipment that is appropriate for the use of the building. For instance, a museum has different climatic needs than an office building.

General Retain original architectural configurations, surfaces, and finishes, such as vaulted

and ornamental ceilings, pilasters, and capitals. Retain any existing historically significant features, such as original registers,

radiators, escutcheons, radiator enclosures, etc., by reusing existing ductwork, vents/air intakes, and janitorial closets.

If disturbance is unavoidable, the replacement should match the design, color, texture, and materials of the original.

Match the finished appearance of the space to the original. Ensure that the addition of HVAC systems and other repairs will not corrupt the

building's structural integrity.

Distribution System

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Ductwork retrofit. The insensitively installed ductwork detracts from the hallway's scale and obscures the transoms.Photo courtesy National Park Service

Avoid the need for new ductwork, especially in lobbies, corridors, and other circulation spaces, by examining ductless alternatives such as split systems and pipe systems with reuse of existing ducts for ventilation.

If new ductwork is unavoidable, disturb as little original fabric as possible and minimize the visual impact.

o Avoid reconfiguring ceilings (e.g. suspended ceilings) to accommodate air distribution.

o Install in attic or basements first. If service areas are not available, carefully place in secondary areas, never in primary spaces, away from window heads.

o Retain full window height so that exterior appearance is unaltered.o Configure ceilings to avoid obscuring the full height of windows and

interior or exterior transoms.o Retain decorative millwork and other character-defining features. Rather

than puncturing decorative elements, move the position of the ductwork.o Configure ductwork to be as flat as possible and to avoid disrupting the

symmetry of the space. Explore zoning using multiple, smaller ducts, rather than a single, larger profile duct system.

o Avoid running ductwork along or across corridors.o Where appropriate, step, slope or pocket out the ceiling with sufficient

depth to retain the original appearance of a full, unobscured window from the exterior.

o In some cases, exposed ductwork may be appropriate, such as in industrial or other utilitarian buildings, or spaces with vaulted or other decorative ceilings that would otherwise have to be obscured.

Left: A good example of ductwork installation does not obscure windows or transoms.  And Right: A bad example of ductwork installation obscures either windows or transoms or both.Photos courtesy National Park Service

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Building Envelope Retain window operability; install locks and/or stops if required to control tenant

use. Use operable windows for natural ventilation during temperate spring and fall

months whenever possible. o Use weather stripping and insulating doors and windows, instead of

replacing or sealing windows. Consider the architect's original energy conservation methods, such as operable

windows, porches, overhangs, etc. Incorporate these features into the overall energy conservation plan.

o Are weather stripping and storm windows appropriate? Retain original ventilation systems, (e.g. attic vents, crawl space, and airflow

patterns). Carefully consider insulation options; ensure that the chosen method/materials

will not create condensation in a building's interior. Consider the appropriateness of moisture vapor barriers; if chosen, install them

with sensitivity to the historic fabric. Maintain good breathability/permeability of the envelope; be mindful of the

original structure's inherent tolerance to moisture.

Equipment Install air handlers and other equipment in locations that will least affect building

occupants and activities (e.g. vibration and noise). Install wall or ceiling mounted equipment in secondary or tertiary spaces. Locate any exterior building equipment adjacent to a secondary or tertiary façade

or landscape, rather than the primary façade or landscape. o Landscaping is a low cost method of camouflaging new HVAC

equipment.o Remotely locating new equipment may be necessary if there are

archeological or historic landscape features immediately adjacent to a building.

Hide roof-mounted equipment from the street or other obvious vantage points (a site study can indicate good locations).

A detailed discussion of installing HVAC equipment in historic buildings can be found in Preservation Brief 24: Heating, Ventilating, and Cooling Historic Buildings Problems and Recommended Approaches.

B. Information and Communication Technology

Information technology systems are complex and constantly changing. These systems have exponentially increased the need for easily accessible wiring raceways. Today's modern office buildings incorporate raised floors that allow easy access to wiring systems. Although not appropriate for all buildings and spaces, in some historic buildings this approach can enable retention of ornamental ceilings and features:

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Consider wireless solutions. Reuse existing conduit and wiring chases to the greatest extent possible. For small and/or highly significant buildings, consider locating computer servers

off-site. Design for flexibility of layout. Install computer and IT wiring that can easily be reversed. Ensure that the wiring and associated equipment are easily accessible so that they

may be periodically replaced and updated. Ensure that the addition of information and communication technologies and

other repairs will not corrupt the building's structural integrity.

Computer Rooms Locate servers in appropriate climate-controlled tertiary spaces that minimize

intrusion, such as basements or existing windowless rooms. Avoid altering doors and windows for climate control. Use existing vertical chases to run IT cables. For security, retrofit existing doors in a reversible and compatible manner instead

of replacing them.

Wiring Distribution Retain decorative millwork and other character-defining features. Avoid obscuring or altering decorative cornice and other character-defining

features. For ornamental spaces, consider raceways hidden by historic cornices and

mouldings. Do not install exposed wiring systems. Create a maintenance plan with strict standards for installation of new wiring and

equipment. Ensure that copies of wiring diagrams are available to building managers and external locations.

Design for flexibility and expansion. Do not drill marble, parquet, terrazzo, and other finished flooring. If unavoidable,

drill in corners to minimize impacts and run wiring along baseboards. Select high-quality, highest speed, and smallest size cabling to minimize the need

for future intrusive replacements, especially in ornamentally significant spaces.

C. Lighting/Electrical

Historic lighting levels may not be appropriate for current or planned use of a historic building and the installation of new lighting systems may be necessary. The lighting levels and equipment should be appropriate to the building's current or planned use while respecting the original fabric.

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Interior Lighting

Preserve and reuse historically significant light fixtures. This rehabilitation project reused the architect's original lighting scheme and extant fixtures.Photo courtesy National Park Service

Retain as much original fabric as possible when installing new systems (i.e., do not needlessly puncture a decorative plaster ceiling or molding, when it may be as feasible to relocate a fixture or junction box).

Retrofit existing light fixtures with reflectors to increase light output. Conserve and rewire existing fixtures and accessories. Even if original fixtures

will not be electrified and/or used, they should be retained and preserved in situ. If original fixtures cannot produce the amount of light required, use alternate light

sources from removable fixtures, such as task lighting and torchiéres. Inconspicuous sconces or unobtrusive perimeter ceiling lighting are preferable to eye-catching modern fixtures.

Retain and reuse original, character defining switch plates and other accessories. Use existing electrical chases.

o Install new chases within or behind walls or vertically in secondary or tertiary spaces.

If using historically sensitive replacements that are wired for modern energy loads and light output.

o Replicas of original lighting fixtures can be designed to accommodate energy efficiency and multiple light sources.

Incorporate the original light color in new lighting plans. Ensure that the addition of interior lighting systems and other repairs will not

corrupt the building's structural integrity.

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Left: Before—A dropped ceiling drastically affects the architect's original intent and grand scale of this space.  Right: After—The removal of the dropped ceiling restored the architect's intent and has a much more pleasing and commercially desirable impact.Photos courtesy National Park Service

Exterior Lighting Consider landscape features when designing exterior lighting schemes; outside

lighting will have implications on landscape design. Consider security and accessibility requirements. Mount on existing poles or structures. Install in non-intrusive areas and use it to highlight historic features of a building. Use accent lighting as an effective way to highlight architectural features.

o Use gentle, raking light rather than large spotlights. Do not flood fa…ades with excessive light.

If installing exterior lighting features, such as light poles or lower light sources, choose historically appropriate options.

Ensure that the addition of exterior lighting systems and other repairs will not corrupt the building's structural integrity.

D. Plumbing

Some plumbing elements such as this radiator are historic.Photo courtesy National Park Service

Prior to initiating a plumbing upgrade, it is important to ascertain whether these traditionally utilitarian spaces are in fact historic and must be preserved. If they are not historic, then rehabilitate them with sensitivity to the surrounding historic building materials, finishes, and features. However, if plumbing elements are historic, then take care to preserve them:

Retain and preserve historically significant configuration, layout, and plumbing elements, such as bathroom and kitchen fixtures and features.

When repairing/replacing existing pipes, do not damage adjacent finish materials, such as floor and wall tiles.

o If new pipes must be installed and are visible, they should be located inconspicuously and they should complement adjacent finishes.

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Use existing pipe runs in their original location. Otherwise, install them in closets, service rooms, and wall cavities.

Avoid primary fa…ades and rooms if pipes must be affixed to the interior or exterior of a building.

Do not cut through character defining features, such as moldings, wainscoting, etc.

Ensure that the addition of plumbing systems and other repairs will not corrupt the building's structural integrity.

E. Conveyance Systems

All or part of a conveyance system may be historic. For instance, this elevator cab has several character defining features, such as exotic wood paneling, elegant moldings, and metal air vents.Photo courtesy National Park Service

Elevators and escalators may also contribute to a building's historic significance. First ascertain whether these features are historically significant:

Reuse existing components to maximum extent possible. Retain original fixtures, features, and materials; many historically significant

conveyance systems still retain some, if not all, their original elements, particularly finish elements. Examples are original, exotic wood veneers within elevator cabs and bronze and brass switch plates, floor indicators, and handrails.

Combine code requirements and preservation concerns; often original features can be slightly modified to meet code requirements.

Ensure that the addition of conveyance systems and other repairs will not corrupt the building's structural integrity.

F. Structural

When updating a building's structure, it is preferable to retain and repair as much of the original structural system as possible. However, it may be necessary to add an entirely new structural system or to strengthen the existing system with modern innovations. For instance, a new structural system might be installed to accommodate the larger crowds associated with a museum; whereas originally, the building housed only a small family.

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Also, it's important to note that a structural system itself may be historic and may require sensitivity when altering or repairing it. The Brooklyn Bridge, for instance, is an example of a structural system that is inseparable from the aesthetic impact. If structural intervention is necessary:

When structural systems have historic architectural significance; develop creative solutions to meet life/fire safety requirements as well as historic preservation goals.

Ascertain whether the building's structure or structural components are integral to the character-defining features of the building: retain as much of the original structural form and features as possible.

o Replicate the original structural system, if necessary. Plan a use for the building that doesn't necessitate an augmented structural

system. Consider the 'physics' of a proposed repair (i.e., will the alteration have the same

thermal expansion coefficient as the existing structural system?). Carefully remove, catalogue, and store original adjacent features, finishes, and

details for later re-installation. To access the structural system, it may be necessary to remove existing finish materials.

Preserve extant features of historic structural systems, such as post and beam systems and trusses.

Sensitively reinforce structural systems; sister principle structural components rather then replace them.

Document any structural features that are too deteriorated to retain. When selectively repairing a structural system, replace missing or deteriorated

materials in-kind; examples include replicating cast iron columns. o If substitute materials are unavoidable, they should convey the same form,

design, and overall visual appearance as the historic feature. Use reversible repair and maintenance methods, for instance, spray in urea-

formaldehyde foam would be inappropriate for a historic structural system. Ensure that the addition of building systems and other repairs will not corrupt the

building's structural integrity.

Structural elements are an inherent part of the architect's intent; determine which parts, if any, of a building's structure are historic and rehabilitate appropriately.Photos courtesy National Park Service

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Major Resources

WBDG

Design Objectives

Historic Preservation—Additional Resources, Historic Preservation—Apply the Preservation Process Successfully, Historic Preservation—Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs, Productive—Integrate Technological Tools, Productive—Design for the Changing Workplace

Publications

Preservation Brief 24: Heating, Ventilating, and Cooling Historic Buildings Problems and Recommended Approaches National Park Service.

Structural Analysis of Historic Buildings: Restoration, Preservation, and Adaptive Reuse Applications for Architects and Engineers by J. Stanley Rabun.

Structural Aspects of Building Conservation (McGraw-Hill International Series in Civil Engineering) by Poul Beckmann and Robert Bowles. McGraw-Hill Text: March 1995.

Structural Repair and Maintenance of Historical Buildings III by C.A. Brebbia and R.J.B. Frewer (Editor). Computational Mechanics:, May 1993.

Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needsby the WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee

Last updated: 04-30-2008

Overview

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This federal courthouse in Tucson, AZ offers an imaginative solution for vehicle barriers: a row of lush palm trees. These trees provide a structural barrier and welcome relief from the desert sun in an otherwise spartan plaza.

Most building projects place a higher priority on the protection of building occupants and assets than on the preservation of cultural resources. However, it is important to address the protection of the building's historic spaces, finishes, and collections in the design and implementation of safety and security measures. Because historic buildings are each a unique case, cost effective, synergistic, performance solutions developed in a collaborative environment will produce the best results. See also WBDG Whole Building Approach.

Designers, facility managers, fire, security and code officials, curators, preservation officials, and building occupants should be involved early on in the planning and design process. This allows the project team to look at issues holistically and remain flexible to the challenges of the historic property.

Recommendations

Incorporate Life Safety Codes

The primary codes that address life safety are NFPA 101, Life Safety Code; the International Building Code; and NFPA 914, Code for Fire Protection of Historic Structures. NFPA 914 addresses performance approaches and equivalencies for achieving code compliance. Application of these codes should be done in consultation with code authorities and preservation experts. A number of states have enacted rehabilitation and historic building codes that may lessen the alteration of historic material. These codes address the following issues, depending on type of use:

Egress: Preserve the primary, main, ceremonial entrance experience. Where existing stairs cannot be brought into compliance without significantly changing the character of the spaces, additional means of egress should be carefully located to preserve significant spaces while providing a minimum of two means of egress.

Fire and Smoke Separation: Design smoke separation to avoid subdividing or obscuring significant spaces, such as stairways, corridors, entry areas.

Fire and Smoke Detection: Early detection of heat and smoke is critical to extinguishing fires with minimum damage to historic resources. Very early response/detection systems can eliminate the need for suppression systems. See also Technical Preservation Guideline 3.1—Fire Safety Retrofitting, U.S. General Services Administration, Public Buildings Service, 2001. This publication provides guidance on location of detection devices unobtrusively.

Fire Suppression Systems: The purpose of fire suppression systems is to cover all surfaces evenly. However, this can result in damage to historic finishes. Evaluate fire loads to determine appropriate protection. Use computer modeling to identify high-risk areas. Select and locate fire suppression systems to minimize water and subsequent mold damage to historic fabric. Alternative suppression systems such

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as dry systems (where lines are not filled with water), mist systems, and time delay with alarms prior to activation, help reduce water damage. Halon systems may be useful in small, contained areas where high-value, water sensitive collections are present. Careful and sensitive installation of suppression systems is critical to the preservation of the character of historic spaces. See the WBDG Secure/Safe—Plan for Fire Protection.

Operational Considerations: Include operational and management solutions for life safety and historic preservation when designing the systems. Ensure that staff and occupants are trained to respond promptly and summon additional resources in event of an emergency situation.

Integrate Seismic Upgrades

Increased concern about seismic risk has led to more stringent requirements that can negatively impact historic buildings. Un-reinforced masonry construction, common to many historic buildings and structures, is particularly susceptible to damage in seismic events. The challenge of seismic upgrades in historic buildings is to accommodate strengthening in ways that do not interfere with the building fa…ade or the volume and features of significant public spaces. For these reasons the input of qualified structural engineers with knowledge of and experience in preservation of historic buildings is essential. (Refer also to WBDG Seismic Design Principles). Wherever possible:

Coordinate proposed seismic upgrades with other structural improvements such as strengthening of buildings to prevent progressive collapse as part of anti-terrorism force protection measures. (Refer also to WBDG Historic—Update Systems Appropriately, Structural section); and Preservation Brief 41: The Seismic Retrofit of Historic Buildings: Keeping Preservation in the Forefront by David W. Look, AIA, Terry Wong, PE, and Sylvia Rose Augustus. National Park Service.

Provide Building Security

A new concept design for security at the Federal Triangle in Washington, DC beautifies the sidewalk by incorporating barriers into garden walls. This inviting landscape includes new amenities such as benches and sculptural features.

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General building security involves technical, physical, and operational solutions with appropriate redundancies. Before security measures are designed, a threat/vulnerability assessment and risk analysis should be conducted to determine the potential threats and acceptable levels of risk. In regards to historic preservation, wherever possible:

Integrate security design to minimize visual and other impacts on the historic fabric of the building. A principle goal of the entry experience is to maintain a setting that is welcoming to the visitor.

Seek opportunities to create amenities that are seamless with historic character. Seek opportunities to create public spaces that address security measures and

enhance historic character (e.g., standoff distances reduce the need to modify buildings).

Consider the following issues when designing security against terrorism for a historic property refer also to WBDG Retrofitting Existing Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats:

Site Planning: The goal for site planning is to maximize standoff distance for potential large explosive devices and to provide clear zones adjacent to the building to facilitate observation of small explosive devices. Care must be taken to avoid significant alteration to historic landscaping. Impact-engineered site furniture and appropriately designed bollards can enhance both site amenity and security.

Architecture o Replacement of historic windows can frequently be avoided with the

addition of blast-resistant interior storm windows and/or blast curtains to prevent glass fragmentation hazards (refer also to WBDG Glazing Hazard Mitigation and Retrofitting Existing Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats).

o Doors are generally required to open outward, and blast resistant doors may be required in some situations. Replacement of historic doors can often be avoided by closing an entrance or providing an additional set of doors to provide the required protection.

o Materials and products exist that resemble historic materials but may offer more security.

o Internal layout of spaces is important to provide entry control and protection of critical resources. If new features are required, they should comply with code and be compatible with the original design.

o Some historic architectural elements, including ceiling elements and tiles, light fixtures and equipment, should be secured or reinforced to prevent injury and loss in security or seismic events.

Structural: Prevention of progressive collapse is required for buildings of three stories or more. Building modifications need to consider the threat level, structural analysis, and review of design alternatives as they relate to preservation issues. Furring in of exterior walls should be avoided where it impacts historic finishes or changes the volume and proportions of significant spaces. For

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guidance on sensitive building systems upgrades, refer to Historic—Update Building Systems Appropriately.

Electrical: Electrical issues relate to provision of power and emergency lighting as well as means of mass notification. Installing emergency generators for existing historic fixtures can eliminate the need for intrusive secondary lighting systems. Notification devices and detection equipment should be integrated to avoid damage or disruption of historic finishes. For guidance on sensitive building systems upgrades, refer to Historic—Update Building Systems Appropriately.

Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning (HVAC): HVAC systems must be installed and protected to prevent the entry of external contaminants. They also should allow for the isolation of contaminants and the exhaust of smoke in support of building evacuation. In general, make every effort to minimize impact on the historic fabric of the building. For guidance on sensitive building systems upgrades, refer to Historic—Update Building Systems Appropriately.

Example: Pentagon Renovation Program - Remote Delivery Facility and Metro Entrance Facility

Pentagon Remote Delivery Facility and Metro Entrance Facility, Arlington, VA.Photo Courtesty of DoD

Pentagon Renovation (PENREN) Goals for Sustainable Construction Use resources efficiently Minimize raw material resource consumption, including energy, water, land and

materials, both during the construction as well as throughout the life of the facility.

Reuse resources Use renewable energy sources Create a healthy working environment Build facilities of long-term value Protect and/or restore natural environment

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Pentagon Reservation with Metro entrance facility (left) and remote delivery facility with landscaped parade ground (right foreground)

Pentagon Remote Delivery Facility (RDF)

Remote delivery facility with landscaped parade ground

The RDF is a 250,000 square foot shipping and receiving facility adjoining the Pentagon. The RDF significantly improved the physical security of the Pentagon by providing a secure consolidated location to receive and screen thousands of items shipped to the building each day. A landscaped roof provides new green space with indigenous vegetation and water reuse in what was once an asphalt parking lot. The roof landscaping also reduces storm water volume on the site and heat loading of the facility. The RDF is registered as a pilot project with the U.S. Green Building Council's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) program. The facility includes a building control system for energy efficiency and indoor air quality.

The Pentagon was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1992. This landmark protects five contributing architectural features of the Pentagon, including the Mall Terrace façade. By conforming the one-story receiving facility to the shape of the existing site, bordered by two highways, it actually improved site lines to the Pentagon's historic Mall Terrace. The façade of the RDF replicates the look and feel of the original Indiana limestone used on the exterior of the Pentagon in the 1940s.

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Pentagon Metro Entrance Facility (MEF)

The MEF was a congressionally mandated security project to relocate the Pentagon bus station further from the building and to create a secure screening facility for visitors entering the Pentagon. Balancing the security needs of the Department of Defense while creating a welcoming and historically sensitive "front door" to the Pentagon is a difficult balancing act made possible with sustainable solutions. The design of the MEF uses landscaped dirt berms to mitigate the potential effects of a blast. Self-cleaning Teflon-coated fiberglass canopies protect pedestrians from the foul weather and will not fragment in the event of an explosion (as is the case with glass or other less flexible materials. The MEF is the first Department of Defense facility to receive Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED™) certification from the U.S. Green Building Council. The following features design and construction features contribute to the LEED Certification:

At least 50% of waste was diverted from landfill Electric vehicle outlets installed Vegetation covers half the open space restoring life back to the site High reflectance Energy Star roofing installed 20% savings in energy consumption Over 50% of the building materials were assembled within 500 miles Over 50% of the materials contain recycled content 21% of wood-based materials were FSC certified Permanent CO2 monitoring systems installed Registered as a LEED project

The National Capital Planning Commission and Commission of Fine Arts cited the MEF as an exemplary project. Like the RDF, the façade of the MEF matches the existing exterior of the Pentagon to complement the appearance of the historic building. The MEF was subject to review by the Virginia State Historic Preservation Officer and other governmental review commissions since the Pentagon is a listed National Historic Landmark. PENREN adhered to the Secretary of Interior's Standards throughout the design and construction of the project.

Metro entrance facility (fiberglass canopy) with Pentagon security entrance and visitor screening center (terrazzo structure adjacent to Pentagon building)

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PENREN chose finish materials for the security entrance and visitor center that enhance sustainability of the facility (e.g. terrazzo, certified wood, recycled content ceiling panels). Designers incorporated skylights to bring natural light into the facility thereby reducing the use of artificial lighting. The skylights allow visitors and personnel to see the monumental façade of the Pentagon (restored during the project) when ascending the escalators from the security area into the Pentagon proper.

LEED points earned on the RDF and MEF projects combine to certify the entire Pentagon Reservation under the U.S. Green Building Council's pilot program, LEED for Existing Buildings.

Emerging Issues

Smart Codes

Although fire safety improvements—particularly early warning detection and quick response suppression—help to reduce the risk of devastating historic building losses, their potential to compromise historic fabric often leads to resistance against egress code compliance. Fortunately, two important trends are converging to support flexible approaches to egress code compliance: 1) alternative codes for historic and non-historic existing buildings and 2) technological advances that compensate for fire safety deficiencies and offer less intrusive solutions for prescriptive code compliance.

The general intent of life safety codes is to ensure prompt escape of building occupants, in the event of a fire, to a safe area. The code addresses construction features such as the a) width, length, and fire resistance of exit paths and b) ability of construction materials to contain fire and prevent its spread; fire protection features such as smoke detection devices, alarms, and fire suppression systems; occupancy and operational features such as emergency evacuation planning; and fire precautions during construction.

Increasing recognition that compliance with prescriptive codes written principally to guide new construction, onerous enough to discourage investment in older urban areas, has led states such as New Jersey (New Jersey Rehabilitation Sub-Code [1999]) and Maryland (Maryland Building Rehabilitation Code) to adopt Smart Codes, or Rehabilitation codes that provide flexibility to achieve life safety goals without wholesale building reconfiguration.

In 2000 the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development released an updated and expanded edition of Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies with the expressed goal of promoting the preservation and reuse of America's older housing and building stock. This guide provides fire ratings for a wide variety of materials and assemblies found in buildings from the nineteenth to the mid-twentieth centuries, as well as methods for calculating the fire resistance of general classes of archaic materials and assemblies for which no documentation is available. The 2000 edition also includes an array of details developed by English Heritage for upgrading the fire resistance of wood panel doors. The document has found widespread acceptance among code officials and

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has been incorporated into numerous state and local building codes, model code publications, and (U.S.) National Fire Protection Association standards.

In addition, the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 914 Code for Fire Protection in Historic Structures provides alternatives, including performance-based approaches and operational solutions, for meeting the intent of the NFPA Life Safety Code within the framework of the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties. The intent of NFPA 914 is to ensure prompt escape of building occupants while minimizing the impact of fire and fire protection on the structure, contents, and architectural features that give a building its historic character.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Life Safety

1997 Uniform Code for Building Conservation 2003 International Building Code Guideline on Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies , U.S. Department

of Housing and Urban Development, 2000. International Existing Building Code , International Code Council, 2003. Massachusetts Building Code Section 780 CMR 3409.0 (2000)—Historic

Building exceptions New Jersey Rehabilitation Sub-Code , adopted 1998 & revised 2000. A

groundbreaking performance code written for rehabilitation projects and widely recognized as a model by code promulgation bodies.

NFPA 914—Code for Fire Protection of Historic Structures , National Fire Protection Association, 2001.

Technical Preservation Guideline 3.1—Fire Safety Retrofitting , U.S. General Services Administration, Public Buildings Service, 2001.

Vermont Department of Labor and Industry's Fire Prevention and Building Code Compliance for Historic Buildings: A Field Guide

Seismic Upgrades

California Historic Building Code (2001) FEMA 356-Prestandard and Commentary for the Seismic Rehabilitation of

Buildings, ASCE/FEMA. VA Design Manual—Structural Design Manual for Seismic Retrofit Projects ,

U.S. Veterans Affairs Administration, 2002.

Security and Anti-terrorism

Department of Defense: UFC 4-010-01 DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings General Services Administration (GSA):

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Facilities Standards for the Public Building Service, P100, Chapter 8 . Department of State: Physical Security Standards Handbook, 07 January 1998. (For Official Use Only) National Capital Planning Commission's Urban Design and Security Plan

Major Resources

WBDG

Design Objectives

Historic Preservation—Additional Resources, Secure / Safe Branch

Publications

Building Security: Handbook for Architectural Planning and Design edited by Barbara Nadel. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004.

The Seismic Retrofit of Historic Buildings: Keeping Preservation in the Forefront , U.S. Department of the Interior, National Parks Service, Preservation Brief No. 41, 1997.

Strategic Fire Protection in Historic Buildings by Richard Forrest. From Building Conservation Website. 1997.

Comply with Accessibility Requirementsby the WBDG Historic Preservation Subcommittee

Last updated: 04-30-2008

Overview

Ariel Rios, EPA Headquarters, Washington, DC. The ramps at this historic federal building were sensitively designed to provide equal access while preserving the building's

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original fabric.(Photo: GSA)

Most historic buildings were not originally designed to accommodate people with disabilities and special needs. However, persons with disabilities should experience sites, landscapes, buildings, and spaces in the same manner as other users whenever possible.

Providing access (exterior and interior) for persons with disabilities in ways that preserve the character of the historic property is a challenge and requires creativity and collaboration among the project team members. Compliance is required in these areas, but the accessibility standards (such as Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) and American with Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG)) are more flexible when applied to historic buildings. UFAS and ADAAG provide alternative solutions that allow retention of original historic fabric (such as narrow corridors).

While accessible design is covered in WBDG Accessible Branch, unique issues that must be resolved in order to provide accessibility in historic buildings will be discussed in this section.

Recommendations

The following are the primary areas related to accessibility design requiring special care:

Accessible Routes and Clearances

Areas in front of this community center were regraded to allow access to the building via landscaped ramps. Arlington, VA.(Photo: Arlington County, VA)

Preserve the intended entry experience of historic sites and buildings for everyone.

o Wherever possible, design solutions that use on-grade entrances or low slope ramps integrated into the site to avoid the requirement for railings at abrupt level changes.

o As an alternative, consider on-grade entrances or down-grade sloping ramps that connect to interior elevators.

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o This may require locating an accessible entrance elsewhere. Exterior accessibility can be accommodated by providing a wheelchair accessible

path from safe and accessible parking to a significant entry to the building, historic landscapes, or informational exhibits.

Accessible routes do not have to be altered if they provide adequate turning radius at intervals.

Construct new ramps and railings of compatible materials and design. Preserve visual symmetry where applicable.

Doors and Hardware

Provide access without removing character-defining elements such as doors and hardware. Modifications that limit impact on the historic character of a building while still meeting code are preferable.

Avoid replacing historic hardware wherever possible. Alternative solutions to hardware replacement include such techniques as keeping the door open during normal business hours and electric door openers.

Avoid widening door openings. Look for alternative routes. Where it is unavoidable, design new doors and openings to be compatible with the materials and detailing of nearby historic doors.

Interior Public Spaces

Preserve the hierarchy and historic character of significant spaces including entrances, lobbies, atria, primary corridors, and stairs.

Preserve character-defining features and spatial qualities of ceremonial lobbies. Maintain historic primary entrances. Avoid detrimental modifications to primary entrances in seeking to meet security

and accessibility solutions.

Program Accessibility

Alternatives to Physical Access: House museums and significant spaces within historic buildings may not be adaptable for physical access. In such cases, visual access and/or program access to such spaces may be adequate alternatives. Methods include visual presentations, models, and providing exhibits in accessible spaces.

For more information, refer to the following: o National Endowment for the Arts, Office for AccessAbilityo Smithsonian Institution Accessibility Design Guidelines for Exhibits

For accessibility to programs and employment, relocation of these functions to accessible areas is allowed and avoids major adverse renovations.

Restroom Design

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When restrooms are part of the character of the historic building and cannot be readily modified due to clearances or level changes, consider adding appropriately located, accessible, unisex restrooms to eliminate the need for modifying existing bathrooms with historic finishes.

Signage

Signage should be integrated into the historic building fabric in ways that preserve the historic character.

Avoid altering, removing, and damaging historic signs and finishes. o Installation: Installation of signage should be carefully executed to avoid

damage to finishes. Avoid penetrating historic material. Free-standing signage is often an acceptable alternative to mounting signs on historic fabric.

Serif letters may be used if the font size is large and there is high contrast with the background. See Smithsonian Guidelines for Accessible Exhibit Design for more information.

Vertical Accessibility

Example of a well-designed modification of a historic railing to comply with accessibility requirements.(Photo: GSA)

Either new or existing elevators provide vertical accessibility. Often elevators are a significant element of the fabric of a historic building. Accommodating required clearances and control heights are often issues. Consider:

o Call buttons: Although the Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS) and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG) require call buttons at 42", an ADA modification

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can often be sought for buttons up to 54" in height when appropriate side access is available.

o Stair Railings: In some cases, railings on stairways need to be raised to comply with accessibility requirements. When this is needed designs should respect the historic fabric.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) ADA Accessibility Guidelines for Buildings and Facilities(ADAAG) Architectural Barriers Act (ABA) Uniform Federal Accessibility Standards (UFAS)

Major Resources

WBDG

Design Objectives

Accessible, Historic Preservation—Additional Resources, Historic Preservation—Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs, Safe / Secure—Plan for Fire Protection

Federal Agencies

Department of Defense (DoD): U.S. Army—Installation Design Standards, Chapter 3, Section 8 - Building

Accessibility - May 2004 U.S. Army—TI 800-01 Design Criteria, Chapter 7, Provision for Individuals with

Physical Disabilities, Section 4, 20 July 1998 U.S. Navy—NAVFAC PDPS 94-01, Barrier Free Design Accessibility

Requirements, 26 May 1994 (Revised 1 June 1997) U.S. Air Force—Air Force Center of Expertise for Accessibility Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) Office of Fair Housing

and Equal Opportunity (FHEO)—HUD enforces the Fair Housing Act and has issued guidelines under this law (the Fair Housing Accessibility Guidelines) which cover multi-family housing. HUD's website also addresses access under Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act.

Department of Justice (DOJ) —DOJ offers technical assistance on the ADA Standards for Accessible Design and other ADA provisions applying to public accommodations and commercial facilities, including businesses, nonprofit service agencies, and state and local government programs and services; also provides information on how to file ADA complaints. Many of its technical assistance letters are available online.

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ADA Information Line for documents, questions, and referrals:(800) 514-0301 (voice)(800) 514-0383 (TTY)

Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) Accessibility Program General Services Administration (GSA) National Accessibility Program

Organizations/Associations

U.S. Access Board National Center on Accessibility Smithsonian Institution Accessibility Program Smithsonian Guidelines for Accessible Exhibit Design Guidelines for Universal Design of Exhibits

Publications

Accessibility and Historic Preservation Resource Guide by Judith L. Hayward, and Thomas C. Jester, compilers. Windsor, Vermont: Historic Windsor, Inc., 1992, revised 1993.

Preservation Brief 32: Making Historic Properties Accessible by Thomas C. Jester and Sharon C. Park, AIA. National Park Service.

Productiveby the WBDG Productive Committee

Last updated: 04-30-2008

Overview

The Alternative Workplace Laboratory at the GSA headquarters building in Washington, DC was designed to maximize flexibility, allowing new occupants to change the space to fit their group end individual needs.

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Organizations, work practices, and the workforce have changed dramatically in the past two decades. Technological advances, demographic shifts, and continual demands for innovation have created pressures for the workplace to catch up with the changing nature of work.

Organizational effectiveness today means using space more wisely. This does not just mean cutting costs. It means designing for flexibility to enable space to change as work groups and projects evolve. Wise use of space also means creating the right context for concentration, learning, communication, and collaboration—the building blocks of productivity.

It is often hard to quantify the impacts of specific components of the indoor environment on productivity, because individual and group work effectiveness is tied to many different factors—including compensation levels, management practices, and environmental comfort. It is difficult, if not impossible, to isolate individual physical factors, such as the presence or absence of team rooms, daylighting, natural meeting places, or control over the environment. This problem is exacerbated in the case of white-collar workers whose "output" is knowledge or insight that cannot be easily quantified.

Nonetheless, an increasing number of studies are beginning to suggest that support for communication and collaboration as well as for individual cognitive activity are fundamental aspects of organizational productivity. The GSA agrees and concludes in The Integrated Workplace (PDF 3.07 MB, 167 pgs) that "since people are the most important resource and greatest expense of any organization, the long-term cost benefits of a properly designed, user-friendly work environment should be factored into any initial cost considerations."

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One way to do such "factoring" is to consider the total life-cycle costs of a workplace each year. In private sector offices, such costs are typically, in order of magnitude:

$200 per square foot per year for salaries $20 per square foot per year for amortized bricks and mortar costs, and $2.00 per square foot per year for energy.

In this situation, an additional $2 per square foot per year for bricks and mortar costs (e.g. for providing greater flexibility) would pay for itself if it generated a modest 1% increase in salary "productivity." Note: Design strategies that increase user satisfaction and that improve individual and group work effectiveness should therefore be considered not as cost 'extras,' but as productivity investments that enhance an organization's overall success.

Buildings can be more effective, exciting places to work and live by encouraging adaptability, improving comfort, supporting sense of community, and by providing connections to the natural environment, natural light, and view.

There are five fundamental principles of productive building designs:

Promote Health and Well-Being Indoor environments strongly affect human health. An effective workplace should be designed to support and enhance the health and well-being of its occupants. Sustainable design principles help achieve this objective.

Provide Comfortable Environments A workplace designed and operated to provide the highest achievable levels of visual, acoustic, and thermal comforts for its occupants is the underpinning of worker effectiveness.

Design for the Changing Workplace Providing spaces with flexibility, social support, and technology to promote new ways of working is a cornerstone of change and innovation.

Integrate Technological Tools Effectively integrating technological tools and distribution networks required in today's office environments to enable workers to perform their duties starts first and foremost with properly designed pathways and spaces.

Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces Reliability is one of the greatest concerns for building occupants—it directly affects their safety, health, and comfort. Workers must be able to rely on building systems, equipment, and tools that function consistently and are properly maintained.

Note: Information in these Productive pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high-performance buildings. Also, workplace productivity strategies support sustainable design principles and should be taken on balance for the longevity of systems considered.

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Relevant Codes and Standards

Executive Order 13423, "Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management"

Federal Acquisition Regulations, Parts 48, Value Engineering Federal Acquisition Regulations, Parts 52, Solicitation Provisions and Contract

Clauses OMB Circular A-131 Public Law 104-106, Section 4306, Value Engineering for Federal Agencies

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or visited.

Project Management

Building Commissioning

Tools

Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life- Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID)

Federal Agencies

EPA National Center for Environmental Research Integrated Workplace Program , U.S. General Services Administration, Office of

Governmentwide Policy, Office of Real Property Workplace 20·20 , U.S. General Services Administration

Organizations

Academy of Neuroscience for Architecture The American Institute of Architects American Society of Interior Designers (ASID) International Facility Management Association (IFMA) Corporate Real Estate Network (CoreNet)

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National Research Council of Canada—Institute for Research in Construction —A leading international organization studying the effects of environmental comfort on occupant productivity

Publications

The Agile Workplace: Supporting People and Their Work by Gartner, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and 22 Industry Sponsors, 2001.

ASHRAE Workshop on Indoor Environment and Productivity by ASHRAE.Baltimore, Maryland, June 1992.

Collaborative Knowledge Work Environments by Judith Heerwagen, Kevin Kampschroer, Kevin Powell, and Vivian Loftness. Building Research & Information, 32(6):510-528, 2004.

Daylighting and Human Performance by Lisa Heschong. ASHRAE Journal, June 2002.

DOE Building Studies by the Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics. Pittsburgh, PA: Carnegie Mellon University, 1994.

"Environmental Satisfaction, Personal Control and the Positive Correlation to Increased Productivity" (PDF 170 KB, 16 pgs) White paper by Johnson Controls Personal Environments.

Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General Service Administration (GSA).

Further Findings from the Office of Environment Survey: Productivity. Proceedings of Indoor Air '90: Fifth International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate by Gary Raw and Michael Roys. Toronto, Ontario: 1:231-36, 1990.

Green Buildings, Organizational Success and Occupant Productivity by Judith Heerwagen, Building Research & Information, 28 (5/6): 353-367, 2000.

"Greening the Building and the Bottom Line: Increasing Productivity Through Energy-Efficient Design" (PDF 1.16 MB, 17 pgs) White paper by Rocky Mountain Institute.

Healthy Buildings and their Impact on Productivity. Proceedings of Indoor Air '93: Sixth International International Conference on Indoor Air Quality and Climate by David Wyon. Helsinki, Finland: 6:3-13, 1993.

How IEQ Affects Health, Productivity (PDF 220 KB, 3 pgs) by William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, May 2002.

IEQ and the Impact on Building Occupants (PDF 105 KB, 3 pgs) by Satish Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, April 2002.

Integrated Systems: Increasing Building and Workplace Performance by BOMA International Foundation. 2000.

The Integrated Workplace: A Comprehensive Approach to Developing Workspace (PDF 3.07 MB, 167 pgs) by Office of Real Property in the Office of Governmentwide Policy of the U.S. General Services Administration. May 1999.

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New Adventures in Office Space: The Integrated Workplace - A Planning Guide by the Office of Real Property and Office of Governmentwide Policy of the U.S. General Services Administration. February 2002.

The New Office: With 20 International Case Studies by Francis Duffy. Antique Collectors Club, 1997.

"Relationships Between the Indoor Environment and Productivity: A Literature Review," ASHRAE Transactions by N. Sensharma, et al. 1998.

Rensselaer's West Bend Mutual Study: Using Advanced Office Technologies to Increase Productivity by Walter Kroner, et al. Troy, NY: Center for Architectural Research, 1992. One of the most carefully documented studies on increases in productivity as a result of improved environmental quality.

Sustainable Building Technical Manual by the United States Department of Energy and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1996.

Total Workplace Performance: Rethinking the Office Environment by Stanley Aronoff and Audrey Kaplan (eds.). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: WDL Publications, 1995.

Using Office Design to Increase Productivity by Michael Brill, et al, and the Buffalo Organization for Social and Technological Innovation (BOSTI). 1994. A major study of the relationship between productivity and user satisfaction in 6,000 office buildings throughout the United States during a five-year period.

Workplace by Design: Mapping the High-Performance Workscape by Franklin Becker and Fritz Steele. Jossey-Bass, 1995.

Others

BetterBricks.com Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics —Carnegie Mellon University Center for the Built Environment —The Contribution of Building Design and

Operation to Productivity, University of California at Berkeley The Workplace Forum —DEGW, A private site dedicated to information on

emerging office environments

Integrate Technological Toolsby the WBDG Productive Committee

Last updated: 05-05-2008

Overview

Integration of information technology and building architecture calls for a robust, global, and secure infrastructure that will support the growing and evolving demands of business and government in the 21st century.

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To stay in business, organizations have to stay current, purchasing the appropriate server, database, media, router, and other technologies that sustain their work. They must leverage these evolving information technologies to match the specifications of their stakeholders.

Interoperability across building systems—including power, HVAC, lighting, security, and fire alarm—should enable whole building control and performance optimization. Assuring flexibility to accommodate the dynamic nature of telecommunications systems starts first and foremost with properly designed pathways and spaces.

Demands on the building's data pathways will be heavy, and the market will be strong for high performing buildings having:

Power supply systems that provide flexible service; reliable, clean power; and can adjust power delivery to building occupation patterns;

Wire management systems that enable quick and low-cost reconfiguration; Integration of wireless products as they become commercially viable; and Distributed computing environments that have reliable cooling compatible with

human comfort.

Recommendations

Provide Distributed Data, Power, Security, Voice, Video, and Environmental Services for Central Communications and Continuity of Operations

Desktop video conferencing(Courtesy of MDL Corp.)

Assure that technological solutions respond to the changing nature of work. See also WBDG Changing Nature of Organizations, Work, and Workplace.

Consider wireless and mobile technologies to support the changing nature of work, including both internal and external ability.

Provide distributed Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) for clean and reliable power.

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Merge all low voltage systems, including data and voice, through distributed Ethernet-IP networks with centralized backup.

Monitor work environmental conditions with central systems, but maximize local control by occupants.

Consider desktop video and Internet-based conferencing to provide on-going contact for dispersed work groups.

See also WBDG Productive—Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces.

Design Accessible, Modifiable, Vertical Power and Telecom Cores

Provide modular power panels with appropriate open riser space. Consider emerging technologies to provide secure, high-speed access to the

desktop for data, voice, security, and environmental information (e.g., fiber optics, wireless, copper).

Employ Distributed Modular Cabinets with Plug and Play Interfaces

Provide modular racks and plug-in hardware within office suites versus closets and hard wiring.

Design service neighborhoods to meet or exceed current standards. Manage wiring under floor or vertically through patch panels. House servers, bridges, etc. in environmentally controlled modular cabinets.

Provide Re-Configurable Plenum Systems

Under floor air distribution system installed in a renovated facility.

Consider overhead cable trays and/or underfloor wire baskets for increased flexibility and accessibility.

Optimize plenum real estate. Conduct a multidiscipline "charrette" with structural, fire, networking, HVAC, interiors to integrate systems.

Use 3D modeling to facilitate integration. Simplify the ease of relocating modular boxes in relation to ceiling, floor, and

carpet tiles.

Design Kit-of-Parts for Efficient, Modifiable Services

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Base capacities on maximum occupancies, but distribute and deliver as needed. Select terminal units that provide services—data, power, and voice (and

environment where possible)—in reconfigurable boxes for just-in-time modifications.

o Provide relocatable modular outlet boxes with flex connectors to respond to changing densities.

o Bring services to the desktop as required by users. Select systems to be compatible with Internet-based applications.

Select IT System and Components for Energy and Material Conservation

Design for longevity (expandability, disassembly, recyclability), maintainability, and energy and material efficiency.

Consider sub-metering of power to address customer requirements for tracking energy usage.

Mobile office for the intelligent workplace—well-applied technology can ensure a leap in both technical and environmental quality, enabling every worker to have the very best in environmental conditions.(Courtesy of Center for Building Performance & Diagnostics, Carnegie-Mellon University)

Relevant Codes and Standards

ANSI/TIA/EIA-568 Commercial Building Telecommunications Cabling Standard ANSI/TIA/EIA-569 Commercial Building Standard for Telecommunication

Pathways and Spaces ANSI/TIA J-STD-607-A Commercial Building Grounding (Earthing) and

Bonding Requirements for Telecommunications FIPS PUB 174 Federal Building Telecommunications Wiring Standard FIPS PUB 175 Federal Building Standard for Telecommunication Pathways and

Spaces TIA TSB72 Centralized Optical Fiber Cabling Guidelines

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TIA TSB75 Additional Horizontal Cabling Practices for Open Offices Department of Defense: AFH 32-1084 Facility Requirements ER 1105-2-100 Planning Guidance Notebook MIL-HDBK-419A Grounding, Bonding, and Shielding for Electronic Equipment

and Facilities, Volume 1 of 2 MIL-HDBK-1012/3 Telecommunications Premises Distribution Planning,

Design, and Estimating w/Change TI 800-01 Design Criteria TM 5-683/MO-116/AFJMAN 32-1083 Electrical Interior Facilities U.S. General Services Administration: GSA Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or visited.

Project Management

Building Commissioning

Tools

Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life-Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID)

Trade Shows

Comdex —IT trade show NeoCon —Trade fair for interior design and facilities management

Publications

ARCHI-TECH magazine—Bridging the Gap Between Design and Technology Greening Federal Facilities: An Energy, Environmental, and Economic Resource

Guide for Federal Facility Managers High Performance Commercial Buildings—A Technology Roadmap by U.S.

Department of Energy. 1999.

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The Integrated Workplace: A Comprehensive Approach to Developing Workspace by Office of Real Property in the Office of Governmentwide Policy of the U.S. General Services Administration. May 1999.

Assure Reliable Systems and Spacesby the WBDG Productive Committee

Last updated: 04-30-2008

Overview

Reliability is a great concern for building occupants and organizations. Absence of reliability directly affects personal security and well-being, as well as mission critical work. As workplaces evolve in response to changes in organizational structure and work practices, reliability needs to take into consideration the multiplicity of spaces that support individual and group work. This applies to all facilities whether public or private, institutional or commercial, large or small, regardless of location, circumstance, and/or purpose. Organizations and their workers are entitled to work places that enable them to remain productive and in-touch at all times.

People increasingly expect work settings to fully support pursuit of individual, team, and organizational objectives without operational uncertainty. Building and information systems that disrupt workflow will not be tolerated. The workforce of the future will demand workspace and tools that amplify their abilities and help them compete effectively for the best work. This calls for systems that perform reliably with good maintenance support.

Building users must be able to rely on facility hardware and software for health, life, safety, power, data, and voice delivery systems (and related equipment and tools). These systems need to function consistently and be properly maintained. When the workplace is supported by high performance systems that require minimal maintenance or downtime and have back-up capabilities to ensure negligible loss of service, worker productivity can be improved or maintained.

Recommendations

Provide freestanding (local) system alternatives for individual user access and control.

Maximize interoperability of different manufacturers' systems and products (including parts interchangeability).

Provide adequate training and resources to use and/or maintain systems. Select systems based on optimum performance, interoperability, and intuitive

operation and maintenance.

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Consider dual-fuel back up for critical building systems, including fire/emergency, HVAC, lighting, power, data, voice, etc.

Provide ease of access for maintenance and repair of systems. See also WBDG Functional/Operational Branch.

HVAC

Maximize conditioning through natural means/methods (e.g. operable windows, natural ventilation, building mass, etc.).

Consider displacement air supply system that are zoned appropriately for ventilation purposes (e.g., through raised floor system).

Provide systems that minimize reliance on building management/maintenance personnel.

Provide networked computerized building systems sensors to monitor and manage control of the following systems: HVAC, energy recovery, lighting, building access, security, fire suppression, and smoke alarm.

Provide building automation systems that are remotely accessible by facilities managers to determine problem locations and monitor environmental conditions without disturbing workers.

Lighting

Workers at the Philip Merrill Environmental Center in Annapolis, Maryland, enjoy access to daylight and views from all areas of the building.

Maximize use of daylighting and related lighting control devices (shades, light shelves, etc.).

Utilize long-life lamps and quality fixtures. Zone power circuits to separate ambient and task lighting. Utilize occupancy and light level sensing/control devices to extend lamp life. Consider emergency back-up lighting systems (generator, battery, etc.) for critical

function areas. Consider emerging lighting technologies such as low voltage lighting systems,

fiberoptics, and light emitting diodes (LEDs) that provide quality lighting with greater reliability.

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Power Supply

Provide building surge protection to safeguard data systems and critical electronic equipment.

Consider Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS) or other back-up systems (e.g. solar power systems).

Consider distributed power systems for on-site power generation (e.g. fuel cell, solar, wind, microturbines, etc.).

Telecommunication Systems/Equipment (voice/data)

Support distributed computing (see also WBDG Productive—Integrate Technological Tools).

Update computer hardware and software periodically. Provide interchangeable voice/data cabling (category 5+ or higher, plenum rated). Consider telecommunication equipment back-up systems (battery power, etc.). Consider wireless systems, where feasible, to promote internal mobility and

access to emergency services. See also WBDG Productive—Integrate Technological Tools.

Security/Safety

Provide identification/verification systems (such as card key, fingerprints, eye scans, etc.) to access and/or control IT, data, space, and property.

Provide hardwired smoke alarms with back-up battery power. Provide low power usage emergency egress lights and LED illuminators with

rechargeable battery (back-up gel cell). Provide security systems with back-up capability for emergency signals and

communication. See also WBDG Secure/Safe Branch.

Emerging Issues

Fuel cell power plant installation at South County Hospital—Wakefield, RI(Courtesy of UTC Fuel Cells)

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Increasing demands for renewable, energy-efficient, and environmentally responsible back-up power sources have lead to advancements in fuel cell technology, solar, wind, hydro, and biomass power systems.

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP)—the integration of all departments and functions across an agency/company onto a single computer system that can serve all those different departments' particular needs.

Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM)—the concept of developing a maintenance scheme based on the reliability of the various components of the system or product in question. Implementing a preventative maintenance program using RCM can greatly reduce the cost of ownership of a product or system.

For most building owners and operators, reliability ranks almost as high as cost as a top "quality indicator" when selecting building systems and equipment. "Problem prone equipment," often selected due to lower first costs, reduces system reliability and is clearly a chief motivator for purchasing quality equipment.

Continuous Commissioning—an ongoing process to resolve operating problems, improve comfort, optimize energy use, and identify retrofits for existing buildings and central plant facilities. Continuous commissioning ensures that the building and systems operate optimally to meet the current requirements, which supports worker effectiveness.

Relevant Codes and Standards

ASTM Standard Classifications and Practices

E 1334 Rating the Serviceability of a Building or Building-Related Facility E 1660 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Support for Office Work E 1662 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Sound and Visual Environment E 1665 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Facility Protection E 1666 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Work Outside Normal Hours or

Conditions E 1669 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Location, Access, and Wayfinding E 1670 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Management of Operations and

Maintenance E 1679 Setting the Requirements for the Serviceability of a Building or Building-

Related Facility E 1693 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Protection of Occupant Assets E 1700 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Structure and Building Envelope E 1701 Serviceability of an Office Facility for Manageability

Major Resources

WBDG

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Building / Space Types

Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or visited.

Project Management

Building Commissioning

Tools

Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life- Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID)

Publications

The Integrated Workplace: A Comprehensive Approach to Developing Workspace by Office of Real Property in the Office of Governmentwide Policy of the U.S. General Services Administration. May 1999.

NASA Reliability Centered Maintenance Guide for Facilities and Collateral Equipment

Nature's Power on Demand: Renewable Energy Systems as Emergency Power Sources by Roberta F. Stauffer. The National Center for Appropriate Technology, October 1995.

Reliability-Centered Maintenance, 2nd Edition by John Moubray. Industrial Press, 2001. ISBN: 0831131462.

Others

Blame it on Enterprise Resource Planning! by D.V. Jagadish. Indian Express Newspapers.

Center for the Built Environment , University of California at Berkeley, The Contribution of Building Design and Operation to Productivity

Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics, The Intelligent Workplace , Carnegie Mellon University

Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) and Supply Chain Management (SCM) I.T. Works' Reference Site

Design for the Changing Workplaceby the WBDG Productive Committee

Last updated: 06-11-2007

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Overview

In this electronic/information age, work teams form and reform to meet organizational needs, technological innovations, and changing business relationships. Buildings and interior spaces need to be flexible to anticipate and support this changing nature of work. Within the past few years, designers have sought to create a new generation of "flexible" buildings and workplace environments within buildings that have infrastructures and structures that fully support change while sustaining new technologies, and multi-capable individuals and teams.

The changing nature of work means greater mobility for workers, a multiplicity of workspaces within and external to buildings, greater use of geographically dispersed groups, increased dependence on social networks—and greater pressure to provide for all of these needs and behaviors in a leaner and more agile way. Workplaces have responded with many new options, including more teaming and informal interaction spaces, more supports for virtual individual and group work, more attention to integrating learning into everyday work experience, greater flexibility in work locations, and more focus on fitting the workplace to the work rather than vice versa. Many workplaces are also incorporating spaces that encourage relaxed engagement with colleagues to reduce stress and promote a sense of community.

Left: GSA's Public Buildings Service (PBS) workplace renovation incorporates a space for relaxation that includes an exercise room, lounge area with TV and a pool table. The space is used for group social events as well as breaks. And Right: The PBS space also has a daylit café where workers gather at lunch time or for meetings throughout the day.

Recommendations

Design for Flexibility

Provide flexibility for delivering power, voice, and data. Provide distributed, vertical cores, satellite closets, and generous horizontal

plenum spaces with relocatable, user-based services to ensure technical, spatial, and environmental quality in the rapidly changing electronic office. See also WBDG Productive—Integrate Technological Tools.

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Provide systems that are controllable and adjustable by the users without burdensome reliance on outside contractors.

Incorporate sustainable design principles, which can help achieve flexible spaces.

Personal control features include overhead personal air jet diffusers and task lighting, which can be controlled from the occupant's desktop computer.Courtesy of Public Works Government Services Canada, Innovations and Solutions Directorate

Support Mobility

Consider wireless technology and mobile phones to enable workers to move effortlessly among spaces as their needs change.

Provide a multiplicity of spaces for individual and group work. Provide connections to internal networks and to the Internet throughout the

workplace. See also WBDG Productive—Integrate Technological Tools.

Enable Informal Social Interaction

Provide multiple places to meet and greet. Consider providing informal workspaces in cafeterias. When designing cafes and coffee nooks, locate them centrally along well traveled

pathways to encourage use and interaction. Design the circulation system with informal communication opportunities in

mind.

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Flexible spaces and services support multiple spatial configurations and densities, and allow for rapid and easy spatial change.

Design for a Variety of Meeting Sizes and Types

Provide enclosed rooms to support groups of different sizes. If open informal spaces are used, make sure that they are separated from

individual quiet spaces. Consider sharing meeting spaces among private offices. Provide visual display technologies and writing surfaces for group work. Consider the use of dedicated project rooms for some types of group work.

Support Individual Concentration

If open spaces such as pods or bull pens are used, provide attractive acoustically sound rooms for individual concentration as needed.

Locate concentration booths close to work spaces. Zone space for range of quiet and interactive needs.

Support Stress Reduction and Relaxation

Consider spaces for relaxation and playfulness.

Emerging Issues

Increasingly, compatible and packaged building components are available on the U.S. market that meet these goals. Several vendors market systems comprising raised floors, plug and play wire management components, and demountable wall systems as a single package.

Open controls protocols such as LonTalk and BACNet, which allow communication between different types of building systems (HVAC, lighting, security, fire alarm, and power), are being adapted to an increasing number of products. This will enable a wider range of cost-effective possibilities for user control over a common network.

Relevant Codes and Standards

ANSI/TIA/EIA-569 Commercial Building Standard for Telecommunications Pathways and Spaces

ASTM E 1334 Practice for Rating the Serviceability of a Building or Building- Related Facility

ASTM E 1663 Classification for Serviceability of an Office Building for Typical Office Information Technology

ASTM E 1679 Practice for Setting the Requirements for the Serviceability of a Building or Building-Related Facility

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ASTM E 1692 Classification for Serviceability of an Office Facility for Change and Churn by Occupants

Department of Defense: DG 1110-3-122 Design for Interiors , U.S. Army Corps of Engineers MIL-HDBK 1004/7 Wire Communications and Signal Systems MIL-HDBK 1190 Facility Planning and Design Guide TM 5-805-13/AFM 88-4, Chapter 9 Raised Floor Systems U.S. General Services Administration: GSA Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P-100

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or visited.

Project Management

Building Commissioning

Tools

Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life-Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID)

Organizations

Telecommunications Industry Association —The leading U.S. nonprofit trade association serving the communications and information technology industry

Publications

Green Federal Facilities: An Energy, Environmental, and Economic Resource Guide for Federal Facility Managers

High Performance Commercial Buildings—A Technology Road Map by U.S. Department of Energy, 1999.

The Integrated Workplace: A Comprehensive Approach to Developing Workplace by Office of Real Property in the Office of Governmentwide Policy of the U.S. General Services Administration, May 1999.

Sustainable Building Technical Manual , DOE USAF Environmentally Responsible Facilities Guide

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romote Health and Well-Beingby the WBDG Productive Committee

Last updated: 05-02-2008

Overview

The office of the World Resources Institute utilizes a mixture of elements to provide a healthy work environment.(Photo by Alan Karchmer Courtesy of HOK)

Indoor environments strongly affect human health. For example, the EPA estimates that the concentration of pollutants (like volatile organic compounds) inside a building may be two to five times higher than outside levels. A 1997 study by W.J. Fisk and A.H. Rosenfeld (Estimates of Improved Productivity and Health from Better Indoor Environments. Indoor Air Vol. 7, pp. 158-172) reports that the cost to the nation's workforce of upper respiratory diseases in 1995 was $35 billion in lost work plus an additional $29 billion in health care costs. The study estimates that more healthful indoor environments could reduce these costs by 10%-30%.

Indoor environments also have strong effects on occupant well-being and functioning, especially attributes such as the amount and quality of light and color, the sense of enclosure, the sense of privacy, access to window views, connection to nature, sensory variety, and personal control over environmental conditions. Designing to enhance psychological well-being will therefore have positive impacts on work effectiveness and other high value outcomes, such as stress reduction, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment.

To reap the fiscal, physical, and psychological benefits of healthy buildings, projects must have a comprehensive, integrated design and development process that seeks to:

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Provide maximum access to natural daylight and views to the outdoors Provide superior ventilation Control sources of indoor air contamination Prevent unwanted moisture accumulation, and Enhance the psychological and social aspects of space.

Implementing sustainable design principles will also help achieve these objectives.

Recommendations

Daylight enhances the psychological value of space at Owens Corning World Headquarters—Toledo, OH(Courtesy of Owens Corning)

Provide Maximum Access to Natural Daylight and Views to the Outdoors

Use a daylighting analysis tool to help guide the design process. See also WBDG Daylighting.

Design windows to allow daylight to penetrate as far as possible into a room. Consider using light shelves (solid horizontal elements placed above eye level, but below the top of the window) to reflect daylight deep into a room. Design windows to provide views out from most spaces.

Design for diffuse, uniform daylight throughout the room. Avoid glare. Avoid direct beam sunlight in continuously occupied spaces; however sun "spots" in other, shared or public spaces, are desirable and psychologically beneficial.

Consider interior (shades, louvers, or blinds) and exterior (overhangs, trees) strategies to control glare and filter daylight.

Consider shared daylight through glazed interior walls. Integrate daylighting with the electric lighting system. Provide controls that turn

off lights when sufficient daylight exists. Consider dimming controls that continuously adjust lighting levels to respond to daylight conditions.

Design floor plate depth to allow access to windows and views. Consider the security implications of window, glazing, and door locations. See

also WBDG Designing Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats and Retrofitting Buildings to Resist Explosive Threats.

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Provide Superior Ventilation

Design the ventilation system to exceed ASHRAE Standard 62: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.

Minimize recirculation while assuring energy efficiency through energy recovery. See also WBDG High-Performance HVAC.

Ensure that ventilation air is effectively delivered to and distributed throughout the 'breathing zone.' Consider individual controls.

Provide local exhaust for restrooms, kitchens, janitor's closets, copy rooms, etc. Consider installing CO2 sensors to provide real time monitoring of air quality. Consider separating thermal conditioning from ventilation in order to vary

delivery of air volume separate from temperature for better comfort. See also WBDG Natural Ventilation.

Control Sources of Indoor Air Contamination

Test the site for sources of contamination: radon, hazardous waste, fumes from nearby industrial or agricultural uses. See also WBDG Air Decontamination.

Locate air intakes away from sources of exhaust fumes (e.g. from buses, cars, or trucks).

Consider security implications of the location of building air intakes. Consider recessed grates, "walk off" mats, and other techniques to reduce the

amount of dirt entering the building. Specify materials and furnishings that are low emitters of indoor air contaminants

such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Allow adequate time for installed materials and furnishings to "outgas" before a

new workplace is occupied. Assist the process by running the HVAC system continuously at the highest possible outdoor air supply setting after materials and furnishings have been installed to adequately "flush out" the facility. (The exact timing may vary for different materials.)

Consider "modular zoning" for air distribution in order to avoid cross contamination.

Install proper barriers between occupied and construction zones in renovation projects in order to protect worker health.

Prevent Unwanted Moisture Accumulation

Design the ventilation system to maintain the indoor relative humidity between 30% and 50%.

Design to avoid water vapor condensation, especially on walls and the underside of roof decks, and around pipes or ducts or windows.

Design buildings with proper drainage and ventilation. See also WBDG Mold and Moisture Dynamics and Air Barrier Systems in

Buildings.

Enhance the Psychological Effects of Space

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Design to allow workers to move freely from solitary work to group action as work requires.

Provide mobile technologies (phones, computers, wireless connectivity) that support new work styles and work practices.

Design to reduce stress and facilitate mental rest breaks. Provide workers the means to make meaningful changes in their immediate

environments (e.g. through personalization and control over the immediate environment to the extent possible).

Provide spatial features that support visual and acoustical privacy but allow opportunities for informal encounters.

Provide an interesting visual environment and, at the same time, design for a balance between visual access and visual enclosure. Provide views of natural vegetation, indoors or outdoors, when possible.

Strive to create a 'sense of place' such that the workplace has a unique character that engenders a sense of pride, purpose, and dedication for individual workers and the workplace community.

Relevant Codes and Standards

ASHRAE 129 Measuring Air Change Effectiveness ASHRAE Standard 62 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality ASTM D 6245 Standard Guide for Using Indoor Carbon Dioxide Concentrations

to Evaluate Indoor Air Quality and Ventilation

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or visited.

Design Objectives

Accessible, Aesthetics, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation, Secure / Safe, Secure / Safe—Ensure Occupant Safety and Health, Secure / Safe—Provide Security for Occupants and Assets, Sustainable, Sustainable—Use Environmental Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

Project Management

Building Commissioning

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Tools

Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life-Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID)

Provide Maximum Access to Natural Daylight

Daylighting Performance and Design by Gregg D. Ander. New York: Van Nostrand, 1995.

DOE/EE-0025 Windows & Daylighting Illuminating Engineering Society of North America Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Sustainable Building Technical Manual (p. IV.7)

Provide Superior Ventilation

Association of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers ASTM International EPA National Center for Environmental Research UFC 3-440-06N Cooling Buildings by Natural Ventilation NISTIR 5329 Manual for Ventilation Assessment in Mechanically Ventilated

Commercial Buildings Sustainable Building Technical Manual (p. IV.61)

Control Sources of Indoor Air Contamination

Carpet and Rug Institute Environmental Building News EPA Indoor Air Division EPA Model Standards and Techniques for Control of Radon in New Residential

Buildings Greening Federal Facilities: An Energy, Environmental, and Economic Resource

Guide for Federal Facility Managers (p.119) Green Seal Sustainable Building Technical Manual (p. I.13; IV.99) U.S. Green Building Council LEED® USAF Environmentally Responsible Facilities Guide (p. 44)

Prevent Unwanted Moisture Accumulation

Association of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers Desiccant Cooling Technology Resource Guide NISTIR 4821 Envelope Design Guidelines for Federal Office Buildings: Thermal

Integrity and Airtightness

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Enhance the Psychological Effects of Space

Architecture as Space, How to Look at Architecture by Bruno Zevi. Edited by Joseph Barry. New York: Horizon Press, 1957.

The Changing Concept of Proportion by Rudolph Wittkower. Daedalus (Journal of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences). Vol. 89, pp. 199-215. 1960.

"Design, Productivity and Well-Being: What are the Links?" by Judith H. Heerwagen. Battelle/Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Seattle, WA—paper presented at The American Institute of Architects Conference on Highly Effective Facilities, Cincinnati, Ohio, March 1998.

DG 1110-3-122 Design Guide for Interiors (p.2.1) Environmental Design Research Association Geometry of Design: Studies in Proportion and Composition by Kimberly Elam. A Pattern Language: Towns, Buildings, Construction by Christopher Alexander,

Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein. Oxford University Press: 1977. The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces by William Whyte, 1980. Washington,

DC: Conservation Foundation. Space, Time, and Architecture: The Growth of a New Tradition (3rd edition) by

Sigfried Giedion. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1954. Space Versus Place: The Loss and Recovery of Proportionality in Architecture by

Terrance Galvin.

Publications

How IEQ Affects Health, Productivity (PDF 220 KB, 3 pgs) by William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, May 2002.

HVAC Characteristics and Occupant Health (PDF 430 KB, 4 pgs) by W.K. Sieber, M.R. Petersen, L.T. Stayner, R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford, T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed. ASHRAE Journal, September 2002.

IEQ and the Impact on Employee Sick Leave (PDF 113 KB, 4 pgs) by Satish Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, July 2002.

Ventilation Rates and Health (PDF 115 KB, 5 pgs) by Olli Seppänen, Fellow ASHRAE, William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE, and Mark J. Mendell, Ph.D. ASHRAE Journal, August 2002.

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Air Decontaminationby Greg Lesavoy, Consultant, and Jordan Peccia, Ph.D., PE, Assistant Professor of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Yale UniversityUpdated by WBDG Staff

Last updated: 05-05-2008

Introduction

Americans spend nine out of ten hours indoors; and indoor air commonly contains higher concentrations of airborne chemical contaminants and pathogenic microbes than outdoor air. Biological and chemical terrorism, sick buildings, cruise ship disease outbreaks, toxic molds, and epidemics of asthma and allergies, all have made the issue of healthy air critical. Removing biological pathogens and toxic chemical compounds from air—air decontamination—has been a recognized need for decades and has mostly been accomplished through ventilation. Airflow and ventilation are already key factors in worker comfort, health and productivity, building design, and energy efficiency. Air security is the next frontier, and can also improve the health of the day-to-day air in a modern facility.

This Resource Page presents both the scientific fundamentals of clean air, vis-à-vis filtration and UV, and the benefits and obstacles associated with these technologies. It also briefly discusses a number of other technologies that have been offered as solutions. This Page was written to provide a general understanding of air decontamination technologies for practitioners that may be new to this field, as well as provide updated codes and resources for those who wish to gain more in depth knowledge. Since the field is in considerable flux, a number of source documents from government and professional association websites where up-to-the-minute information can be obtained are also provided.

Description

In the report "Review of Health and Productivity Gains from Better IEQ" written by William J. Fisk of the Indoor Environment Department at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, increased indoor air quality could result in the following monetary savings:

estimated potential annual savings and productivity gains of $6 billion to $14 billion from reduced respiratory diseases;

between $2 to $4 billion savings from reduced allergies and asthma; $10 to $30 billion in savings from reduced sick building syndrome symptoms; and $20 to $160 billion can be saved from direct improvements in worker

performance that are unrelated to health.

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The economic and public health benefits combined with today's interest in protecting the population from weapons of mass destruction have prompted renewed interest in methods of removing infectious or allergenic microorganisms from the air we breathe in indoor environments. Active decontamination technologies such as ultraviolet light (UV) and high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters have previously been used for germicidal air cleansing in infectious disease wards and laboratories. However applying these decontamination processes or other experimental technologies to the high airflow ventilation systems of modern office buildings presents a new set of challenges. It requires a fundamental rethinking of many elements of HVAC design, from the location and security of air ducts, to the integrity and protection of air controls, and the organization, layout, and construction of the active decontamination components for the systems themselves.

A. Air Filtration

The simplest solution to disinfecting the air is to capture offending particles in a filter mesh of some kind. The development of high efficiency particulate air (HEPA) filters has made it possible to efficiently clear the air of particles down to 0.3 µm (micrometers) in size, with smaller particles captured to varying degrees. Viruses are the smallest, ranging in size from 0.01 µm to 0.4 µm, while fungal spores are at the upper end of the range and can be larger than 20 µm. Bacteria range in size from 0.5 to 10 µm. Deadly pathogens like the bacterial Bacillus Anthracis spore powder used in the anthrax cases generally range from 1 to 6 µm. The relevant size measurement used in aerosol science is the aerodynamic diameter. This diameter is usually different from the actual particle size of microorganisms, and accounts for the non-spherical nature of the cells. This parameter is more useful for predicting aerodynamic behavior of a particle in air.

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Fig. 1. HEPA filters are made from numerous synthetic fibers that are laid down in overlapping, random order.

Fig. 2. HEPA filter fibers

The idea is not to restrict particle passage by capturing target pathogens between closely spaced threads, but to divert and convolute the passageways of airflow. As airflow twists and turns through the overlapping threads, heavier objects—such as bacteria, spores, virus particles, or toxins that are in particle form—will not be able to keep up due to their greater inertia in relation to air molecules. The slower particles will hit the threads and be stopped. Since the synthetic fibers are designed to be "sticky," these particles lodge into the filter elements and are captured. Because HEPA filters capture the microorganisms, health effects caused by live microorganisms (infectious disease), and those effects that can be caused by live or dead microorganisms, such as allergies, are both mitigated. HEPA filters are widely used in clean rooms and in portable room air purification units.

There are a number of limitations with HEPA filters that make it essential to combine filtration with other technologies in order to ensure effectiveness in a ventilation system. First, HEPA filters will work well (99.97% efficiency) for particles down to about 0.3 µm. Because the aerodynamic diameter of a virus ranges down to 0.01 µm, many viral agents will not be removed at a high efficiency. Secondly, even a tiny puncture in a filter, or a manufacturer's bad quality batch, can significantly reduce performance and endanger an entire building's population. Thirdly, installation quality is of critical importance, and leaks or poorly fitting frames can destroy the integrity of the filtration system. Finally, the installation of HEPA filtration in the plenums of major building HVAC systems has a significant impact both on airflow throughput and energy consumption. Additional costs to consider are the replacement and disposal of the filters. Handling is especially important if there are suspected pathogens in the fibers of the filters.

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Fig. 3. An electrostatic precipitator contains two components, an ionizer and a collector. The ionizer gives a positive charge to dirt particles in the incoming airstream, which then adhere to a negatively charged collector. The resultant outgoing air is cleaned and purified.Graphic source: Precision Graphics.

Another well-known filtration technology is based on electrostatic precipitation. Electrostatic filters precipitate particles out of the air by passing contaminated air through a highly charged field (ionizer). Particles are charged and then captured on electrode plates with the opposite charge (collector). Three key factors make this a good home technology but less effective in large buildings: 1) electrostatic systems need to slow the air flow substantially to allow all particles to be charged—an issue which is possible with exhaust pollutants but may be impossible to achieve in big HVAC systems; 2) these filters require large amounts of energy per volume of air decontaminated; and 3) a by-product of the process, ozone is itself a dangerous pollutant with significant risks. Ozone will be produced in large quantities in any industrial electrostatic application. Recently, bacteria and fungi removal has been tested in smaller ozone free electrostatic precipitators. For the precipitators tested, the maximum removal efficiency was 81%. Smaller size microorganisms were more difficult to remove, making the use of this technology more tentative for virus removal.

B. Ultraviolet Irradiation

The ability of UV radiation—a portion of the electromagnetic spectrum from 100nm-400nm—to inactivate biological pathogens has long been known. UV radiation works by damaging the DNA and other cell components of a microorganism to the point that the cell cannot replicate. Cells that have been exposed to UV may still be viable, they just cannot replicate, and therefore they are not infectious. In 1903, one of the first Nobel Prizes in Medicine was awarded to a doctor from Denmark, Niels Ryberg Finsen, for recognizing and using the UV bactericidal effect of the sun in treating infectious skin

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disease. In the 1930s, Westinghouse developed UV bulbs, and since then a great deal of experimental work has been done to prove their germicidal efficacy. Ultra Violet Germicidal Irradiation or UVGI generally refers to UV wavelength of 254.7 nm. The wavelength is near optimal for damaging nucleic acid (DNA, RNA). UV irradiation by itself does not clean air. The microorganisms are still there, and in the case of some microorganisms, may still contain the ability to cause noninfectious (e.g. allergenic) disease. While there is potential for UV to destroy allergenic sites on the surface of a bioaerosol, this ability has not been documented or quantified.

UV irradiation is commonly used in the disinfection of drinking water. Although to a lesser extent, UV has also been used in the disinfection of air, mostly in health care settings. Anecdotal health information as well as laboratory research suggests it is an effective technology for inactivating airborne viruses, bacteria and their spores. However, there is a significant difference between addressing disease-causing organisms in a laboratory setting, and ensuring that deadly biological warfare pathogens are completely removed from an airstream. Installation, construction, and design of UV systems must be of paramount importance, and a focus of air decontamination must now include securing air streams in ducts and HVAC systems from outside infiltration. Since the threat of this kind of terrorism has only recently been realized, independent scientific investigators have begun to do fundamental research into the biological decontamination of airstreams to update this science. In November 2002, a major research study funded in part by the U.S. Department of Energy titled "Defining the Effectiveness of UV Lamps Installed in Circulating Air Ductwork" attempted to determine the effectiveness of UV germicidal radiation in inactivating bacteria and spores in a "typical" HVAC duct environment. The results are encouraging. The inactivation effectiveness can be very high (greater than 90%) for bacteria, although efficacy is less so for more resistant bacterial and fungal spores. Viruses were not tested in the study but research in the author's laboratory indicates that a highly UV-resistant virus (bacteriophage MS2) is less resistant to UV radiation (in air) than bacterial Bacillus Subtilis spores (regarded as the most resistant bacteria to UV radiation). Inactivation rates used for the design of UVGI systems should be determined from experiments where the microorganism has been aerosolized. Rates derived from agents suspended in water or irradiated on agar plates generally underestimate the airborne inactivation rate. In many cases, this may provide a desirable factor of safety. In other cases, it may lead to the expensive over-engineering of a system or unwarranted increases in operational costs. Laboratory research has also determined that air temperature, relative humidity, flow rate, lamp design, and ballast engineering have significant impacts on the effectiveness of these systems. Furthermore, the location of the decontamination UV array is of crucial importance because of the potential for air eddies and corners of ducting to allow some of the flow to pass through untreated. HVAC systems designers and control contractors will have to factor these components into their plans, and base decontamination systems designs on tested parameters in order to ensure maximum effectiveness. Because of the constant airflow in modern ventilation systems, making this work in an HVAC system requires coordination between dampers (in order to slow the passage of the air enough to allow all particles to receive a sanitizing ray of UV light) and the UV light itself. While this kind of attention to detail might not be necessary in installations primarily concerned with improving the day-to-day healthiness

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of air, in order to control the spread of a deadly bio-terrorist pathogen (such as anthrax or smallpox) the design of a UVGI system is of critical importance.

Fig. 4. UV germicidal dose required to inactivate 99% of microorganisms at 50% relative humidity in air. Dose value is for known UV-resistant species of each organism type. Aspergillis versicolor1 is used for fungi, B. subtilis spores2 for bacterial spores, B. subtilis3 for vegetative bacteria, and Adenovirus4,5 for viruses.

The effectiveness of UV light as a germicidal agent has resulted in two other techniques for decontamination. Pulsed UV (PUV) involves pulsing UV lamps at high power at regular intervals. This technology is being increasingly applied for air and surface sterilization and decontamination due to the powerful use of advanced UV light lamps and efficient energy consumption. This is a procedure, which appears to have certain advantages of very high inactivation rates for most known microorganisms. PUV is also effective on very hazardous and "hard-to-break" toxic organic compounds and odors from water, air, or surfaces without producing ozone at a very high speed. These systems use mercury-free flash lamps that emit pulses at such high energy that the cells are actually physically destroyed. To have this mechanism work, the rate of the energy deposition into a microorganism (the fluency rate) must be higher than its rate of cooling to a surrounding media. In this case, a microorganism undergoes momentous overheating and disintegration. It is shown that only the Pulsed UV light of a broad spectra can effectively do this work while Pulsed White Light (PWL) plays no role. Because of this disintegration action on a microorganism, this pulsed UV sterilization method is named as the Pulsed UV Disintegration (PUVD). Advantages and limitations of this method are compared with those of other established sterilization methods. Pulsed UV can sterilize and disinfect by producing greater than 6 log kills of microorganisms spores and organic compounds.

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Fig. 5A. Untreated spores of A. Niger. Fig. 5B. Spores of Aspergillus Niger treated to two pulses at 33 kw/cm². Note craters around spores formed by sinking of heated spores into the PET substrate.¹ Fig. 5C. A single spore treated to two pulses of 33 kW/cm². Note how the spore top was ruptured by an escape of the overheated content of the spore. Note also the crater around the spore. Fig. 5D. A single spore treated to 5 pulses of 5 kw/cm² each, open lamp.²(Photos courtesy of Dr. Alex Wekhof)

Fig. 6. (6A) Untreated and (6B) treated Bacillus Subtilis spores. Note the deformation of the spore and the absence of any cratering around the spore.¹,²(Photos courtesy of Dr. Alex Wekhof)

Another technique that has been suggested in building design is to use the natural UV component of sunlight to treat air. This process is called passive solar decontamination. In this scenario, buildings would be constructed with UV transparent walled air passages that surround the outside of the structure. Filtered air would rise through many stories and receive lethal UV (solar) doses of natural sunlight as it passed up the columns. After being decontaminated by sunlight, it would enter the building's HVAC system and be

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cooled (or heated) and distributed throughout the building. This is an intriguing possibility, however, because ozone in the earth's atmosphere filters out the most effective germicidal portion of solar radiation, inactivation rates from sunlight are quite slow (even in Arizona). In the case of spores, sunlight is not an effective disinfectant. Indeed, spores have evolved to withstand harsh environments and contain tremendous DNA repair capabilities.

The EPA has issued several warnings concerning UVGI companies that make unsubstantiated claims as to the effectiveness of their technology. For example, be careful of reports by sterilization and decontamination companies making claims such as "the simultaneous emission of ultrasound or ultrasonic waves and ultraviolet light complement each other and can effectively sterilize either organic or inorganic items in a non-liquid environment." No white paper or peer reviews have ever been published confirming these claims. The public is advised to use proven methods of controlling indoor air pollution.

C. New/Experimental Technologies

A number of other technologies, new or at a more experimental stage, may be useful for decontaminating air in buildings.

One process is called ozonation. Ozone is piped into an air chamber where it is thoroughly mixed with air. Ozone reacts with organic particles and pathogens, oxidizing microorganisms and other chemical toxins. While there may be applications in decontaminating a room, this technology is not applicable to flow in a ventilation system. Additionally, ozone generation is energy intensive. Removing the ozone from the airstream is complex, and involves the use of synthetic catalytic compounds that lose effectiveness over time as they are saturated with the gas molecules. While there have been successful water sterilization systems developed using ozone, the process has yet to be tested on airborne pathogens. The EPA lists ozone as a priority air pollutant and warns that levels of ozone required to inactivate airborne microorganisms would be in excess of the current ozone standards. The EPA publication, "Ozone Generators that are Sold as Air Cleaners: An Assessment of Effectiveness and Health Consequences," states: "Available scientific evidence shows that at concentrations that do not exceed public health standards, ozone has little potential to remove indoor air contaminants. If used at concentrations that do not exceed public health standards, ozone applied to indoor air does not effectively remove viruses, bacteria, mold, or other biological pollutants."

Another decontamination technique related to filtration is air purging. This is the process of flooding a building with clean outside air in order to expunge and dilute contaminated air. This can be an effective procedure in the aftermath of a biological attack, but requires vacating the building; opening all windows, doors, and access ways; and then forcing massive quantities of outside air into the facility. This can be an effective post-incident response, but does nothing to secure a facility during an attack, or on a day-to-day basis.

Photocatalytic oxidation is another sterilization technology and is based on the production of several highly reactive short-lived chemical compounds—oxygen-based

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radicals and ions—that are effective in microorganism disinfection and neutralizing volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or other chemical aerosols. These reactive compounds are produced by applying short wavelength light (sunlight works well) to titanium dioxide (TiO2) coatings. Oxidant coatings can be put in paints on walls or used to coat HEPA filters. The effectiveness of photocatalytic oxidation has been well documented in publish research. Usually the microorganism is completely destroyed. While power consumption is low, high enough efficiency for fail-safe bio-terror applications has not been demonstrated. It is possible that photocatalytic oxidation may have a place in decontamination systems of the future.

Another chemical filtration technology that has been proposed is the use of activated carbon (AC) filters. Carbon adsorption operates by virtue of the large surface area of activated carbon and the tendency for these surfaces to trap and hold onto large organic molecules. A grain of activated carbon has a tremendous amount of surface area. Activated charcoal is charcoal that has been treated with oxygen to open up millions of tiny pores between the carbon atoms. Advances in manufacturing techniques have resulted in highly porous charcoals that have surface areas of 300-2,000 square meters per gram. Activated charcoal is good at trapping other carbon-based impurities ("organic" chemicals), as well as things like chlorine. Many other chemicals are not attracted to carbon at all—sodium, nitrates, etc.—so they pass right through. This means that an activated charcoal filter will remove certain impurities while ignoring others. It also means that, once all of the bonding sites are filled, an activated charcoal filter stops working. At that point you must replace the filter. AC filters can be a breeding ground for microorganisms. While carbon adsorption is a common technology in VOC removal from airstreams its effectiveness in removing biological pathogens in a ventilation application is not known.

Application

It is hard to imagine a location where healthier, cleaner, safer air would not be desirable. While biological terrorism may be an isolated occurrence, protecting airflows in buildings, while greatly improving the health of the occupants from things as simple as the rhinoviruses that cause colds, makes a great deal of sense. The return on investment from upgrading air handling systems far outweighs the costs. At a minimum, modified or newly constructed buildings should be equipped with some type of efficient, low pressure drop filtration system. Secure rooms, safe havens, and highly vulnerable areas like mail rooms and lobbies, should be fitted with second and third stage decontamination systems. At present it appears that UVGI technology when used in conjunction with filtration is an effective option for building managers to consider for cost effectively offering a level of protection from airborne microorganisms within the building envelope and interior systems. When proper measures are chosen for buildings, and integrated into the design process, the result/performance of any upgrade is dependent on the installation, operation, and continuing maintenance. The DoD has established "DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings" that require the limitation of airborne contamination within its buildings. Air decontamination creates a safe and healthy environment for its occupants and has real economic impact because of its dual use from a security and environmental

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perspective. When designing buildings, value engineering many times compromises health and security risks. Current opinion is that guidelines and standards will be published that will include air decontamination system upgrades or modifications rather than new requirements to the building codes.

The Worldwide web is an important source of further information on this topic. Web information provided by government agencies and professional societies is the most reliable and is usually based on peer reviewed research. Technical peer reviewed research journals are also reliable sources, and focus more on the fundamental science behind each technology. Use caution with data presented on websites that are not substantiated by peer review literature or results from well-documented experiments.

Relevant Codes and Standards

ASHRAE

Guideline 1 Guideline for the Commissioning of HVAC Systems Standard 52 Method of Testing Air-Cleaning Devices Used in General Ventilation

for Removing Particular Matter Standard 62 Minimum Acceptable Ventilation Requirements Standard 90.1 Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings

Department of Defense:

UFC 4-010-01 DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings FM 3-19.30 Physical Security —Sets forth guidance for all personnel responsible

for physical security. NAVFAC MIL-HDBK-1013 series Tri-Services Unified Facilities Guide Specifications (UFGS) —UFGS, organized

by MasterFormat™ divisions, are for use in specifying construction for the military services. Several UFGS exist for sustainability and security/safety-related topics.

USAF Installation Force Protection Guide

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA):

FEMA 386-7 Integrating Manmade Hazards into Mitigation Planning FEMA 426 Reference Manual to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks Against

Buildings FEMA 427 Primer for Design of Commercial Buildings to Mitigate Terrorist

Attacks FEMA 428 Primer to Design Safe School Projects in Case of Terrorist Attacks FEMA 429 Insurance, Finance, and Regulation Primer for Terrorism Risk

Management in Buildings

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FEMA 452 Risk Assessment - A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks Against Buildings

FEMA 453 Design Guidance for Shelters and Safe Rooms

GSA

Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 , GSA Mechanical and Air Handling Requirements, Chapter 5

Other Standards

American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH) —Provides threshold limit values for chemical substances and physical agents and biological exposure indices.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 29 CFR Part 1910.1000, OSHA Air Contaminants —Examines air contaminants,

permissible exposure limits.

Additional Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable and relevant to all building types and space types.

Design Objectives

Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation—Update Building Systems Appropriately, Productive—Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces, Productive—Promote Health and Well-Being, Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments, Sustainable—Optimize Energy Use, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

Products and Systems

Section 23 05 93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Building Envelope Design Guide

Project Management

Building Commissioning, Project Delivery Teams, Project Planning and Development, Project Delivery and Controls

Organizations

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The American Institute of Architects (AIA), Building Security Through Design Resource Center—An AIA resource center that offers architects and others, up-to-date, in-depth material on building security issues

American Society for Industrial Security (ASIS) —Locates security specialists and provides the Crisis Response Resources link to find information related to terrorism and building security

American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) —Information on emergency planning and security assessments

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) —Health guidance for CBR agents

Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) International Facility Management Association (IFMA) —Information on

security-related training courses Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory —Website with advice for safeguarding

buildings against chemical or biological attack National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) —Health and

safety guidance, publications, and training information U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Homeland Security and the Indoor Environment website —Provides many links

and references to security and air issues U.S. General Services Administration (GSA)

Publications

Anthrax-Contaminated Facilities: Preparations and a Standard for Remediation by the Congressional Research Service. 2005.

ASHRAE Handbook and Product Directory by American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). 1979. Air cleaners. Equipment. As cited in reference 16.

Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers by EPA.—Provides procedures and checklists for developing a building profile and performing preventive maintenance in commercial buildings

Chemical, Biological, Radiological Incident Handbook by CIA.—Unclassified document describing potential CBR events, recognizing potential CBR events, differences between agents, common symptoms, and information for making preliminary assessments when a CBR release is suspected

Facility Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by GSA.—Establishes design standards and criteria for new buildings, major and minor alterations, and work in historic structures for the Public Building Service. Also provides information on conducting building security assessments.

Guidance for Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks by NIOSH.

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Risk Management Guidance for Health and Safety under Extraordinary Incidents by ASHRAE Presidential Study Group. 12 Jan 2002.—Draft report provides recommendations for owners and managers of existing buildings

TI 853-01, Protecting Buildings and Their Occupants from Airborne Hazards (DRAFT) by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE).—Document presents a variety of ways to protect building occupants from airborne hazards

Figure 4 Footnotes

1. Douglas VanOsdell and Karin Foarde (2002). Defining the effectiveness of UV lamps installed in the circulation air ductwork. Air Conditioning and Refrigeration Technology Institute. Report # ARTI-21CR/610-40030-01.

2. Peccia, J. and M. Hernandez. (2001). Photoreactivation of airborne Mycobacterium Parafortuitum. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 67: 4225-4232.

3. Peccia, J., H. Werth, Miller, S. L and M. Hernandez. (2001). Effects of relative humidity on the ultraviolet inactivation of airborne bacteria. Journal of Aerosol Science and Technology, 35: 728-740.

4. Jensen, M.M. (1964). Inactivation of airborne viruses by ultraviolet irradiation. Applied Microbiology, 12: 418-421.

5. Kowalsiki, W.J., Bahnfleth, WP. (2001). UVGI design basics for air and surface disinfection. IUVA News, 3:4-7.

Figures 5 and 6 Footnotes

1. Wekhof, A., J. Trompeter, O. Franken, (2001). "Pulsed UVB Disintegration (PUVBD): A New Sterilization Mechanism for Broad Medical-Hospital and Packaging Applications." Proceedings of the First International Congress on Ultraviolet Technologies, June 15-17, 2001. Washington DC, USA.

2. SteriBeam Systems GmbH , Phone: (916) 984-6551.

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Provide Comfortable Environmentsby the WBDG Productive Committee

Last updated: 05-01-2008

Overview

Physical comfort is critical to work effectiveness, satisfaction, and physical and psychological well-being. Uncomfortable conditions in the workplace—too hot, too cold, too noisy, too dark, too light, too much glare—restrict the ability of workers to function to full capacity and can lead to lowered job satisfaction and increases in illness symptoms.

During the facility design and development process, building projects must have a comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:

Provide a superior acoustic environment Maintain optimal thermal comfort Create a high quality visual environment, and Provide furniture and equipment that will enhance worker comfort and

performance. Provide user controls.

Implementing sustainable design principles will also help achieve these objectives.

Recommendations

Provide a Superior Acoustic Environment

Reduce sound reverberation time inside the workplace by specifying sound absorbing materials and by configuring spaces to dampen rather than magnify sound reverberation.

Provide sound masking if necessary. Limit transmission of noise from outside the workplace by designing high sound

transmission class (STC) walls between work areas and high noise areas inside and outside the building.

Minimize background noise from the building's HVAC system and other equipment.

Provide opportunities for privacy and concentration when needed in open plan offices.

Enclose or separate group activity spaces from work areas where concentration is important.

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Provide Quality Thermal and Ventilation Comfort

At a minimum, comply with American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 55 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy.

Incorporate natural ventilation, if appropriate to the location, and consider adjusting the requirements of ASHRAE Standard 55 to account for the impact.

Analyze room configurations and HVAC distribution layouts to ensure all parts of a room are receiving adequate ventilation, especially spaces where teams or groups meet. Consider providing individual environmental controls in these rooms.

Analyze placement, configuration, and type of windows and skylights and provide adequate, controllable shading to avoid "hot spots" caused by direct sunlight.

Consider providing a temperature and humidity monitoring system to ensure optimal thermal comfort performance.

Evaluate the use of access floors with displacement ventilation for flexibility, personal comfort control, and energy savings.

Provide individual air and temperature controls at each workstation. Utilize CO2 sensors to assess the air quality of spaces to adjust ventilation.

One solution for providing quality thermal and ventilation comfort is enhanced ventilation terminal control system with multi-zone VAV box terminal controls and individual airflow controls (personal air-conditioning).(Courtesy of Public Works Government Services Canada, Innovations and Solutions Directorate)

Create a High Quality Visual Environment (Including Lighting, Daylighting, and Visual Interest)

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Low-glare retrofit lenses, C. D. Howe Building, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.(Courtesy of Public Works Government Services Canada, Innovations and Solutions Directorate)

Provide as much natural daylight as possible for occupants while avoiding excessive heat loss, heat gain, and glare.

Provide views and access to the outdoor environment for all occupants. Provide connections to indoor and outdoor nature where possible. Integrate natural and electric lighting strategies, and provide controls that

optimize daylighting/electric lighting interaction. Light vertical surfaces/walls to increase the perceived brightness of the space.

Balance the quantity and quality of light in all work areas and design for "uniformity with flexibility." Consider individually controlled task lighting for each workstation that properly illuminates the task.

Control or eliminate glare from ceiling lighting and windows. Provide individual control of task lighting and, where possible, adjustment of

ceiling light using advanced lighting systems technologies.

Assure a visually appealing environment through the appropriate and well-balanced use of scale, colors, textures, patterns, aretwork, and plants.

Avoid both uniformity and visual chaos. See also WBDG Psychosocial Value of Space.

Left: Workplace environments with well balanced color and patterns are pleasant and appealing. This photo shows an informal work area at the Herman Miller Front Door in

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Holland, Michigan. And Right: The beige cubicle environment lacking color embellishment or pattern is, unfortunately, a common site in many work environments.

Provide Furniture and Equipment that Will Enhance Worker Comfort and Performance

Adapt furnishings to the work to be done, not the other way around. Specify furnishings that support good posture, body mechanics, and work

techniques for the tasks to be accomplished (e.g. ergonomically designed chairs and keyboards).

Provide workstations that allow users to adjust seating, computer equipment placement, light levels, work surface heights, workspace layout, and ventilation.

Install glass panels in workstation walls to provide access to daylight and views. Design furniture configurations that allow workers variable views for visual

relief. For telecommuting workers, the sponsoring organization should assure that the

home office is comfortable, ergonomic, and has the necessary technological tools.

Relevant Codes and Standards

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard 55 Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to all building types and space types, especially those regularly occupied or visited.

Design Objectives

Accessible, Aesthetics, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation, Secure / Safe, Secure / Safe—Ensure Occupant Safety and Health, Secure / Safe—Provide Security for Occupants and Assets, Sustainable, Sustainable—Use Environmental Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

Project Management

Building Commissioning

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Tools

Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life-Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID)

Provide a Superior Acoustic Environment

Acoustical Society of America American Speech-Hearing-Language Association DG 1110-3-122 Design Guide for Interiors (p.5.5) Greening Federal Facilities: An Energy, Environmental, and Economic Resource

Guide for Federal Facility Managers (p. 123) GSA Facilities Standards for the Public Building Service, P100 (p. 3-59) Institute of Noise Control Engineering of the USA National Council of Acoustical Consultants National Research Council of Canada Reference Materials—NIH Design Policy and Guidelines (p. 15) Sustainable Building Technical Manual (p. IV.75) TM 5-803-2/NAVFAC P-970/AFM 19-10 Environmental Protection Planning in

the Noise Environment UFC 3-450-01 Noise and Vibration Control

Maintain Optimal Thermal Comfort

American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers Carnegie Mellon Center for Building Performance and Diagnostics Federal User's Manual (p. 10-1) UFC 3-440-06N Cooling Buildings by Natural Ventilation University of California-Berkeley, Center for the Built Environment

Create a High Quality Visual Environment

Designlights Consortium Energy Star® —EPA Federal User's Manual (p. 3-1) Greening Federal Facilities: An Energy, Environmental, and Economic Resource

Guide for Federal Facility Managers (p.37, p.121) Illuminating Engineering Society of North America Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Light Right Consortium , Battelle/Pacific Northwest Laboratory TI 811-16 Lighting Design

Provide Furniture and Equipment that Will Enhance Worker Comfort and Performance

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DG 1110-3-122 Design Guide for Interiors (p.7.1) EP 385-1-96 USACE Ergonomics Program Procedures Occupational Health and Safety Administration

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Secure / Safeby the WBDG Safe Committee

Last updated: 05-01-2008

Overview

Concrete bollards are integrated into the street design in front of the White House—Washington, DC

The design and construction of safe and secure buildings continues to be the primary goal for owners, architects, engineers, and project managers. Today, in recognizing concern for natural disasters, acts of terrorism, indoor air quality, materials hazards, and fires, the design team must take a multi-hazard approach towards building design that accounts for the potential hazards and vulnerabilities. Applicable multi-hazard events include: bomb threats, terrorist acts, nuclear, radiological, chemical or biological threats, fires, medical emergencies, demonstrations and civil disorders, power failures, spills or leaks of hazardous substances, and natural disasters (hurricanes, tornados, floods, earthquakes, etc.).

Designing buildings for security and safety requires a proactive approach that anticipates—and then protects—the building occupants, resources, structure, and continuity of operations from multiple hazards. The first step in this process is to understand the various threats and the risks they pose. There are a number of defined assessment types to consider that will lead the project team in making security and safety design decisions. This effort identifies the resources or "assets" to be protected, highlights the possible perils or "threats," and establishes a likely consequence of occurrence or "risk." Based on this assessment and analysis, building owners and other invested parties select the appropriate safety measures to implement. Their selection will depend on the security requirements, acceptable levels of risk, the cost-effectiveness of the measures proposed, and the impact these measures have on the design, construction, and use of the building.

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Most security and safety measures involve a balance of operational, technical, and physical safety methods. For example, to ensure a given facility is protected from unwanted intruders, a primarily operational approach might stress the deployment of guards around the clock; a primarily technical approach might stress camera surveillance and warning sirens; while a primarily physical approach might stress locked doorways and gateways. In practice, all approaches are usually employed to some degree and a deficiency in one area may be compensated by a greater emphasis in the other two. When they are addressed at the beginning of a project, safety measures can usually be integrated into the total design efficiently and cost-effectively.

Consistent with areas of professional responsibility, it is useful to identify four fundamental principles of multi-hazard building design:

Plan for Fire Protection Planning for fire protection for a building involves a systems approach that enables the designer to analyze all of the building's components as a total building fire safety system package.

Ensure Occupant Safety and Health Some injuries and illnesses are related to unsafe or unhealthy building design and operation. These can usually be prevented by measures that take into account issues such as indoor air quality, electrical safety, fall protection, ergonomics, and accident prevention.

Resist Natural Hazards Each year U.S. taxpayers pay over $35 billion for recovery efforts, including repairing damaged buildings and infrastructure, from the impacts of hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, tornados, blizzards, and other natural disasters. A significant percentage of this could be saved if our buildings properly anticipated the risk associated with major natural hazards.

Provide Security for Building Occupants and Assets Effective secure building design involves implementing countermeasures to deter, delay, detect, and deny attacks from human aggressors. It also provides for mitigating measures to limit hazards and prevent catastrophic damage should an attack occur.

Note: Information in these Secure/Safe pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high performance buildings.

Emerging Issues

Information Sensitivity

As a result of the heightened level of interest in homeland security following the attacks of 11 September 2001, the public is even more interested in efforts to protect people, buildings, and operations from disasters. This presents both benefits and challenges, because much of the same information that can be used to gather support for mitigation

279

can also be of use to potential terrorists, saboteurs, or others with malevolent intent. For that reason, project delivery teams must carefully maintain the security of any information that pertains to vulnerabilities, particularly when the building is part of a critical infrastructure or system. Legal counsel should be obtained on how best to protect such sensitive information from unauthorized use within the provisions of applicable local, state, and federal laws.

Balancing Safe and Secure Design Requirements

There are times when design requirements addressing all the various threats will pose conflicts in arriving at acceptable design and construction solutions. Examples include Blast Resistive Glazing, which may impede emergency egress in case of fire, and access control measures that prevent intrusion, but may also restrict emergency egress. Good communication between fire protection and security design team specialists through the entire design process is necessary to achieve the common goal of safe and secure buidings.

Renewed Emphasis on Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Threats

Because of increased concern with post 9/11 international terrorism, planners and designers of a wide variety of building types and spaces now consider strategies to mitigate CBR threats. The WBDG page Provide Security for Building Occupants and Assets explains this type of occupant threat and reviews design solutions to mitigate them.

Development and Training on Occupant Emergency Plans

Occupant Emergency Plans should be developed for building Operations staff and occupants to be able to respond to all forms of attacks and threats. Clearly defined lines of communication, responsibilities, and operational procedures are all important parts of Emergency Plans. Emergency Plans are an essential element of protecting life and property from attacks and threats by preparing for and carrying out activities to prevent or minimize personal injury and physical damage. This will be accomplished by pre-emergency planning; establishing specific functions for Operational staff and occupants; training Organization personnel in appropriate functions; instructing occupants of appropriate responses to emergency situations and evacuation procedures; and conducting actual drills.

Major Resources

WBDG

Design Objectives

Historic Preservation—Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs

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Tools

LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool

Publications

Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General Services Administration (GSA).

FEMA 452 Risk Assessment—A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks Against Buildings

International Building Code Mitigation Planning How-To Guide Series, FEMA 386 Series. The National Strategy for "The Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructure and

Key Assets", The White House. February 2003. Protection of Federal Office Buildings Against Terrorism by the Committee on

the Protection of Federal Facilities Against Terrorism, Building Research Board, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1988.

Understanding Your Risks: Identifying Hazards and Estimating Losses, FEMA 386-2.

United for a Stronger America: Citizen's Preparedness Guide (PDF 647 KB, 30 pgs)

Uses of Risk Analysis to Achieve Balanced Safety in Building Design and Operations by Bruce D. McDowell and Andrew C. Lemer, Editors; Committee on Risk Appraisal in the Development of Facilities Design Criteria, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991.

Websites

The Infrastructure Security Partnership (TISP)

Secure / Safeby the WBDG Safe Committee

Last updated: 05-01-2008

Overview

281

Concrete bollards are integrated into the street design in front of the White House—Washington, DC

The design and construction of safe and secure buildings continues to be the primary goal for owners, architects, engineers, and project managers. Today, in recognizing concern for natural disasters, acts of terrorism, indoor air quality, materials hazards, and fires, the design team must take a multi-hazard approach towards building design that accounts for the potential hazards and vulnerabilities. Applicable multi-hazard events include: bomb threats, terrorist acts, nuclear, radiological, chemical or biological threats, fires, medical emergencies, demonstrations and civil disorders, power failures, spills or leaks of hazardous substances, and natural disasters (hurricanes, tornados, floods, earthquakes, etc.).

Designing buildings for security and safety requires a proactive approach that anticipates—and then protects—the building occupants, resources, structure, and continuity of operations from multiple hazards. The first step in this process is to understand the various threats and the risks they pose. There are a number of defined assessment types to consider that will lead the project team in making security and safety design decisions. This effort identifies the resources or "assets" to be protected, highlights the possible perils or "threats," and establishes a likely consequence of occurrence or "risk." Based on this assessment and analysis, building owners and other invested parties select the appropriate safety measures to implement. Their selection will depend on the security requirements, acceptable levels of risk, the cost-effectiveness of the measures proposed, and the impact these measures have on the design, construction, and use of the building.

Most security and safety measures involve a balance of operational, technical, and physical safety methods. For example, to ensure a given facility is protected from unwanted intruders, a primarily operational approach might stress the deployment of guards around the clock; a primarily technical approach might stress camera surveillance and warning sirens; while a primarily physical approach might stress locked doorways and gateways. In practice, all approaches are usually employed to some degree and a deficiency in one area may be compensated by a greater emphasis in the other two. When they are addressed at the beginning of a project, safety measures can usually be integrated into the total design efficiently and cost-effectively.

282

Consistent with areas of professional responsibility, it is useful to identify four fundamental principles of multi-hazard building design:

Plan for Fire Protection Planning for fire protection for a building involves a systems approach that enables the designer to analyze all of the building's components as a total building fire safety system package.

Ensure Occupant Safety and Health Some injuries and illnesses are related to unsafe or unhealthy building design and operation. These can usually be prevented by measures that take into account issues such as indoor air quality, electrical safety, fall protection, ergonomics, and accident prevention.

Resist Natural Hazards Each year U.S. taxpayers pay over $35 billion for recovery efforts, including repairing damaged buildings and infrastructure, from the impacts of hurricanes, floods, earthquakes, tornados, blizzards, and other natural disasters. A significant percentage of this could be saved if our buildings properly anticipated the risk associated with major natural hazards.

Provide Security for Building Occupants and Assets Effective secure building design involves implementing countermeasures to deter, delay, detect, and deny attacks from human aggressors. It also provides for mitigating measures to limit hazards and prevent catastrophic damage should an attack occur.

Note: Information in these Secure/Safe pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high performance buildings.

Emerging Issues

Information Sensitivity

As a result of the heightened level of interest in homeland security following the attacks of 11 September 2001, the public is even more interested in efforts to protect people, buildings, and operations from disasters. This presents both benefits and challenges, because much of the same information that can be used to gather support for mitigation can also be of use to potential terrorists, saboteurs, or others with malevolent intent. For that reason, project delivery teams must carefully maintain the security of any information that pertains to vulnerabilities, particularly when the building is part of a critical infrastructure or system. Legal counsel should be obtained on how best to protect such sensitive information from unauthorized use within the provisions of applicable local, state, and federal laws.

Balancing Safe and Secure Design Requirements

283

There are times when design requirements addressing all the various threats will pose conflicts in arriving at acceptable design and construction solutions. Examples include Blast Resistive Glazing, which may impede emergency egress in case of fire, and access control measures that prevent intrusion, but may also restrict emergency egress. Good communication between fire protection and security design team specialists through the entire design process is necessary to achieve the common goal of safe and secure buidings.

Renewed Emphasis on Chemical, Biological, and Radiological Threats

Because of increased concern with post 9/11 international terrorism, planners and designers of a wide variety of building types and spaces now consider strategies to mitigate CBR threats. The WBDG page Provide Security for Building Occupants and Assets explains this type of occupant threat and reviews design solutions to mitigate them.

Development and Training on Occupant Emergency Plans

Occupant Emergency Plans should be developed for building Operations staff and occupants to be able to respond to all forms of attacks and threats. Clearly defined lines of communication, responsibilities, and operational procedures are all important parts of Emergency Plans. Emergency Plans are an essential element of protecting life and property from attacks and threats by preparing for and carrying out activities to prevent or minimize personal injury and physical damage. This will be accomplished by pre-emergency planning; establishing specific functions for Operational staff and occupants; training Organization personnel in appropriate functions; instructing occupants of appropriate responses to emergency situations and evacuation procedures; and conducting actual drills.

Major Resources

WBDG

Design Objectives

Historic Preservation—Accommodate Life Safety and Security Needs

Tools

LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool

Publications

Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service, P100 by the General Services Administration (GSA).

284

FEMA 452 Risk Assessment—A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks Against Buildings

International Building Code Mitigation Planning How-To Guide Series, FEMA 386 Series. The National Strategy for "The Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructure and

Key Assets", The White House. February 2003. Protection of Federal Office Buildings Against Terrorism by the Committee on

the Protection of Federal Facilities Against Terrorism, Building Research Board, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1988.

Understanding Your Risks: Identifying Hazards and Estimating Losses, FEMA 386-2.

United for a Stronger America: Citizen's Preparedness Guide (PDF 647 KB, 30 pgs)

Uses of Risk Analysis to Achieve Balanced Safety in Building Design and Operations by Bruce D. McDowell and Andrew C. Lemer, Editors; Committee on Risk Appraisal in the Development of Facilities Design Criteria, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1991.

Websites

The Infrastructure Security Partnership (TISP)

Plan for Fire Protectionby the WBDG Safe Committee

Last updated: 05-01-2008

Overview

The United States has the highest fire losses in terms of both frequency and total losses of any modern technological society. New facilities and renovation projects need to be designed to incorporate efficient, cost-effective passive and automatic fire protection systems. These systems are effective in detecting, containing, and controlling and/or and extinguishing a fire event in the early stages. Fire protection engineers must be involved in all aspects of the design in order to ensure a reasonable degree of protection of human life from fire and the products of combustion as well as to reduce the potential loss from fire (i.e., real and personal property, information, organizational operations). Planning for fire protection in/around a building involves an integrated systems approach that enables the designer to analyze all of the building's components as a total building fire safety system package. The analysis requires more than code compliance or meeting the minimum legal responsibilities for protecting a building; that is, building and fire codes are intended to protect against loss of life and limit fire impact on the community and do not necessarily protect the mission or assets, or solve problems brought upon by new projects with unique circumstances. Therefore, it is necessary to creatively and efficiently

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integrate code requirements with other fire safety measures as well as other design strategies to achieve a balanced design that will provide the desired levels of safety.

Recommendations

Issues to address in developing a successful fire protection design usually include:

Design Team—It is most important that the project delivery team include a Fire Protection Engineer with adequate experience and knowledge in fire protection and life safety design. The Fire Protection Engineer should be involved in all phases of design, from planning to occupancy.

Design Standards and Criteria (i.e., Building Code, etc.)—to be utilized by the design team, including statutory requirements, voluntary requirements addressing owner's performance needs, and requirements that are sometimes imposed by insurance carriers on commerical projects.

Site Requirements—A quality site design will integrate performance requirements associated with fire department access, suppression, and separation distances and site/building security.

Fire department access o Design buildings with uncomplicated layouts that enable firefighters to

locate an area quickly.o Provide rapid access to various features such as fire department

connections (FDCs), hose valves, elevators and stairs, annunciators, key boxes, etc.

o Accommodate the access of fire apparatus into and around the building site

Fire hydrants

Coordinate with security measures

Building Construction Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:

Construction type, allowable height, and area Exposures/separation requirements Fire ratings, materials, and systems

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Occupancy types Interior finish Exit stairway enclosure

Egress Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:

Exit stairway remoteness Exit discharge Areas of refuge Accessible exits Door locking arrangements (security interface)

Fire Detection and Notification System Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:

Detection Notification Survivability of systems

Fire Suppression Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:

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Water supply Type of automatic fire extinguishing system

o Water-based fire extinguishing systemo Non-water-based fire extinguishing system

Standpipes and fire department hose outlets

Emergency Power, Lighting, and Exit Signage, at a minimum will address the following elements:

Survivability of systems Electrical Safety Distributed Energy Resources

Special Fire Protection Requirements, at a minimum will address the following elements:

Engineered smoke control systems Fireproofing and firestopping Atrium spaces Mission critical facility needs

EMERGING ISSUES

Balancing Safe and Secure Design Requirements

The terrorist attacks on 11 September 2001 have caused design and engineering professionals to address integrated fire protection and security measures for the building site as well as within the building. For example, perimeter protection measures must be well-designed to ensure that fire departments can still access sites and buildings. Another example is the increased need to coordinate HVAC design and proper automatic emergency operations in the event of a fire or chemical/biological/radiological (CBR) event.

A growing movement to "sustainability," including a greater emphasis on life-cycle cost as an engineering community and building code objective, could potentially require a new approach to codes and standards.

Performance-Based Design (PBD)

The success of any complex project hinges on getting all the stakeholders, owners, designers, special consultants, and AHJs working together in a collaborative manner to achieve performance-based design solutions. The Society of Fire Protection Engineers has developed and published (in collaboration with NFPA) the SFPE Engineering Guide to Performance-Based Fire Protection Analysis and Design of Buildings and the SFPE Code Official's Guide to Performance-Based Design Review (developed and published in collaboration with ICC).

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Relevant Codes and Standards

Building codes and fire codes vary across the nation. For federal projects, consult with the appropriate federal agency or the Contracting Officer. For non-federal projects consult with the appropriate building code and fire code official, for minimum and recommended fire safety measures.

Legislation

OMB Circular A-119—Federal Participation in the Development and Use of Voluntary Consensus Standards and in Conformity Assessment Activities

P.L. 93-498—Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act, 1974 P.L. 100-678, Section 21—Public Building Amendments, 1988 P.L. 102-522—Fire Administration Authorization Act of 1992 (aka Federal Fire

Safety Act)

Federal Guidelines

DOD: UFC 3-600-01 Design: Fire Protection Engineering for Facilities GSA: Facilities Standard for the Public Building Service, P100 GSA: Fire Safety Retrofitting in Historic Buildings by Advisory Council on

Historic Preservation and General Services Administration. 1989. HUD: Fire Ratings of Archaic Materials and Assemblies VA: Design Manual: Fire Protection

Other Publications

Fire Publications - Evacuation, NIST —a compendium of research and position papers on multi-hazard evacuation theory

Major Resources

Standards and Code Organizations

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) ASTM International FM Global International Code Council, Inc. (ICC) National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL)

Associations

American Fire Sprinkler Association (AFSA) Automatic Fire Alarm Association (AFAA)

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National Fire Sprinkler Association (NFSA) Society of Fire Protection Engineers (SFPE)

Laboratories

NIST Building and Fire Research Lab

Universities

Oklahoma State University School of Fire Protection and Safety University of Maryland Fire Protection Engineering Worcester Polytechnic Institute Fire Protection Engineering and Center for Fire

Safety Studies

Others

NAVFAC Community of Interest for Fire Protection Engineering U.S. Fire Administration, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)

Ensure Occupant Safety and Healthby the WBDG Safe Committee

Last updated: 05-01-2008

Overview

Threats to occupants from indoor air contamination can be studied in Computational Fluid Dynamics.

Modern buildings are generally considered safe and healthy working environments. However, the potential for indoor air quality problems, occupational illnesses and injuries, exposure to hazardous materials, and accidental falls beckons architects, engineers, and facility managers to design and maintain buildings and processes that

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ensure occupant safety and health. Notably, building designs must focus on eliminating or preventing hazards to personnel, rather than relying on personal protective equipment and administrative or process procedures to prevent mishaps.

Protecting the health, safety, and welfare (HSW) of building occupants has expanded beyond disease prevention and nuisance control to include mental as well as physical health (see Productive) and protecting the ecological health of a place (see Sustainable) through the creation of places that enable delight and the realization of human potential.

Therefore, the design team must engage an integrated approach, including work process analysis and hazard recognition to develop solutions that provide healthy built environments, having no undue physical stressors, as well as meeting other project requirements. In addition, consideration of HSW issues should be an integral part of all phases of a building's life cycle: planning, design, construction, operations and maintenance, renovation, and final disposal.

Provide designs that eliminate or reduce hazards in the work place to prevent mishaps and reduce reliance on personal protective equipment.

Prevent occupational injuries and illnesses. Prevent falls from heights. Prevent slips, trips, and falls. Ensure electrical safety from turn-over through Operations and Maintenance.

Modifications must be in conformance with life safety codes and standards and be documented.

Eliminate exposure to hazardous materials (e.g., volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and formaldehyde, and lead and asbestos in older buildings).

Provide good indoor air quality (IAQ) and adequate ventilation. Analyze work requirements and provide ergonomic work places to prevent work-

related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSD). Perform proper building operations and maintenance.

Recommendations

Provide Designs that Eliminate or Reduce Hazards in the Work Place to Prevent Mishaps

Provide designs in accordance with good practice as well as applicable building, fire, safety, and health codes and regulations. See Standards and Code Organizations.

Conduct preliminary hazard analyses and design reviews to eliminate or mitigate hazards in the work place.

Use registered design professionals and accredited safety professionals to ensure compliance with safety standards and codes.

Provide engineering controls in place rather than rely on personal protective equipment or administrative work procedures to prevent mishaps.

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Integrate safety mechanisms, such as built-in anchors or tie-off points, into the building design, especially for large mechanical systems.

Design a means for safely cleaning and maintaining interior spaces and building exteriors.

Provide for receiving, storing, and handling of materials, such as combustibles, cleaning products, office supplies, and perishables.

Prevent Occupational Injuries and Illnesses

Consider work practices, employee physical requirements, and eliminating confined spaces when designing buildings and processes.

Design for safe replacement and modifications of equipment to reduce the risk of injury to operations and maintenance staff.

Comply with applicable regulatory requirements such as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards. All OSHA standards are available in the 29 Code of Federal Regulation) (1926—Construction, and 1910—General Industry).

Provide proper ventilation under all circumstances, and allow for natural lighting where possible. See High-Performance HVAC and Natural Ventilation.

Mitigate noise hazards from equipment and processes. Designate safe locations for installation of RF equipment such as antennas on

rooftop penthouses.

Prevent Falls from Heights

Provide guardrails and barriers that will prevent falls from heights in both interior and exterior spaces.

Provide fall protection for all maintenance personnel especially for roof-mounted equipment such as HVAC equipment and cooling towers.

Provide certified tie-off points for fall arrest systems.

Prevent Slips, Trips, and Falls

Provide interior and exterior floor surfaces that do not pose slip or trip hazards. Select exterior walking surface materials that are not susceptible to changes in

elevation as a result of freeze/thaw cycles. Provide adequate illumination, both natural and artificial, for all interior and

exterior areas. See Daylighting and Energy Efficient Lighting. Comply with all regulatory and statutory requirements such as the Americans

with Disabilities Act. See WBDG Accessible Branch.

Ensure Electrical Safety

Ensure compliance with the National Electrical Code (NEC). Provide adequate space for maintenance, repair, and expansion in electrical rooms

and closets.

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Provide adequate drainage and/or containment from areas with energized electrical equipment.

Evaluate all areas where ground fault circuit interruption devices may be needed. Consider response of emergency personnel in cases of fires and natural disasters. Label all electrical control panels and circuits. Install non-conductive flooring at service locations for high voltage equipment. Specify high-visibility colors for high voltage ducts and conduits.

Eliminate Exposure to Hazardous Materials

Identify, isolate, remove, or manage in place hazardous materials such as lead, asbestos, etc.

Consider use of sampling techniques for hazardous substances in all phases of the project to include planning, design, construction, and maintenance.

Consider occupant operations and materials in designing ventilation and drainage systems.

Incorporate integrated pest management (IPM) concepts and requirements into facility design and construction (e.g., use of proper door sweeps, lighting, trash compactors, etc.) and require the use of IPM be performed by qualified personnel during all phases of construction and after the facility is completed. This should include not only interior pest management, but landscape and turf pest management as well. See Sustainable O&M.

Provide adequate space for hazardous materials storage compartments and segregate hazardous materials to avoid incompatibility.

Substitute high hazardous products with those of lower toxicity/physical properties.

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Typical ventilation system design for fume hood systems in laboratories. Air may be supplied through single- or dual-duct constant air volume (CAV) or variable air volume (VAV) systems.

Provide Good Indoor Air Quality and Adequate Ventilation

Consider ventilation systems that will exceed minimum ASHRAE standards. Recognize and provide specially designed industrial ventilation for all industrial

processes to remove potential contaminants from the breathing zone. Design separate ventilation systems for industrial and hazardous areas within a

building. Consider the use of carbon monoxide (CO) monitoring equipment if there are CO

sources, such as fuel-burning equipment or garages, in the building. Specify materials and furnishings that are low emitters of indoor air contaminants

such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs). See Green Products. Consider the indoor relative humidity in the design of the ventilation system. Avoid interior insulation of ductwork. Locate outside air intakes to minimize entrainment of exhaust fumes and other

odors. (e.g., vehicle exhaust, grass cutting and ground maintenance activities, industrial pollutant sources, cooling tower blow-offs, and sewage ejector pits).

Ensure the integrity of the building envelope, including caulks and seals, to preclude water intrusion that may contribute to mold growth.

Prevent return air plenums/systems from entraining air from unintended spaces. Provide air barriers at interior walls between thermally different spaces to prevent

mold and mildew.

Provide Ergonomic Workplaces and Furniture to Prevent Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSD)

Design work places that make the job fit the person. See WBDG Functional Branch.

Select furnishings, chairs, and equipment that are ergonomically designed and approved for that use.

Design equipment and furnishings reflective of work practices in an effort to eliminate repetitive motions and vibrations as well as prevent strains and sprains.

Consider using worker comfort surveys in the design phase to help eliminate work-related musculoskeletal disorders.

Accept the principle that one size does not fit all employees. See Accessible—Plan for Flexibility.

Consider providing break areas to allow the employees to temporarily leave the work place.

Minimize lighting glare on computer monitor screens. Provide task lighting at workstations to minimize eye fatigue. See Energy Efficient Lighting.

Perform Proper Building Operations and Maintenance

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Proper preventative maintenance (PM) not only improves the useful life of the systems and building structures, but it can lend to good indoor air quality and prevent "sick building" syndromes. See Sustainable O&M Practices.

Ensure all maintenance and operation documentation, especially an equipment inventory, is submitted to the building owner/operator prior to building occupancy.

Follow manufacturer recommendations for proper building operations and maintenance.

Include safety training of operator personnel as part of the construction contractor's deliverables.

Require the use of integrated pest management (IPM) for all pest management services, interior and exterior of the building.

Require building maintenance personnel to maintain the HVAC air infiltration devices and condensate water biocides appropriately.

Monitor chemical inventories to identify opportunities to substitute green products.

Emerging Issues

During the last week of January 2000, the Department of Labor said that employers would not be held liable for health and safety violations occurring in the homes of telecommuting employees. See "Home Office Isn't Liability for Firms, U.S. Decides," New York Times, 28 January 2000. The Department of Labor stated that it would not hold employers responsible for health and safety violations that occur in home workplaces other than home offices, for example, fireworks being manufactured in the home or other activities involving the use of hazardous materials.

Potential exposure of building occupants to molds from contaminated HVAC systems, especially during maintenance and renovation projects, remains a serious concern. Reaction to exposure can range from negligible to severe among building occupants and can frequently be very difficult to definitively identify as a causal factor for occupants' symptoms. Special care must be exercised in HVAC design, especially, to prevent excessive humidity in system components.

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Cotton-pleated filters are possible safe, cost-effective alternatives to conventional fiberglass filters

Fiberglass is used extensively in building construction, especially for insulation and sound attenuation in HVAC systems. Considerable concern exists regarding the potential adverse health effects of inhaling fiberglass fibers. A number of studies are currently investigating the long-term effects of inhalation exposure to fiberglass. At a minimum, fiberglass exposed to the air stream in an HVAC system will shed particles and serve as a matrix for collecting dust and dirt that act as a substrate for microbial growth.

Contamination of domestic hot water systems, cooling towers, and condensate pans continues to result in infections of building occupants on a regular basis. The results of such infections can range from mild to fatal and affect one or many employees. They invariably result in employee apprehension and media attention. Mechanical engineers must be vigilant to avoid system designs that may promote the growth of legionella sp.

Relevant Codes and Standards

ANSI Z9 Series, Ventilation Standards American National Standards Institute and American Industrial Hygiene Association

Industrial Ventilation, A Manual of Recommended Paractice American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists

International Building Code International Code Council NFPA 5000 Building Construction and Safety Code National Fire Protection

Association Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) Act 1970, 29 U.S.C. § 651 et seq. ; 29

C.F.R. Part 1903.1 et seq. Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 29 CFR 1910 Code of Federal

Regulations for General Industry (pertains to post-occupancy) Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 29 CFR 1926 Code of Federal

Regulations for Construction (pertains to construction phase)

Ensure Electrical Safety

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Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 29 CFR 1910-Subpart S, Sections 301 to 309

UFC 3-560-10N Safety of Electrical Transmission and Distribution Systems

Eliminate Exposure to Hazardous Materials

AFI 32-1052 Facility Asbestos Management ASTM E1368 Standard Practice for Visual Inspection of Asbestos Abatement

Projects ASTM E2356 Standard Practice for Comprehensive Building Asbestos Surveys ASTM E2394 Standard Practice for Maintenance, Renovation and Repair of

Installed Asbestos Cement Products EP 1110-1-11 Engineering and Design Asbestos Abatement Guideline Detail

Sheets EPA 20T-2003 Managing Asbestos in Place EPA 560/5-85-024 Guidance for Controlling Asbestos-Containing Materials in

Buildings EPA 560-OPTS-86-001 A Guide to Respiratory Protection for the Asbestos

Abatement Industry VA VHA Program Guide 1850.2, Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Provide Good Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) and Adequate Ventilation

ASHRAE Standard 52—Method of Testing Air-Cleaning Devices Used in General Ventilation for Removing Particulate Matter

ASHRAE Standard 55—Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy

ASHRAE Standard 62—Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality : Sets the minimum acceptable ventilation requirements.

ASHRAE Standard 90.1—Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings UFC 3-410-02N Heating, Ventilating, Air Conditioning and Dehumidifying

Systems UFC 3-410-04N Industrial Ventilation NISTIR 5329 Manual for Ventilation Assessment in Mechanically Ventilated

Commercial Buildings OSHA Technical Manual—Section III, Legionnaires' Disease

Provide Ergonomic Work Places to Prevent Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSD)

EP 385-1-96 USACE Ergonomics Program Policy Final Rule on Ergonomics Program, 65 Fed. Reg. 68,261 (Nov. 14, 2000),

codified at 29 C.F.R. § 1910.900

Perform Proper Building Operations and Maintenance

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ASHRAE Guideline 1—Guideline for the Commissioning of HVAC Systems VA VHA Program Guide 1850.2, Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Major Resources

WBDG

Design Objectives

Accessible, Functional / Operational, Productive—Promote Health and Well-Being, Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments, Sustainable

Publications

Anthrax-Contaminated Facilities: Preparations and a Standard for Remediation (PDF 82 KB, 19 pgs) by the Congressional Research Service. 2005.

Federal Agencies and Programs

Consumer Products Safety Commission National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) —The Federal

agency responsible for conducting research and making recommendations for the prevention of work-related disease and injury. The Institute is part of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA) OSHA Emergency Preparedness/Planning Info OSHA eTools and Electronic Products for Compliance Assistance OSHA Legionnaires' Disease Design Guidance

Standards and Code Organizations

American National Standards Institute (ANSI) ASTM International American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Building Officials and Code Administrators International, Inc. (BOCA) FM Global International Code Council, Inc. (ICC) International Conference of Building Officials, Inc. (ICBO) International Organization for Standardization (ISO) National Electrical Contractors Association (NECA) National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI) Underwriters Laboratories Inc. (UL)

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Associations and Organizations

American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE) Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Institute for Safety Through Design (ISTD) —Established in 1995 by the National

Safety Council's Business and Industry Division, the Institute works toward improving the design and development of all processes involved in industrial operations, including equipment, tooling, products, work methods, training, facilities, systems, and delivery of services.

International Society for Occupational Ergonomics and Safety (ISOES) National Resource Center for Health and Safety in Child Care National Safety Council (NSC) —A leading source of safety and health

information in the United States. Also offers Professional Development Seminars and Technical Sessions.

Society of Manufacturing Engineers (SME)

Others

RiskWorld

Resist Natural Hazardsby the WBDG Safe Committee

Last updated: 05-01-2008

Overview

Buildings in any geographic location are subject to a wide variety of natural phenomena such as windstorms, floods, earthquakes, and other hazards. While the occurrence of these events cannot be precisely predicted, their impacts are well understood and can be managed effectively through a comprehensive program of hazard mitigation planning.

Mitigation refers to measures that can reduce or eliminate the vulnerability of the built environment to hazards, whether natural or man-made. The fundamental goal of mitigation is to minimize loss of life, property, and function due to disasters. Designing to resist any hazard(s) should always begin with a comprehensive risk assessment. This process includes identification of the hazards present in the location and an assessment of their potential impacts and effects on the built environment based on existing or anticipated vulnerabilities and potential losses.

It is common for different organizations to use varying nomenclature to refer to the components of risk assessment. For example, terrorism and foreign military power are referred to as "threats" by the intelligence community, while hurricanes and floods are referred to as "hazards" by emergency managers; however, both are simply forces that

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have the potential to cause damage, death, and injury, and loss of function in the built environment. Regardless of who is conducting the risk assessment, the fundamental process of identifying what can happen at a given location, how it can affect the built environment, and what the potential losses could be, remains essentially the same from application to application.

Only after the overall risk is fully understood should mitigation measures be identified, prioritized, and implemented. Basic principles underlying this process include:

The impacts of natural hazards and the costs of the disasters they cause will be reduced whether mitigation measures are implemented pre-disaster (preventively) or post-disaster (correctively). Proactively integrating mitigation measures into new construction is always more economically feasible than retrofitting existing structures.

Risk reduction techniques should address as many applicable hazards as possible. This approach, known as multi-hazard mitigation, is the most Cost-Effective approach, maximizes the protective effect of the mitigation measures implemented, and optimizes multi-hazard design techniques with other building technologies.

All mitigation is local. Most mitigation measures, whether structural or regulatory, fall under the jurisdiction of local government. Additionally, mitigation initiatives are most effective when they involve the full participation of local stakeholders.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Design professionals agree that the most successful way to mitigate losses of life, property, and function is to design buildings that are disaster resistant. This approach should be incorporated into the project planning, design, and development at the earliest possible stage so that design and material decisions can be based on an integrated "whole building approach."

A variety of techniques are available to mitigate the effects of natural hazards on the built environment. Depending on the hazards identified, the location and construction type of a proposed building or facility, and the specific performance requirements for the building, the structure can be designed to resist hazard effects such as induced loads. Later in the building's life cycle, additional opportunities to further reduce the risk from natural hazards may exist when renovation projects and repairs of the existing structure is undertaken. When incorporating disaster reduction measures into building design, some or all of the issues outlined below should be considered in order to protect lives, properties, and operations from damages caused by natural hazards.

Earthquakes

Building design will be influenced by the level of seismic resistance desired. This can range from prevention of nonstructural damage in frequent minor ground shaking to

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prevention of structural damage and minimization of nonstructural damage in occasional moderate ground shaking, and even avoidance of collapse or serious damage in rare major ground shaking. These performance objectives can be accomplished through a variety of measures such as structural components like shear walls, braced frames, moment resisting frames, and diaphragms, base isolation, energy dissipating devices such as visco-elastic dampers, elastomeric dampers, and hysteretic-loop dampers, and bracing of nonstructural components.

Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Tornadoes

The key strategy to protecting a building from high winds caused by tornados, hurricanes, and gust fronts is to maintain the integrity of the building envelope, including roofs and windows, and to design the structure to withstand the expected lateral and uplift forces. For example, roof trusses and gables should be braced; hurricane straps should be used to strengthen the connection between the roof and walls; and doors and windows should be protected by covering and/or bracing. When planning renovation projects, designers should consider opportunities to upgrade the roof structure and covering and enhance the protection of fenestration. The Additional Resources section of this page includes several FEMA publications for designing community shelters, constructed to protect a large number of people from a natural hazard event, and "residential safe rooms" for occupant refuge during windstorms.

Flooding

Flood mitigation is best achieved by hazard avoidance—that is, proper site selection away from floodplains. Should buildings be sited in flood-prone locations, they should be elevated above expected flood levels to reduce the chances of flooding and to limit the potential damage to the building and its contents when it is flooded. Flood mitigation techniques include elevating the building so that the lowest floor is above the flood level; dry flood-proofing, or making the building watertight to prevent water entry; wet flood-proofing, or making uninhabited or non-critical parts of the building resistant to water damage; relocation of the building; and the incorporation of levees and floodwalls into site design to keep water away from the building.

Rainfall and Wind-Driven Rain

One of the primary performance requirements for any building is that it should keep the interior space dry. All roofs and walls must therefore shed rainwater, and design requirements are the same everywhere in this respect. For example, roof drainage design should minimize the possibility of ponding water, and existing buildings with flat roofs should be inspected to determine compliance with this requirement. Recommendations for addressing rainfall and wind-driven rain can be found in the International Building Code (IBC) series.

Differential Settlement (Subsidence)

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Ground subsidence can result from mining, sinkholes, underground fluid withdrawal, hydrocompaction, and organic soil drainage and oxidation. Subsidence mitigation can best be achieved through careful site selection, including geotechnical study of the site. In subsidence-prone areas, foundations should be appropriately constructed, basements and other below-ground projections should be minimized, and utility lines and connections should be stress-resistant. When retrofitting structures to be more subsidence-resistant, shear walls, geo-fabrics, and earth reinforcement techniques such as dynamic compaction can be used to increase resistance to subsidence damage and to stabilize collapsible soils.

Landslides and Mudslides

Gravity-driven movement of earth material can result from water saturation, slope modifications, and earthquakes. Techniques for reducing landslide and mudslide risks to structures include selecting non-hillside or stable slope sites; constructing channels, drainage systems, retention structures, and deflection walls; planting groundcover; and soil reinforcement using geo-synthetic materials, and avoiding cut and fill building sites.

Forest Fires

As residential developments expand into wild land areas, people and property are increasingly at risk from wildfire. Fire is a natural process in any wild land area and serves an important purpose; however, if ground cover is burned away, erosion, landslide, mudflow, and flood hazards can be exacerbated. A cleared safety zone of at least 30 feet (100 feet in pine forests) should be maintained between structures and combustible vegetation, and fire-resistant ground cover, shrubs, and trees should be used for landscaping (for example, hardwood trees are less flammable than pines, evergreens, eucalyptus or firs). Only fire-resistant or non-combustible materials should be used on roofs and exterior surfaces. Roofs and gutters should be regularly cleaned and chimneys should be equipped with spark arrestors. Vents, louvers, and other openings should be covered with wire mesh to prevent embers and flaming debris from entering. Overhangs, eaves, porches, and balconies can trap heat and burning embers and should also be avoided or minimized and protected with wire mesh. Windows allow radiated heat to pass through and ignite combustible materials inside, but dual- or triple-pane thermal glass, fire-resistant shutters or drapes, and noncombustible awnings can help reduce this risk.

Tsunami

A tsunami is a series of ocean waves generated by sudden displacements in the sea floor, landslides, or volcanic activity. In the deep ocean, the tsunami wave may only be a few inches high. The tsunami wave may come gently ashore or may increase in height to become a fast moving wall of turbulent water several meters high. Although a tsunami cannot be prevented, the impact of a tsunami can be mitigated through urban/land planning, community preparedness, timely warnings, and effective response.

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Emerging Issues

Hazard Mitigation and Sustainability

Unsustainable development is one of the major factors in the rising costs of natural disasters. Given that hazard mitigation is at the core of disaster resistance, then, many design strategies and technologies serve double duty, by not only preventing losses but serving the higher goal of long-term community sustainability. For example, erosion control measures designed to mitigate flood, mudslide, rainstorm, and other damage to a building's foundation may also improve the quality of runoff water entering streams and lakes.

Cost of Mitigation Measures in Retrofits

The cost of incorporating multi-hazard mitigation measures in existing buildings is an issue of increased importance (for designers, insurers and the public) because a critical mass of facilities were built before multi-hazard construction measures were incorporated in modern building codes. Initially, building codes were developed solely to prevent or reduce the loss of life and property due to fire in buildings.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Regulations, codes, standards, and best practices will guide the design of buildings to resist natural hazards. For new buildings, code requirements serve to define the minimum mitigation requirements, but compliance with regulations in building design is not sufficient to guarantee that a facility will perform adequately when impacted by the forces for which it was designed. Indeed, individual evaluation of the costs and benefits of specific hazard mitigation alternatives can lead to effective strategies that will exceed the minimum requirements. Additionally, special mitigation requirements may be imposed on projects in response to locale-specific hazards. When a change in use or occupancy occurs, the designer must determine whether this change triggers other mitigation requirements and must understand how to evaluate alternatives for meeting those requirements.

Finally, designers should augment the codes and standards to consider the importance of nonstructural elements, assets, and mission of the building, i.e., windows, hoods, parapets and balcony railings, and electrical and mechanical systems, because they may account for more than 70% of the value of a building.

International Building Code (IBC) Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, ASCE 7-02 —

includes model requirements for dead, live, soil, flood, wind, snow, rain, ice, and earthquake loads, and their combinations, that are suitable for inclusion in building codes

National Fire Protection Association (NFPA)

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Many states and municipalities have also adopted supplemental codes to meet local requirements for multi-hazard protection. Examples of such codes include:

Miami-Dade County Code Structural Engineers Association of California (SEAOC) UBC 1997 —1997 marked the end of an era: the final publishing year of the

Uniform Building Code. The 2000 International Building Code is part of the nation's first-ever single set of comprehensive and coordinated building safety codes, the 2000 International Code. Many states, such as California, still use earlier versions of the ICC predecessor codes—UBC, BOCA and SBC.

General Multi-Hazard

Public Law 106-390, Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000

Earthquake

Executive Order 12699 , Seismic Safety of Federal and Federally Assisted or Regulated New Building Construction (January 5, 1990)

Executive Order 12941 , Seismic Safety of Existing Federally Owned or Leased Buildings (December 1, 1994)

Public Law 95-124, Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act (1977) United States Code Title 42, Chapter 86, Earthquake Hazards Reduction

Public Law 101-614 , National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program Reauthorization Act (1990)

Public Law 103-374, Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act Of 1977, Authorization and Amendment (1994)

Public Law 106-503, Earthquake Hazards Reduction Authorization Act (2000)

Hurricane, Typhoon, and Tornado

Public Law 108-146 , Tornado Shelters Act (2003)

Flood

Public Law 93-234 , National Flood Insurance Act (1968)

Rainfall and Wind-Driven Rain

National Institute of Standards and Technology: NISTIR 4821 Envelope Design Guidelines for Federal Office Buildings: Thermal

Integrity and Airtightness U.S. Department of Defense: UFC 3-440-05N Design: Tropical Engineering

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Additional Resources

Organizations and Associations

General Multi-Hazard American Lifelines Alliance American Planning Association, Growing Smart project American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) Applied Technology Council (ATC)—A nonprofit organization dedicated to

developing and promoting state-of-the-art, user-friendly engineering resources and applications for use in mitigating the effects of natural and other hazards on the built environment

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Mitigation Division Institute for Business and Home Safety (IBHS) Multi-hazard Mitigation Council (MMC)—A program of the National Institute of

Building Sciences (NIBS) National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Natural Hazards Center , University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) (For Flood and Seismic Mapping)

Earthquake Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC)—Established by the National Institute

of Building Sciences (NIBS) to develop and promote building earthquake risk mitigation regulatory provisions for the nation

Earthquake Engineering Research Institute (EERI) FEMA HAZUS (Hazards US) modeling

Hurricane, Typhoon, and Tornado National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA) Protective Glazing Council (PGC) Wind Engineering Research Center , Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX Wind Load Test Facility , Clemson University, Clemson, SC

Flood Association of State Floodplain Managers (ASFPM) National Flood Insurance Program (FEMA) National Imagery Mapping Agency (For Flood Mapping)

Forest Fires Color Country Interagency Fire Management Area Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) The Fire Safe Council Firewise National Interagency Fire Center

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National Wildfire Programs Database

Publications

General Multi-Hazard Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States .

Mileti, Dennis S. Washington, DC: John Henry Press, 1999. Federal Emergency Management Agency: Mitigation Resources for Success CD-ROM (FEMA 372) Planning for a Sustainable Future: The Link Between Hazard Mitigation and

Livability (FEMA 364) Planning for Post-Disaster Recovery and Reconstruction Rebuilding for a More Sustainable Future: An Operational Framework (FEMA

365) Understanding Your Risks: Identifying Hazards and Estimating Losses (FEMA

386-2) The Infrastructure Security Partnership (TISP): Guide for an Action Plan to Develop Regional Disaster Resilience . 2006.

Earthquake Interagency Committee on Seismic Safety in Construction (ICSSC)/National

Institute of Science and Technology: Standards of Seismic Safety for Existing Federally Owned or Leased Buildings

(1994, ICSSC RP 4) ICSSC Guidance on Implementing Executive Order 12941 on Seismic Safety of

Existing Federally Owned or Leased Buildings (1995, ICSSC RP 5) How-to Suggestions for Implementing Executive Order 12941 on Seismic Safety

of Existing Federal Buildings, A Handbook (1995, ICSSC TR-17) Federal Emergency Management Agency: Reducing the Risks of Nonstructural Earthquake Damage, A Practical Guide

(1994, FEMA 74) Communities at Risk (FEMA 83) Non-Technical Explanation of the 1994 NEHRP Recommended Provisions (1995,

FEMA 99) Abatement of Seismic Hazards to Lifelines: Proceedings of a Workshop on

Development of an Action Plan, 6 volumes: Papers on Water and Sewer Lifelines (1987, FEMA 135) Papers on Transportation Lifelines (1987, FEMA 136) Papers on Communication Lifelines (1987, FEMA 137) Papers on Power Lifelines (1987, FEMA 138) Papers on Gas and Liquid Fuel Lifelines (1987, FEMA 139) Papers on Political, Economic, Social, Legal, and Regulatory Issues and General

Workshop Presentations (1987, FEMA 143) Guide to Application of the 1991 NEHRP Recommended Provisions in

Earthquake-Resistant Building Design (1995, FEMA 140)

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Rapid Visual Screening of Buildings for Potential Seismic Hazards: A Handbook (1988, FEMA 154)

Typical Costs for Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings Volume 1: Summary, Second Edition (FEMA 156)

Typical Costs for Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings Volume 2: Supporting Documentation, Second Edition (1995, FEMA 157)

NEHRP Handbook of Techniques for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Existing Buildings (FEMA 172)

Establishing Programs and Priorities for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings: Supporting Report (FEMA 173) and Handbook (FEMA 174)

Financial Incentives for Seismic Rehabilitation of Hazardous Buildings—An Agenda for Action Volume 1: Findings, Conclusions, and Recommendations (FEMA 198); Volume 2: State and Local Case Studies and Recommendations (FEMA 199); and Volume 3: Applications Workshops Report (FEMA 216)

Benefit-Cost Model for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Hazardous Buildings Volume 1: A User's Manual (FEMA 227)

Home Builders Guide to Seismic Resistant Construction (FEMA 232) Development of Guidelines for Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings—Phase 1:

Issues identification and Resolution (FEMA 237) Seismic Rehabilitation of Federal Buildings: A Benefit/Cost Model Volume 1: A

User's Manual (FEMA 255) and Volume 2: Supporting Documentation (FEMA 256)

NEHRP Guidelines for Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings—Commentary (1997, FEMA 274)

Evaluation of Earthquake Damaged Concrete and Masonry Buildings (FEMA 306/307/308)

NEHRP Handbook for the Seismic Evaluation of Existing Buildings (1998, FEMA 310)

Promoting the Adoption and Enforcement of Seismic Building Codes (FEMA 313)

Case Studies: An Assessment of the NEHRP Guidelines for Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings (FEMA 343)

An Action Plan for Performance Based Seismic Design (FEMA 349) Recommended Seismic Design Criteria for New Steel Moment-Frame Buildings

(FEMA 350) Federal Emergency Management Agency, Recommended Seismic Evaluation and

Upgrade Criteria for Existing Welded Steel Moment-Frame Buildings (FEMA 351)

Recommended Post-Earthquake Evaluation and Repair Criteria for Welded Steel Moment-Frame Buildings (FEMA 352)

Recommended Specifications and Quality Assurance Guidelines for Steel Moment-Frame Construction for Seismic Applications (FEMA 353)

A Policy Guide to Steel Moment-Frame Construction (FEMA 354) Pre-standard and Commentary for the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buildings

(FEMA 356)

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NEHRP Recommended Provisions for Seismic Regulations for New Buildings, 2000 Edition, 2 volumes and maps (FEMA 368 and 369)

Incremental Seismic Rehabilitation of School Buildings (K-12) (2003, FEMA 395)

Designing for Earthquakes: A Manual for Architects (Dec. 2006, FEMA 454) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: TI 809-4 Seismic Design for Buildings TI 809-5 Seismic Evaluation and Rehabilitation for Buildings U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs: VA Natural Disasters Nonstructural Resistive Design (formerly CD-54) Seismic Design Requirements (Structural) (H-18-8)

Hurricane, Typhoon, and Tornado Federal Emergency Management Agency: Coastal Construction Manual (FEMA 55) Homeowner's Guide to Retrofitting (FEMA 312) Taking Shelter From the Storm: Building a Safe Room Inside Your House

(FEMA 320) Design and Construction Guidance for Community Shelters (FEMA 361) FEMA Building Performance Assessment Team (BPAT) Reports for various

hurricanes U.S. Department of Defense: UFC 3-110-03 Roofing UFC 3-440-05N Design: Tropical Engineering U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs: VA Natural Disasters Nonstructural Resistive Design (formerly CD-54)

Flood Federal Emergency Management Agency: Design Guidelines for Flood Damage Reduction (FEMA 15) Elevated Residential Structures (FEMA 54) Installation Guide for Manufactured Housing (FEMA 85) Floodproofing Non-Residential Structures (FEMA 102) Reducing Losses in High Risk Flood Hazard Areas: A Guidebook for Local

Officials (FEMA 116) Repairing Your Flooded Home (FEMA 234) Engineering Principals and Practices for Retrofitting Floodprone Residential

Structures (FEMA 259) Above the Flood: Elevating Your Floodprone House (FEMA 347) Protecting Building Utilities From Flood Damage (FEMA 348) Design Guide for Improving Critical Facility Safety from Flooding and High

Winds: Providing Protection to People and Buildings (Jan. 2007, FEMA 543) Technical Bulletin series (FEMA TB 1-10) U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: Engineering and Design Water Control Management (1982, ER 1110-2-240)

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Life-Cycle Design and Performance of Structures for Local Flood Protection (ETL 1110-2-361)

U.S. Department of Defense: UFC 3-110-03 Roofing U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs: VA Natural Disasters Nonstructural Resistive Design (formerly CD-54)

Landslide, Mudslide Federal Emergency Management Agency: Landslide Loss Reduction: A Guide for State and Local Government Planning

(FEMA 182)

Progressive Collapse UFC 4-023-03 Design of Buildings to Resist Progressive Collapse FEMA Technical Library —Offers many PDF format documents on Disaster

Preparation and Prevention

NOTE: To order FEMA publications that are not available online, request by title or document number from the FEMA Publications Warehouse at (800) 480-2520

Provide Security for Building Occupants and Assetsby the WBDG Safe Committee

Last updated: 05-01-2008

Overview

Security measures, such as setbacks, bollards, protective glazing, and structural hardening, are incorporated into the design of the new Oklahoma City Federal Building,

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located north of where the former Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building once stood. (Designed by Ross Barney + Jankowski Architects and Atkins Benham)

The bombings at New York City's World Trade Center, Oklahoma City's Alfred P. Murrah Federal Office Building, and Atlanta's Centennial Park, shook the nation, and made Americans aware of the need for better ways to protect occupants, assets, and buildings from human aggressors (e.g. disgruntled employees, criminals, vandals, and terrorists).

A Department of Justice study called "Vulnerability Assessment of Federal Facilities", conducted in response to a Presidential directive and issued one day after the 19 April 1995 Oklahoma City bombing, produced recommended minimum standards for security at federal facilities. It divided federal sites into five security levels ranging from Level 1 (minimum security needs) to Level 5 (maximum). The study listed recommendations for upgrading federal building security, including 52 security standards addressing such items as parking, lighting, physical barriers, and closed circuit television monitoring.

More recently, the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks demonstrated the country's vulnerability to an even wider range of threats and reasserted heightened public concern for the safety of workers and occupants in all Building Types. Many federal agencies responding to these concerns have adopted an overarching philosophy to provide appropriate and cost-effective protection for building occupants. That is, while it may be cost prohibitive to design a facility to a worse case scenario, decision makers should strive to make smart choices and investments that will lessen the risk of mass casualties resulting from terrorist attacks.

Some federal agencies have issued their own security design standards. The most prominent of these are the DOD Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) UFC 4-010-01 DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings and Interagency Security Committee (ISC) Security Design Criteria. There are currently no universal codes or standards that apply to both public and private sector buildings. However, most designers agree that security issues must be addressed in concert with other design objectives and integrated into the overall building design throughout the process to ensure a quality building with effective security. This concept is known as multi-hazard design.

Depending on the building type, acceptable levels of risk, and decisions made based on recommendations from a comprehensive threat assessment, vulnerability assessment, and risk analysis, appropriate countermeasures should be implemented to protect people, assets, and mission. Types of attack and threats to consider include:

Unauthorized entry (forced and covert) Insider threats Explosive threats: Stationary and moving vehicle-delivered, mail bombs, package

bombs Ballistic threats: Small arms, high-powered rifles, drive-by shootings, etc. Weapons of mass destruction (chemical, biological, and radiological)

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Cyber and information security threats

Recommendations

Basic to realizing an effective security plan and design is the implementation of appropriate countermeasures to deter, delay, detect, and deny attacks. Oftentimes the countermeasures work on the layered defense concept or "Onion Philosophy." This concept provides for increasing levels of security from the outer areas of the site or facility towards the inner, more protected areas. Some or all of the issues outlined below need consideration for effective security design and building operations.

Unauthorized Entry (Forced and Covert)

Protecting the facility and assets from unauthorized persons is an important part of any security system. Some items to consider include:

Compound or facility access control o Control perimeter: Fences, bollards, anti-ram barrierso Traffic control, remote controlled gates, anti-ram hydraulic drop arms, and

hydraulic barriers, parkingo Forced-Entry-Ballistic Resistant (FE-BR) doors and windows

Perimeter intrusion detection systems o Clear zoneo Video and CCTVo Alarmso Detection devices (motion, acoustic, infrared)

Personnel identification systems o Access control, fingerprints, biometrics, ID cards

Protection of information and data o Acoustic shieldingo Shielding of electronic security devices from hostile electronic

environmento Secure access to equipment, networks, and hardware, e.g. satellites and

telephone systems

Insider Threats

One of the most serious threats may come from persons who have authorized access to a facility. These may include disgruntled employees or persons who have gained access through normal means (e.g., contractors, support personnel, etc). To mitigate this threat some items to consider include:

Implement personnel reliability programs and background checks Limit and control access to sensitive areas of the facility

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Explosive Threats: Stationary and Moving Vehicle-Delivered, Mail Bombs, Package Bombs

Explosive threats tend to be the criminal and terrorist weapon of choice. Devices may include large amounts of explosives that require delivery by a vehicle. However, smaller amounts may be introduced into a facility through mail, packages, or simply hand carried in an unsecured area. Normally the best defense is to provide defended distance between the threat location and the asset to be protected. This is typically called standoff distance. If standoff is not available or is insufficient to reduce the blast forces reaching the protected asset, structural hardening may be required. If introduced early in the design process, this may be done in an efficient and cost-effective manner. If introduced late in a design, or if retrofitting an existing facility, such a measure may prove to be economically difficult to justify. Some items to consider include:

The design team should include qualified security and blast consulting professionals from the concept stage forward.

Provide defended standoff with rated or certified devices such as fencing, bollards, planters, landscaping, or other measures that will stop persons, if required, and vehicle delivered threats.

Consider structural hardening and hazard mitigation designs such as ductile framing that is capable of withstanding abnormal loads and preventing progressive collapse, protective glazing, strengthening of walls, roofs, and other facility components.

Design the facility with redundant egress and other critical infrastructure to facilitate emergency evacuation and control during an event.

Ballistic Threats

These threats may range from random drive-by shootings to high-powered rifle attacks directed at specific targets within the facility. It is important to quantify the potential risk and to establish the appropriate level of protection. The most common ballistic protection rating systems include: Underwriters Laboratories (UL), National Institute of Justice (NIJ), H.P. White Laboratory, and ASTM International. Materials are rated based on their ability to stop specific ammunition (e.g., projectile size and velocity). Some items to consider include:

Visual shielding, such as opaque windows or screening devices Ballistic resistant rated materials and products Locating critical assets away from direct lines of sight

Weapons of Mass Destruction: Chemical, Biological, and Radiological (CBR)

Commonly referred to as WMD, these threats generally have a low probability of occurrence but the consequences of an attack may be extremely high. While fully protecting a facility against such threats may not be feasible with the exception of very

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special facilities, there are several common sense and low cost measures that can improve resistance and reduce the risk from the WMD threat. Some items to consider include:

Protect pathways into the building o Control access to air inlets and water systemso Provide detection and filtration systems for HVAC systemso Provide for emergency HVAC shutoff and controlo Segregate portions of building spaces (i.e., provide separate HVAC for the

lobby, loading docks, and the core of the building)o Consider providing positive pressurization to keep contaminates outside of

the facility Provide an emergency notification system to facilitate orderly response and

evacuation.

Cyber and Information Security Threats

In today's world, business continuity and mission function rely heavily on the transmission, storage, and access to a wide range of electronic data and communication systems. Protecting these systems from attack is critical for most users ranging from individuals, businesses, and government agencies. Some items to consider include:

Understand and identify the information assets that you are trying to protect. These may include personal information, business information such as proprietary designs or processes, national security information, or simply the ability of your organization to communicate via email and other LAN/WAN functions.

Protect the physical infrastructure that supports information systems. For example, if your computer system is electronically secure but is vulnerable to physical destruction you may not have achieved an adequate level of protection.

Provide software and hardware devices to detect, monitor, and prevent unauthorized access to or the destruction of sensitive information.

Development and Training on Occupant Emergency Plans

Occupant Emergency Plans should be developed for building Operations staff and occupants to be able to respond to all forms of credible attacks and threats. Clearly defined lines of communication, responsibilities, and operational procedures are all important parts of Emergency Plans. Emergency Plans are an essential element of protecting life and property from attacks and threats by preparing for and carrying out activities to prevent or minimize personal injury and physical damage. This will be accomplished by pre-emergency planning; establishing specific functions for Operational staff and occupants; training Organization personnel in appropriate functions; instructing occupants of appropriate responses to emergency situations and evacuation procedures; and conducting actual drills.

Emerging Issues

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Balancing Security and Sustainability

Providing for sustainable designs that meet all facility requirements is often a challenge to the design community. With limited resources it is not always feasible to provide for the most secure facility, the most architecturally expressive design, or energy efficient building envelope. From the concept stage through the development of construction documents, it is important that all project or design stakeholders work cooperatively to ensure a balanced design. Successful designs must consider all competing design objectives.

Designing for Fire Protection and Physical Security

Care should be taken to implement physical security measures that allow Fire Protection forces access with to sites and buildings and building occupants with adequate means of emergency egress. GSA has conducted a study and developed recommendations on design strategies that achieve both secure and fire safe designs. Specifically, the issue of emergency ingress and egress through blast resistant window systems was studied. Training was developed based on this information and is available at the GSA Public Buildings Service—Building Security Technology Web site.

Integrated security systems can offer more efficient access and control. (Courtesy of Integrated Security Systems, LTD)

Integrated Systems

In recent years, there has been a general trend towards integrating various stand-alone security systems, integrating systems across remote locations, and integrating security systems with other systems such as communications, and fire and emergency management. For example, CCTV, fire, and burglar alarm systems have been integrated to form the foundation for access control.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Highly complex security system design is still neither codified nor regulated, and no universal codes or standards apply to all public and private sector buildings. However, in

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many cases, government agencies, including the military services, and private sector organizations have developed specific security design criteria.

Mandates

Executive Order 12977, "Interagency Security Committee" Interagency Security Committee (ISC) Security Design Criteria—Unites all

Federal protective design requirements (For Official Use Only)

Federal Guidelines

Department of Defense: DOD Security Engineering Manual (For Official Use Only) FM 3-19.30 Physical Security —Sets forth guidance for all personnel responsible

for physical security NAVFAC MIL-HDBK-1012/3 Telecommunications Premises Distribution

Planning, Design, and Estimating UFC 1-200-01 Design: General Building Requirements UFC 3-520-01 Design: Interior Electrical Systems UFC 4-010-01 DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings UFC 4-010-02 DoD Minimum Standoff Distances for Buildings (FOUO) UFC 4-023-03 Design of Buildings to Resist Progressive Collapse USAF Installation Force Protection Guide General Services Administration (GSA) : Facilities Standards for the Public Building Service, P100, Chapter 8. Other "official use only" documents may be obtained from the Office of the Chief

Architect GSA Guidelines for Progressive Collapse Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) : Physical Security Design Manual for VA Facilities: Mission Critical Facilities Physical Security Design Manual for VA Facilities: Cost Estimates for Physical

Security Enhancements Department of State : Architectural Engineering Design Guideline (5 Volumes) (For Official Use Only) Physical Security Standards Handbook, 07 January 1998 (For Official Use Only) Structural Engineering Guidelines for New Embassy Office Buildings, August

1995 (For Official Use Only) Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) : FAA Order 1600.69 Security Risk Management Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) : FEMA 386-7 Integrating Manmade Hazards into Mitigation Planning FEMA 426 Reference Manual to Mitigate Potential Terrorist Attacks Against

Buildings FEMA 427 Primer for Design of Commercial Buildings to Mitigate Terrorist

Attacks FEMA 428 Primer to Design Safe School Projects in Case of Terrorist Attacks

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FEMA 429 Insurance, Finance, and Regulation Primer for Terrorism Risk Management in Buildings

FEMA 430 Site and Urban Design for Security FEMA 452 Risk Assessment - A How-To Guide to Mitigate Potential Terrorist

Attacks Against Buildings FEMA 453 Design Guidance for Shelters and Safe Rooms

Others

Department of Commerce Administrative Orders: Inspector General Investigations, DAO 207-10 Occasional Use of Public Areas in Public Buildings, DAO 206-5 Security Programs, DAO 207-1 Designing for Security in the Nation's Capital by the National Capital Planning

Commission (NVPC). October 2001. Guidelines for Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical,

Biological, or Radiological Attacks by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).

Vulnerability Assessment of Federal Facilities by Department of Justice.

Private Sector Guidelines

Design of Blast Resistant Buildings in Petrochemical Facilities by American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE). 1997.

Structural Design for Physical Security, State of the Practice by Edward Conrath, et al. Alexandria, VA: Structural Engineering Institute of American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), 1999.

Major Resources

WBDG

Products and Systems

Fenestration Systems—Exterior Doors

Security Centers

Anti-Terrorism Force Protection (DOD) (Limited access) Defense Threat Reduction Agency Department of Defense (DOD) Anti-terrorism body—Pentagon's J34 Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) All-Hazard Mitigation

Program on Anti-terrorism Naval Facilities Engineering Service Center (NFESC) , Security Engineering

Center of Expertise ESC66 - E-mail: securityeng@nfesc.navy.mil

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USAF Electronic System Center (ESC), Hanscom AFB U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Electronic Security Center U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Protective Design Center U.S. Department of Defense U.S. Department of Homeland Security

Organizations and Associations

The American Institute of Architects (AIA) Security Resource Center American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) American Society of Industrial Security (ASIS) Battelle Memorial Institute, National Security Program Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Federal Facilities Council (FFC) Standing Committee on Physical Security and

Hazard Mitigation (Sponsored by National Academies of Science) International CPTED Association (ICA) National Academy of Sciences National Defense Industrial Association (NDIA) National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Postal Security Action Group (PSAG) Protective Glazing Council (PGC) Security Industry Association (SIA) Society of American Military Engineers (SAME) The Infrastructure Security Partnership (TISP) U.S. Army Soldier and Biological Chemical Command (SBCCOM)

Trade Journals/Magazines

Architectural Design for Security and Security and Technology Design by Donald M. Rochon. June 1998.

Designing for Crime and Terrorism, Security and Technology Design by Randall I. Atlas. June 1998.

Government Security Security Magazine Security Solutions Online: Access Control and Security Systems Security through Environmental Design, Security and Technology Design by

Robert Pearson. September 1997.

Training Courses

FEMA E155—Building Design for Homeland Security

Others

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Anthrax-Contaminated Facilities: Preparations and a Standard for Remediation by the Congressional Research Service. 2005.

Creating Defensible Space by Oscar Newman. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, April 1996.

National Symposium of Comprehensive Force Protection , Society of American Military Engineers (SAME), Charleston, SC, Oct 2001. Lindbergh & Associates.

Protecting Building Occupants from Biological Threats —Website from the Center for Biosecurity of UPMC that includes useful information about biological threats to building occupants, practical steps for reducing risk, and costs and benefits of risk reduction measures, along with a wealth of related materials and additional resources.

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Sustainableby the WBDG Sustainable Committee

Last updated: 05-01-2008

Overview

Building construction and operation have an enormous direct and indirect impact on the environment. As illustrated in the figure below, buildings not only use resources such as energy and raw materials, they also generate waste and potentially harmful atmospheric emissions. As economy and population continue to expand, designers and builders face a unique challenge to meet demands for new and renovated facilities that are accessible, secure, healthy, and productive while minimizing their impact on the environment.

Systematic Evaluation and Assessment of Building Environmental Performance (SEABEP), paper for presentation to "Buildings and Environment", Paris, 9-12 June, 1997.Source: Levin, H. (1997)

Recent answers to this challenge call for an integrated, synergistic approach that considers all phases of the facility life cycle. This "sustainable" approach supports an increased commitment to environmental stewardship and conservation, and results in an optimal balance of cost, environmental, societal, and human benefits while meeting the mission and function of the intended facility or infrastructure.

The main objectives of sustainable design are to avoid resource depletion of energy, water, and raw materials; prevent environmental degradation caused by facilities and

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infrastructure throughout their life cycle; and create built environments that are livable, comfortable, safe, and productive.

EPA's New England Regional Laboratory (NERL) achieved a LEED Version 1.0 Gold rating. From conception the project was charged to "make use of the best commercially-available materials and technologies to minimize consumption of energy and resources and maximize use of natural, recycled and non-toxic materials." Chelmsford, MA

While the definition of what constitutes sustainable building design is constantly changing, there are six fundamental principles that nearly everyone agrees on.

Optimize Site Potential Creating sustainable buildings starts with proper site selection, including consideration of the reuse or rehabilitation of existing buildings. The location, orientation, and landscaping of a building affect the local ecosystems, transportation methods, and energy use. Siting for physical security has become a critical issue in optimizing site design. The location of access roads, parking, vehicle barriers, and perimeter lighting must be integrated into the design along with sustainable site considerations. Site design for security cannot be an afterthought. Along with site design for sustainability, it must be addressed in the preliminary design phase to achieve a successful project. See WBDG Balancing Security/Safety and Sustainability Objectives.

Optimize Energy Use With America's supply of fossil fuel dwindling, concerns for energy security increasing, and the impact of greenhouse gases on world climate rising, it is essential to find ways to reduce load, increase efficiency, and utilize renewable energy resources in federal facilities.

Protect and Conserve Water In many parts of the country, fresh water is an increasingly scarce resource. A sustainable building should reduce, control, or treat site-runoff, use water efficiently, and reuse or recycle water for on-site use when feasible.

Use Environmentally Preferable Products A sustainable building should be constructed of materials that minimize life-cycle environmental impacts such as global warming, resource depletion, and human toxicity. These environmentally preferable materials are defined by Executive Order 13101 to be "products or services that have a lesser or reduced effect on

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human health and the environment when compared with competing products or services that serve the same purpose." As such, they contribute to improved worker safety and health, reduced liabilities, reduced disposal costs, and achievement of environmental goals.

Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ) The indoor environmental quality (IEQ) of a building has a significant impact on occupant health, comfort, and productivity. Among other attributes, a sustainable building should maximize daylighting; have appropriate ventilation and moisture control; and avoid the use of materials with high-VOC emissions. Additional consideration must now be given to ventilation and filtration to mitigate chemical, biological, and radiological attack.

Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices Incorporating operating and maintenance considerations into the design of a facility will greatly contribute to improved working environments, higher productivity, and reduced energy and resource costs. Designers are encouraged to specify materials and systems that simplify and reduce maintenance requirements; require less water, energy, and toxic chemicals and cleaners to maintain; and are cost-effective and reduce life-cycle costs.

RELEVANT CODES AND STANDARDS

ASTM E2432—Standard Guide for the General Principles of Sustainability Relative to Building

Energy Policy Act of 2005 (PDF 1.9 MB, 550 pgs) Executive Order 13423, "Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and

Transportation Management"

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to most building types and space types.

Design Objectives

Information in these Sustainable pages must be considered together with other design objectives and within a total project context in order to achieve quality, high—performance buildings.

Products and Systems

Building Envelope Design Guide—Sustainability of the Building EnvelopeFederal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers:

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01 10 00 (01100) Summary 01 30 00 (01300) Administrative Requirements 01 74 19 (01351) Construction Waste Management 01 40 00 (01400) Quality Requirements 01 41 00 (01411) Regulatory Requirements 01 42 00 (01421) References 01 50 00 (01500) Temporary Facilities & Controls 01 78 53 (01780) Sustainable Design Close-Out Documentation 01 91 00 (01810) Commissioning 01 79 11 (01821) Environmental Demonstration and Training 01 78 23 (01830) Operation & Maintenance Data

Project Management

Building Commissioning

Tools

Building Life-Cycle Cost (BLCC), Construction Waste Management Database, Decision Support Tools for Green Building, LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool, Life Cycle Cost in Design (LCCID), Project Planning Tools (PPT), Sustainable Federal Buildings Database

Federal Agencies

Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of Understanding

Department of Defense U.S. Army, ERDC – CERL—Sustainable Design and Development Resource

website U.S. Army, U.S. Army Sustainability website U.S. Navy—The U.S. Navy uses the WBDG Sustainable Branch as its primary

sustainable development resource. U.S. Air Force – AFCEE—Sustainable Development website Department of Energy Building Technologies Program , Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable

Energy (EERE) High Performance Buildings , Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

(EERE) High Performance Buildings Database , Office of Energy Efficiency and

Renewable Energy (EERE) Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) , Office of Energy Efficiency and

Renewable Energy (EERE) FEMP Sustainable Design and Operations FEMP Interagency Sustainability Working Group Smart Communities Network—Green Buildings

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Environmental Protection Agency Green Buildings website Greening EPA website General Services Administration Sustainable Design website Sustainable Development Program website, Office of Real Property—This

website has links to tools, publications, presentations and videos developed by GSA to assist agencies in transforming the way they do business.

NASA Sustainability website National Park Service Greening of the National Park Service website Sustainability News website

Publications

eco-structure Magazine —A bi-monthly magazine dedicated to improving the environmental performance of buildings and their surroundings.

e design Online —The journal of the Florida Design Initiative Environmental Building News Environmental Design & Construction Magazine Field Guide for Sustainable Construction by the Pentagon Renovation and

Construction Program Office, Department of Defense. 2004. Green Building Costs and Financial Benefits by Gregory Kats. 2003. Green Buildings—Guidelines for Creating High-Performance Green Buildings by

Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection. 1999. Greening Federal Facilities Guide by U.S. Department of Energy. 2001. GSA LEED® Applications Guide GSA LEED® Cost Study High Performance Building Guidelines by New York City Department of Design

and Construction. April 1999. Innovative Workplace Strategies by U.S. General Services Administration, Office

of Governmentwide Policy, Office of Real Property. Dec 2003. Managing Your Environmental Responsibilities: A Planning Guide for

Construction and Development by U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2005. Minnesota Sustainable Design Guide by Regents of the University of Minnesota,

Twin Cities Campus, College of Architecture and Landscape Architecture. Real Property Sustainable Development Guide by U.S. General Services

Administration, Office of Governmentwide Policy, Office of Real Property. Sustainable Building Rating Systems Summary Sustainable Building Technical Manual by U.S. Department of Energy and U.S.

Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. Sustainable Development and Society by U.S. General Services Administration,

Office of Governmentwide Policy, Office of Real Property. Oct 2004. Sustainable Facilities Guide by U.S. Air Force

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Sustainable Federal Facilities: A Guide to Integrating Value Engineering, Life- Cycle Costing, and Sustainable Development by Federal Facilities Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 2001.

UB High Performance Building Guidelines by the University at Buffalo, The State University of New York. 2004.

Organizations

Sustainable Buildings Industry Council (SBIC) U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) Green Building

Rating System

Others

Building Green from Principle to Practice —Online resource created by the Natural Resources Defense Council guides building professionals through green building process, from putting together a business case to design, construction and marketing.

FedCenter.gov —FedCenter, the Federal Facilities Environmental Stewardship and Compliance Assistance Center, is a collaborative effort between the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-stop source of environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information focused solely on the needs of federal government facilities.

Green Building Program , City of Austin, TX Green Building Advisor Greener Buildings —A website produced by Green Business Network, a program

of the National Environmental Education & Training Foundation (NEETF), to help companies understand and address building design, construction, and operation in a way that aligns environmental responsibility with business success.

Implement: Seattle's Sustainable Building Tool

Optimize Site Potentialby the WBDG Sustainable Committee

Last updated: 05-01-2008

Overview

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Green roofs can effectively absorb most rainfall events, reverse the urban heat island effect, and provide wildlife habitat. Chicago City Hall. Chicago, IL.Photo courtesy of Don Horn.

Creating sustainable buildings starts with proper site selection. The location of a building affects a wide range of environmental factors—as well as other factors such as security and accessibility—like the energy consumed by occupants for commuting, the impact on local ecosystems, and the extent to which existing structures and infrastructures are utilized. If possible, locate buildings in areas of existing development and consider renovating existing buildings and historic properties. It is imperative that Federal agencies maximize the restorative impact of site design and building infrastructure while meeting the project's other requirements.

Sustainable site planning should consist of a whole system approach that seeks to:

Minimize development of open space by the selection of disturbed land, brownfields, or building retrofits;

Control erosion through improved landscaping practices; Reduce heat islands using landscaping and building design methods; Minimize habitat disturbance; Restore the health of degraded sites by improving habitat for indigenous species

through native plants and closed-loop water systems; Incorporate transportation solutions along with site plans that acknowledge the

need for bicycle parking, carpool staging, and proximity to mass transit. Encourage alternatives to traditional commuting; and

Consider site security concurrently with sustainable site issues. Location of access roads, parking, vehicle barriers, and perimeter lighting, among others are key issues that must be addressed.

Recommendations

Minimize Development of Open Space

Retrofit an existing building Use disturbed land/brownfields

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Naval Facilities Engineering Command Headquarters, Bldg. 33: Formerly a gun turret plant at the Navy Yard in Washington, DC, this facility was renovated into a 4-story office building featuring energy efficient envelope, lighting, and HVAC systems as well as environmentally preferable materials.

Control Erosion Through Improved Landscaping Practices

Use vegetation, grading, and stabilization techniques to prevent erosion. Capture storm water runoff on site, design for storm water retention features on

site like pervious pavement. See also WBDG Acheiving Sustainable Site Design through Low Impact Development Practices.

Use vegetated swales and depressions to reduce runoff.

Consider Energy Implications in Site Selection and Building Orientation

Site buildings to be able to integrate passive and active solar strategies. Take advantage of natural ventilation. Maximize daylight use. Investigate potential impact of future developments adjacent to the site (e.g.,

solar, daylighting, ventilation, etc.).

Reduce Heat Islands Using Landscaping and Building Design Methods

Maximize the use of existing trees and other vegetation to shade walkways, parking lots, and other open areas. Ensure that site work and landscaping are integrated with security and safety design. See also WBDG Balancing Security/Safety and Sustainability Objectives for Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED). Integrate landforms and landscaping into the site planning process to enhance resource protection.

In hot, dry climates, like the southwestern states, consider covering walkways, parking lots, and other open areas that are paved or made with low reflectivity materials. Ensure that shading devices do not block critical ground level sight lines for security.

Finish the facility's roof with light-colored materials to reduce energy loads and extend the life of the roof, particularly in warm climates; consider incorporating

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green roofs into the project. Use a roofing product that meets or exceeds Energy Star standards.

Energy Star® Roof-compliant, high-reflectance, and high emissivity roofing can lower roof surface temperature by up to 100°F, decreasing the amount of heat transferred into a building.

Minimize Habitat Disturbance

Keep land disturbance to a minimum and retain prime vegetation features to the extent possible.

Reduce building and paving footprints. Limit site disturbance to a minimal area around the building perimeter, including

locating buildings adjacent to existing infrastructure. Plan construction staging areas with the environment in mind. In northern climates, site parking and pedestrian areas so that they have sun

exposure for assistance in melting the snow or ice. Use non-toxic snow and ice removal methods. See also PROACT Fact Sheet on

de-icing.

Restore the Health of Degraded Sites

Focus on restoration of degraded areas, increasing the existence of healthy habitat for native species.

Conserve water use through xeriscaping with native plants. See also WBDG Sustainable—Protect and Conserve Water.

Design for Sustainable Transportation

Site the building with public transportation access in mind and limit on-site parking.

Use porous alternatives to traditional paving for roads and walkways. Make provisions for bicycling, walking, carpool parking, and telecommuting; and

provide refueling/recharging facilities for alternative fuel/electric vehicles.

Balance Site Sustainability with Site Security/Safety

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Consider installing retention ponds and berms to control erosion, manage stormwater, and reduce heat islands while also serving as physical barriers to control access to a building and to deflect the effects of a blast.

Use native or climate tolerant trees to improve the quality of the site as well as provide protection by obscuring assets and people.

Implement erosion control measures to stabilize the soil (e.g., seeding and mulching, installing pervious paving) and/or to retain sediment after erosion hasd occurred (e.g., earth dikes and sediment basins). These help to reduce the negative impacts on water and air quality as well as mitigate potential damage to a building's foundation and structural system due to floods, mudslides, torrential rainstorms, and other natural hazards.

See also WBDG Balancing Security/Safety and Sustainability Objectives.

Emerging Issues

Smart Growth is an issue that concerns many communities around the country. It relates to controlling sprawl, reusing existing infrastructure, creating walkable neighborhoods, and locating places to live and work near public transportation. It is more resource-efficient to reuse existing roads and utilities than build new ones far out from cities in rural areas. Smart growth preserves open spaces and farm lands and strengthens the development of existing communities and their quality of life.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Executive Order 12072, "Federal Space Management" Executive Order 13006, "Locating Federal Facilities on Historic Properties in Our

Nation's Central Cities" Executive Order 13423, "Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and

Transportation Management" Department of Defense: UFC 3-210-10, Low Impact Development General Services Administration: P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service , 2005

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to all building types. Applicable to the following space types, Parking: Outside/Structured, Parking: Surface

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Design Objectives

Accessible—Provide Equal Access, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation—Comply with Accessibility Requirements, Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Energy Use, Sustainable—Protect and Conserve Water, Sustainable—Use Environmentally Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

Products and Systems

Building Envelope Design Guide—Sustainability of the Building EnvelopeFederal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers:

01 74 19 (01351) Construction Waste Management 01 57 19.12 (01353) Noise and Acoustic Management 01 57 19.13 (01354) Environmental Management 01 41 00 (01411) Regulatory Requirements 01 42 00 (01421) References 01 50 00 (01500) Temporary Facilities & Controls 02 41 13 (02220) Selective Site Demolition 31 10 00 (02230) Site Clearing 31 31 00 (02360) Soil Treatment 32 10 00 (02700) Bases, Ballasts, Pavements 32 12 43 (02795) Porous Paving 10 81 16.13 (02872) Bat Houses 32 90 00 (02900) Planting

Project Management

Building Commissioning

Tools

LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool

Minimize Development of Undeveloped Open Space

Environmentally Green… Economically Green: Tools for a Green Land Development Program by the National Association of Home Builders Research Center, July 2001.

EPA OSWER Directive 9610.17, "Use of Risk-Based Decision-Making in Underground Storage Tank Corrective Action Programs," March 1996.

GreenInfrastructure.net —Green infrastructure is a strategic approach to conservation that addresses the ecological, social and economic impacts of sprawl

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and the accelerated consumption and fragmentation of open land. This website is hosted by The Conservation Fund in partnership with USDA Forest Service.

Maryland Department of the Environment, Brownfields Redevelopment and Directed Growth

Smart Growth Network

Control Erosion through Improved Landscaping Practices

Beneficial Landscaping Guidance by the U.S. Coast Guard Environmental Management Division (G-SEC-3).

EPA Low Impact Development website Xeriscape.org

Reduce Heat Islands Using Landscaping and Building Design Methods

Energy Star® Labeled Roof Products , EPA Green Roofs for Healthy Cities Greenroofs.com Heat Island Group, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Minimize Habitat Disturbance

International Astronomical Union (IAU) Commission 50's Working Group on "Controlling Light Pollution"

International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) —IDA's mission is to preserve and protect the nighttime environment and our heritage of dark skies through quality outdoor lighting. IDA has many resources and information on outdoor lighting and light pollution prevention, including:

Good Lighting Fixtures Outdoor Lighting Regulations National Wildlife Federation Obtrusive Lighting Guide by Lighting Consultancy And Design Services.

Restore the Health of Degraded Sites

Xeriscape.org USACE Technical Note ERDC TN-05-DRAFT No-Water Urinals, January 2007.

Design for Sustainable Transportation

Centre for Sustainable Transportation —The Centre for Sustainable Transportation was founded to provide leadership in achieving sustainable transportation in Canada.

Sierra Club, Stop Sprawl Campaign, Transportation Issues Zion National Park Case Study by National Renewable Energy Laboratory

As part of redesigning the visitors' experience at Zion National Park, clean

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running propane buses were designed to shuttle the park's 2.5 million annual visitors throughout the area. Automobile traffic, which was causing damage to the air and ecosystem of the park, was minimized. See also Case Study: Zion National Park.

Smart Growth

A Smart Growth Reader by the American Planning Association. Smart Communities Network, DOE Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy

Network Smart Growth, Environmental Protection Agency Smart Growth Network Urban Land Institute

Others

FedCenter.gov —FedCenter, the Federal Facilities Environmental Stewardship and Compliance Assistance Center, is a collaborative effort between the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-stop source of environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information focused solely on the needs of federal government facilities.

Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of Understanding

GSA LEED® Applications Guide GSA LEED® Cost Study Urban Land Institute

Optimize Energy Useby the WBDG Sustainable Committee

Last updated: 05-02-2008

Overview

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2004 ASLA Award Recipient(Photo: Nancy Rottle)

On an annual basis, buildings in the United States consume 42% of America's energy and 68% of its electricity. Furthermore, buildings generate 35% of the carbon dioxide (the primary greenhouse gas associated with climate change), 49% of the sulfur dioxide, and 25% of the nitrogen oxides found in the air. Currently, the vast majority of this energy is produced from nonrenewable, fossil fuel resources. With America's supply of fossil fuel dwindling, concerns for energy supply security increasing (both for general supply and specific needs of facilities), and the impact of greenhouse gases on world climate rising, it is essential to find ways to reduce load, increase efficiency, and utilize renewable fuel resources in federal facilities.

2004 ASLA Award Recipient(Photo: Nancy Rottle)

During the facility design and development process, building projects must have a comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:

Reduce heating, cooling, and lighting loads through climate-responsive design and conservation practices;

Employ renewable energy sources such as daylighting, passive solar heating, photovoltaics, and geothermal;

Specify efficient HVAC and lighting systems that consider part-load conditions and utility interface requirements;

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Optimize building performance by employing energy modeling programs and optimize system control strategies by using occupancy sensors and air quality alarms; and

Monitor project performance through a policy of commissioning, metering, and annual reporting.

Recommendations

Reduce Heating, Cooling, and Lighting Loads through Climate-Responsive Design and Conservation Practices

Use passive solar design; orient, size, and specify windows; and locate landscape elements with solar geometry and building load requirements in mind.

Use high-performance building envelopes; select walls, roofs, and other assemblies based on long-term, insulation, and durability requirements.

Employ Renewable or High-Efficiency Energy Sources

Evaluate the use of common, on-site renewable energy technologies such as daylighting, solar water heating, and geothermal heat pumps.

Investigate the use of emerging, on-site renewable energy technologies such as photovoltaics and wind turbines.

Evaluate purchasing electricity generated from renewable sources or low polluting sources such as natural gas.

Specify Efficient HVAC and Lighting Systems

Use energy efficient HVAC equipment and systems that meet or exceed 10 CFR 434. For Department of Defense facilities, use refer to the standards within UFC 3-400-01, Design for Energy Conservation.

Use lighting systems that consume less than 1 watt/square foot for ambient lighting.

Use Energy Star® approved products or products that meet or exceed Department of Energy standards.

Evaluate energy recovery systems that pre-heat or pre-cool, in-coming ventilation air in commercial and institutional buildings.

Investigate the use of integrated generation and delivery systems, such as co-generation, fuel cells, and off-peak thermal storage. See also WBDG Distributed Energy Resources (DER) and Microturbines.

Optimize Building Performance and System Control Strategies

Employ energy modeling programs early in the design process. Use sensors to control loads based on occupancy, schedule and/or the availability

of natural resources such as daylight or natural ventilation.

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Evaluate the use of modular components such as boilers or chillers to optimize part-load efficiency and maintenance requirements.

Evaluate the use of Direct Digital Controls.

Monitor Project Performance

Use a comprehensive, building commissioning plan throughout the life of the project.

Use metering to confirm building energy and environmental performance through the life of the project.

See also WBDG Facility Performance Evaluation.

Emerging Issues

Roof-mounted PV on carport, North Island Naval Base, San Diego, CA

Sustainability and Energy Security

Increased security of energy supply and distribution systems have become an important component of national security after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Today, power generation is still mostly handled by massive centralized plants, which are inevitable targets, and electricity moves on vulnerable lines. Measures to minimize energy consumption can contribute to increased energy security directly and indirectly. For example, energy conservation and efficiency results in using less energy far more efficiently to do the same tasks. In addition, obtaining more energy from sources that are inherently invulnerable because they are dispersed, diverse, and increasingly renewable (see WBDG Distributed Energy Resources, Fuel Cell Technology, Microturbines, Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV), Daylighting, Passive Solar Heating) is an essential part of a comprehensive energy security strategy. More

Relevant Codes and Standards

Energy Codes and Standards Energy Policy Act of 2005 (PDF 1.9 MB, 550 pgs) Executive Order 13423, "Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and

Transportation Management"

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Executive Order 13221, "Energy Efficient Standby Power Devices" U.S. General Services Administration: P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service , 2005

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to most building types and space types, especially high energy users such as Health Care Facilities, Hospital, Research Facilities, Automated Data Processing: Mainframe, Automated Data Processing: PC System, Laboratory: Dry, Laboratory: Wet

Design Objectives

Aesthetics—Engage the Integrated Design Process, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation—Update Building Systems Appropriately, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, , Sustainable—Protect and Conserve Water, Sustainable—Use Environmentally Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

Products and Systems

Section 23 28 13: Commercial—Kitchen Hoods, Section 23 31 00: HVAC Ducts and Casings, Section 23 05 93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Building Envelope Design Guide—Sustainability of the Building EnvelopeFederal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers:

01 91 00 (01810) Commissioning 03 30 00 (03300) Cast-In-Place Concrete 03 40 00 (03400) Precast Concrete 04 20 00 (04200) Unit Masonry 07 20 00 (07200) Thermal Protection 07 30 00 (07300) Steep Slope Roofing 07 50 00 (07500) Membrane Roofing 07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants 08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors 08 50 00 (08500) Windows 11 13 00 (11160) Loading Dock Equipment 11 30 00 (11450) Residential Equipment 11 28 00 (11680) Office Equipment 12 10 00 (12100) Art 48 14 00 (13600) Solar Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment

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48 15 00 (13600) Wind Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment 48 30 00 (13600) Biomass Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment 14 20 00 (14200) Elevators 23 70 00 (15700) Central HVAC Equipment 23 30 00 (15800) HVAC Air Distribution 26 50 00 (16500) Lighting

Project Management

Project Planning and Development, Building Commissioning

Tools

LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool. See also Tools: Energy Analysis.

Minimize Energy Consumption

Energy Design Resources Energy Star® , EPA Energy Star® for New Building Design Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) , DOE High—Performance Buildings , U.S. Department of Energy Building

Technologies Program WBDG case studies: Center for Neighborhood Technology; EPA New England

Regional Laboratory; NAVFAC Building 33

Employ Renewable or High-Efficiency Energy Sources

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Photovoltaics Program, Sandia National Laboratory Renewable Energy Policy Project (REPP) and CREST (Center for Renewable

Energy and Sustainable Technology)

Specify Efficient HVAC and Lighting Systems

10 CFR 434 Subpart A ASHRAE 90.1 FEMP Buying Energy Efficient Products Lighting Research Center

Optimize Building Performance and System Control Strategies

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WBDG: Productive, Functional / Operational—Ensure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration, Functional / Operational—Meet Performance Objectives

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), OE/EE-0157: International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP)

Others

FedCenter.gov —FedCenter, the Federal Facilities Environmental Stewardship and Compliance Assistance Center, is a collaborative effort between the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-stop source of environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information focused solely on the needs of federal government facilities.

Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of Understanding

GSA LEED® Applications Guide GSA LEED® Cost Study

Optimize Energy Useby the WBDG Sustainable Committee

Last updated: 05-02-2008

Overview

2004 ASLA Award Recipient(Photo: Nancy Rottle)

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On an annual basis, buildings in the United States consume 42% of America's energy and 68% of its electricity. Furthermore, buildings generate 35% of the carbon dioxide (the primary greenhouse gas associated with climate change), 49% of the sulfur dioxide, and 25% of the nitrogen oxides found in the air. Currently, the vast majority of this energy is produced from nonrenewable, fossil fuel resources. With America's supply of fossil fuel dwindling, concerns for energy supply security increasing (both for general supply and specific needs of facilities), and the impact of greenhouse gases on world climate rising, it is essential to find ways to reduce load, increase efficiency, and utilize renewable fuel resources in federal facilities.

2004 ASLA Award Recipient(Photo: Nancy Rottle)

During the facility design and development process, building projects must have a comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:

Reduce heating, cooling, and lighting loads through climate-responsive design and conservation practices;

Employ renewable energy sources such as daylighting, passive solar heating, photovoltaics, and geothermal;

Specify efficient HVAC and lighting systems that consider part-load conditions and utility interface requirements;

Optimize building performance by employing energy modeling programs and optimize system control strategies by using occupancy sensors and air quality alarms; and

Monitor project performance through a policy of commissioning, metering, and annual reporting.

Recommendations

Reduce Heating, Cooling, and Lighting Loads through Climate-Responsive Design and Conservation Practices

Use passive solar design; orient, size, and specify windows; and locate landscape elements with solar geometry and building load requirements in mind.

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Use high-performance building envelopes; select walls, roofs, and other assemblies based on long-term, insulation, and durability requirements.

Employ Renewable or High-Efficiency Energy Sources

Evaluate the use of common, on-site renewable energy technologies such as daylighting, solar water heating, and geothermal heat pumps.

Investigate the use of emerging, on-site renewable energy technologies such as photovoltaics and wind turbines.

Evaluate purchasing electricity generated from renewable sources or low polluting sources such as natural gas.

Specify Efficient HVAC and Lighting Systems

Use energy efficient HVAC equipment and systems that meet or exceed 10 CFR 434. For Department of Defense facilities, use refer to the standards within UFC 3-400-01, Design for Energy Conservation.

Use lighting systems that consume less than 1 watt/square foot for ambient lighting.

Use Energy Star® approved products or products that meet or exceed Department of Energy standards.

Evaluate energy recovery systems that pre-heat or pre-cool, in-coming ventilation air in commercial and institutional buildings.

Investigate the use of integrated generation and delivery systems, such as co-generation, fuel cells, and off-peak thermal storage. See also WBDG Distributed Energy Resources (DER) and Microturbines.

Optimize Building Performance and System Control Strategies

Employ energy modeling programs early in the design process. Use sensors to control loads based on occupancy, schedule and/or the availability

of natural resources such as daylight or natural ventilation. Evaluate the use of modular components such as boilers or chillers to optimize

part-load efficiency and maintenance requirements. Evaluate the use of Direct Digital Controls.

Monitor Project Performance

Use a comprehensive, building commissioning plan throughout the life of the project.

Use metering to confirm building energy and environmental performance through the life of the project.

See also WBDG Facility Performance Evaluation.

Emerging Issues

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Roof-mounted PV on carport, North Island Naval Base, San Diego, CA

Sustainability and Energy Security

Increased security of energy supply and distribution systems have become an important component of national security after the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Today, power generation is still mostly handled by massive centralized plants, which are inevitable targets, and electricity moves on vulnerable lines. Measures to minimize energy consumption can contribute to increased energy security directly and indirectly. For example, energy conservation and efficiency results in using less energy far more efficiently to do the same tasks. In addition, obtaining more energy from sources that are inherently invulnerable because they are dispersed, diverse, and increasingly renewable (see WBDG Distributed Energy Resources, Fuel Cell Technology, Microturbines, Building Integrated Photovoltaics (BIPV), Daylighting, Passive Solar Heating) is an essential part of a comprehensive energy security strategy. More

Relevant Codes and Standards

Energy Codes and Standards Energy Policy Act of 2005 (PDF 1.9 MB, 550 pgs) Executive Order 13423, "Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and

Transportation Management" Executive Order 13221, "Energy Efficient Standby Power Devices" U.S. General Services Administration: P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service , 2005

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to most building types and space types, especially high energy users such as Health Care Facilities, Hospital, Research Facilities, Automated Data Processing: Mainframe, Automated Data Processing: PC System, Laboratory: Dry, Laboratory: Wet

340

Design Objectives

Aesthetics—Engage the Integrated Design Process, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation—Update Building Systems Appropriately, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, , Sustainable—Protect and Conserve Water, Sustainable—Use Environmentally Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

Products and Systems

Section 23 28 13: Commercial—Kitchen Hoods, Section 23 31 00: HVAC Ducts and Casings, Section 23 05 93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Building Envelope Design Guide—Sustainability of the Building EnvelopeFederal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers:

01 91 00 (01810) Commissioning 03 30 00 (03300) Cast-In-Place Concrete 03 40 00 (03400) Precast Concrete 04 20 00 (04200) Unit Masonry 07 20 00 (07200) Thermal Protection 07 30 00 (07300) Steep Slope Roofing 07 50 00 (07500) Membrane Roofing 07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants 08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors 08 50 00 (08500) Windows 11 13 00 (11160) Loading Dock Equipment 11 30 00 (11450) Residential Equipment 11 28 00 (11680) Office Equipment 12 10 00 (12100) Art 48 14 00 (13600) Solar Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment 48 15 00 (13600) Wind Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment 48 30 00 (13600) Biomass Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment 14 20 00 (14200) Elevators 23 70 00 (15700) Central HVAC Equipment 23 30 00 (15800) HVAC Air Distribution 26 50 00 (16500) Lighting

Project Management

Project Planning and Development, Building Commissioning

Tools

LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool. See also Tools: Energy Analysis.

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Minimize Energy Consumption

Energy Design Resources Energy Star® , EPA Energy Star® for New Building Design Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) , DOE High—Performance Buildings , U.S. Department of Energy Building

Technologies Program WBDG case studies: Center for Neighborhood Technology; EPA New England

Regional Laboratory; NAVFAC Building 33

Employ Renewable or High-Efficiency Energy Sources

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) Photovoltaics Program, Sandia National Laboratory Renewable Energy Policy Project (REPP) and CREST (Center for Renewable

Energy and Sustainable Technology)

Specify Efficient HVAC and Lighting Systems

10 CFR 434 Subpart A ASHRAE 90.1 FEMP Buying Energy Efficient Products Lighting Research Center

Optimize Building Performance and System Control Strategies

WBDG: Productive, Functional / Operational—Ensure Appropriate Product/Systems Integration, Functional / Operational—Meet Performance Objectives

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), OE/EE-0157: International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP)

Others

FedCenter.gov —FedCenter, the Federal Facilities Environmental Stewardship and Compliance Assistance Center, is a collaborative effort between the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-stop source of environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information focused solely on the needs of federal government facilities.

Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of Understanding

GSA LEED® Applications Guide GSA LEED® Cost Study

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Protect and Conserve Waterby the WBDG Sustainable Committee

Last updated: 05-02-2008

Overview

Within the federal sector, alone, it is estimated that expenditures for water and sewer run between $0.5 billion and $1 billion annually. Reducing water consumption and protecting water quality are key objectives of sustainable design. This is critical because consumption of water in many areas of the country exceeds the ability of the supplying aquifer to replenish itself. To the maximum extent feasible, federal facilities should increase their dependence on water that is collected, used, purified, and reused on-site.

Water conservation strategies implemented at the Post Office in Ft. Worth, TX include landscaping with native, or indigenous, plantings and rainwater catchment basins.Photo courtesy of Don Horn.

The protection and conservation of water must be considered throughout the life of the building, and federal agencies must seek to:

Reduce, control, and treat surface runoff; Use water efficiently through ultra-low flow fixtures, elimination of leaks, water

conserving cooling towers, and other actions; Improve water quality; for example eliminate lead-bearing products in potable

water; Recover non-sewage and gray water for on-site use; and Establish waste treatment and recycling centers; and Apply the FEMP Best Management Practices for Water Conservation.

Recommendations

Reduce, Control, and Treat Surface Runoff

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Use low impact development principles. o Use vegetated swales and depressions to reduce runoff.o Reduce and filter surface runoff.o Use pervious paving materials.

Use Integrated Pest Management to reduce water pollution from pesticides. Consider incorporating green roofs into the project. Consider storm water events in the overall management of surface water runoff.

Use Water Efficiently

Incorporate efficiency in construction specifications. Use ultra water-efficient plumbing fixtures and integrate other water-saving

devices into buildings. Design landscape for water efficiency through use of native plants tolerant of

local soil and rainfall conditions. Meter water usage; employ measurement and verification methods; comply with

the Department of Energy's International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP) for water use.

Install water-conserving cooling towers designed with delimiters to reduce drift and evaporation.

Reduce evaporation through scheduled irrigation at dawn and dusk. Eliminate leaks; caulk around pipes and plumbing fixtures; conduct annual checks

of hoses and pipes.

Protect Water Quality

Install water quality ponds or oil grit separators as storm water runoff filtration systems.

Eliminate materials that are lead-polluting. Use non-toxic bathroom and kitchen cleaning products.

Recover Non-Sewage and Gray Water for On-Site Use

Use non-sewage wastewater. Use roof water and groundwater for on-site activities. Use groundwater from sump pumps.

Design Waste Treatment and Recycling Programs

Use biological waste treatment systems to treat waste on-site. Use gray water, roof water, and groundwater for on-site activities.

Apply the FEMP Best Management Practices for Water Conservation

Part of a water management plan includes identifying opportunities for water conservation at a facility. Some are construction related and some are O&M related. Per

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the requirements of Executive Order 13423, FEMP recommends implementing at least four of the following ten Best Management Practices (BMPs) for water conservation at federal facilities.

BMP #1—Public Information and Education ProgramsBMP #2—Distribution System Audits, Leak Detection, and RepairBMP #3—Water Efficient LandscapingBMP #4—Toilets and UrinalsBMP #5—Faucets and ShowerheadsBMP #6—Boiler/Steam SystemsBMP #7—Single-Pass Cooling SystemsBMP #8—Cooling Tower SystemsBMP #9—Miscellaneous High Water-Using ProcessesBMP #10—Water Reuse and Recycling

The International Storm Water Best Management Practices (BMP) Database, developed under a grant from the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, contains best management practices, and study references for the effective design of storm water management systems.

Emerging Issues

Dry Fire Hydrants

One of the synergistic technologies for achieving water conservation and fire safety is a dry fire hydrant. Dry hydrants are non-pressurized suction pipe systems that are permanently installed in ponds or lakes and use the untreated water, instead of municipal water, to fight fires. Utilized in areas that lack conventional fire protection; areas that cannot handle the large volumes of water due to antiquated systems; or during peak use seasons when there is low water pressure, dry hydrants allow fire departments to be much more efficient by providing close water sources to fire risks. Since dry hydrants are installed below frost line and do not require electricity, they are capable of supplying water in the case of natural disasters such as hurricanes and tornadoes when electricity lines are knocked down, or during extreme cold or hot weather where conventional hydrant pipes can freeze or break. Also, dry fire hydrants help to save precious drinking water and conserve energy by using rainwater that does not need to be processed to be used for fighting fires. More

Relevant Codes and Standards

Clean Water Act Energy Policy Act of 2005 (PDF 1.9 MB, 550 pgs) Executive Order 13423, "Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and

Transportation Management" Department of Defense:

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UFC 3-210-10, Low Impact Development UFGS 01 57 23, Temporary Storm Water Pollution General Services Administration: P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service , 2005

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to most building types and space types, especially high water users such as Health Care Facilities, Hospitals, Research Facilities, Clinic / Health Unit, Laboratory: Dry, Laboratory: Wet

Design Objectives

Aesthetics—Engage the Integrated Design Process, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation—Update Building Systems Appropriately, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, Sustainable—Optimize Energy Use, Sustainable—Use Environmentally Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

Products and Systems

Building Envelope Design Guide—Sustainability of the Building EnvelopeFederal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers

31 25 73 (02635) Stormwater Management by Compost 32 90 00 (02900) Planting 12 10 00 (12100) Art 22 40 00 (15400) Plumbing Fixtures

Project Management

Building Commissioning

Tools

LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool

Federal Agencies

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Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of Understanding (PDF 149 KB, 10 pgs)

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA): Office of Water (OW) Office of Wastewater Management (OWM) National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Water Use Efficiency Program

Publications

Beneficial Landscaping Guidance (PDF 1.5 MB, 35 pgs) by the U.S. Coast Guard Environmental Management Division (G-SEC-3).

EPA NPDES General Permit for Storm Water Discharges From Construction Activities—Fact Sheet (PDF 461 KB, 38 pgs).

EPA Permitting Stormwater Discharges from Federal Facility Construction Projects—Fact Sheet (PDF 108 KB, 3 pgs).

EPA Storm Water Management for Construction Activities: Developing Pollution Prevention Plans and Best Management Practices (PDF 4.2 MB, 39 pgs) by U.S. EPA. 1992.

FEMP Product Energy Efficiency Ratings (PEER) by U.S. Department of Energy. Pages for water efficient fixtures include faucets, showerheads, urinals.

GSA LEED® Applications Guide GSA LEED® Cost Study High Performance Building Guidelines by New York City Department of Design

and Construction. April 1999. Chapter on Water Management (PDF 182 KB, 6 pgs)

Minnesota Sustainable Building Guidelines by Regents of the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus, College Design, Center for Sustainable Buidling Research. Section on Water

The Texas Manual on Rainwater Harvesting (PDF 1.9 MB, 88 pgs) by Texas Water Development Board.

Organizations

American Rainwater Catchment Systems Association (ARCSA) Sustainable Buildings Industry Council (SBIC) USACE Technical Note ERDC TN-05-DRAFT No-Water Urinals (PDF 94 KB, 2

pgs), January 2007. U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC): Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) Green Building

Rating System

Others

FedCenter.gov —FedCenter, the Federal Facilities Environmental Stewardship and Compliance Assistance Center, is a collaborative effort between the Office of

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the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-stop source of environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information focused solely on the needs of federal government facilities.

Green Seal —Standards for environmentally responsible products including water efficient fixtures

International Stormwater Best Management Practices (BMP) Database —Developed under a grant from the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, the BMP Database contains best management practices, and study references for the effective design of stormwater management systems.

Low Impact Development , EPA Smart Communities Network—Water Efficiency , DOE Strategic Computing Complex (SCC) —case study on the WBDG Water Efficiency, Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) Water Wiser—The Water Efficiency Clearinghouse

Use Environmentally Preferable Productsby the WBDG Sustainable Committee

Last updated: 05-02-2008

Overview

The composition of materials used in a building is a major factor in its life-cycle environmental impact. Federal facilities must lead the way in the use of environmentally preferable products and processes that do not pollute or unnecessarily contribute to the waste stream, do not adversely affect health, and do not deplete limited natural resources. As the growing global economy expands the demand for raw materials, it is no longer sensible to throw away much of what we consider construction waste. Using a "cradle-to-cradle" approach, the "waste" from one generation can become the "raw material" of the next.

Executive Order 13101, "Greening the Government Through Waste Prevention, Recycling, and Federal Acquisition," directs Federal agencies to use recycled content (see EPA's Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines and Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP) Program.) When developing specifications, product descriptions and standards, agencies must consider a broad range of environmental factors including: waste prevention, recyclability, the use of recycled content, environmentally preferable, and bio-based products, life-cycle cost, and ultimate disposal.

During the facility design and development process, federal projects must have a comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:

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Renovate existing facilities, products, and equipment whenever possible, such as historic structures or used furniture;

Evaluate the environmental preferability of products using the cradle-to-cradle, life-cycle assessment (LCA) approach;

Maximize the recycled content of all new materials, especially from a post-consumer perspective;

Specify materials harvested on a sustained yield basis such as lumber from certified forests;

Encourage the use of recyclable assemblies and products that can be easily "de-constructed" at the end of their useful lives;

Limit construction debris, encourage the separation of waste streams, and encourage recycling during the construction process;

Eliminate the use of materials that pollute or are toxic during their manufacture, use, or reuse; and

Give preference to locally produced products and other products with low embodied energy content.

Recommendations

Renovate Existing Facilities, Products, and Equipment

Use reconditioned products and equipment, such as furniture, whenever economically feasible and resource efficient.

Evaluate if components of existing buildings or facilities, such as windows or metal door frames, can be incorporated in any new construction. Ensure that the windows and doors meet the new facility's security and energy requirements.

Evaluate Environmental Preferability Using LCA

Consider trade offs among multiple environmental impacts (e.g., global warming, resource depletion, indoor air quality) when determining environmental preferability. That is, look at the "big picture" rather than simply shifting problems from one impact to another. Employing LCA Tools like ATHENA and BEES can simplify the process and give more credible results. See WBDG Energy Analysis Tools.

Consider trade offs among life-cycle stages (i.e., raw materials acquisition, manufacturing, transportation, installation, use, and waste management) when determining environmentally preferability. That is, look at the "big picture" rather than simply shifting problems from one life-cycle stage to another.

Maximize the Recycled Content of All New Materials

Use EPA-designated recycled content products to the maximum extent practicable—required under the 42 USC §6962, Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1994, Section 6002.

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Purchase environmentally preferable products as described in EPA's Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP) Program, which promotes Federal Government procurement of products and services that have reduced impacts on human health and the environment over their life cycle.

Follow the EPA's five guiding principles established to help Executive agencies identify and purchase environmentally friendly products and services.

o Environment + Price + Performance = EPP. Include environmental considerations as part of the normal purchasing process.

o Pollution Prevention. Emphasize pollution prevention as part of the purchasing process.

o Life-Cycle Perspective/Multiple Attributes. Examine multiple environmental attributes throughout the product and service's life cycle.

o Comparison of Environmental Impacts. Compare environmental impacts when selecting products and services.

o Environmental Performance Information. Collect accurate and meaningful environmental information about environmental performance of products and services.

Within an acceptable category of product, use materials and assemblies with the highest percentage available of post-consumer or post-industrial recycled content.

Within an acceptable category of product, evaluate the use of materials and assemblies with low embodied energy content.

Specify Materials Harvested on a Sustained Yield Basis

Use timber products obtained from sustainably managed forests, certified through third-party agencies.

Evaluate the substitution of bio-based materials or products, such as agricultural-fiber sheathing, for inert or non-recycled alternatives.

Encourage the Use of Recyclable Assemblies and Products

Within acceptable levels of performance, evaluate the use of de-mountable or de-constructable products and assemblies.

Establish a waste management plan in cooperation with users to encourage recycling.

Investigate providing locations at the project site for organic waste composting.

Limit Construction Debris

Require the development and implementation of a plan for sorting construction waste for recycling.

Use products and assemblies that minimize disposable packaging and storage requirements.

Eliminate the Use of Materials that Pollute or are Toxic During Their Manufacture, Use, or Reuse

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Within an acceptable category of product, use materials and assemblies with the lowest level of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). See WBDG Evaluating and Selecting Green Products.

Eliminate the use of asbestos, lead, and PCBs in all products and assemblies. See WBDG High-Performance HVAC.

Eliminate the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) as refrigerants in all HVAC systems.

Evaluate the use of materials and assemblies whose manufacture does not pollute or create toxic conditions for workers. See also WBDG Secure/Safe—Ensure Occupant Safety and Health > Provide Good Indoor Air Quality and Adequate Ventilation and > Eliminate Exposure to Hazardous Materials.

Give Preference to Locally Produced Materials with Low Embodied Energy Content

Evaluate the use of locally produced products to stimulate local economies and reduce transportation burdens.

Evaluate the use of materials and assemblies that require minimum "embodied" energy for raw materials acquisition, manufacture, transport, installation, and use.

Emerging Issues

Balancing Sustainability and Security/Safety

To ensure that security strategies are appropriately implemented for the desired level of protection, designers are encouraged to conduct threat/vulnerability assessments and risk analysis. To prevent unnecessary use of resources in a project, include only the security measures identified by assessment and analysis. Evaluate the cost of comparable security measures before making your final decision. For high-risk and critical facilities, the increased use of materials and products is inevitable. In such cases, designers and builders are encouraged to specify and use environmentally preferable products to the maximum extent feasible. For example, as part of the Pentagon renovation work after the 9/11 terrorist attacks concrete rubble from damaged parts of the building were crushed into gravel and reused as aggregate under concrete slabs. More

Preferring Bio-based Products

Section 9002 of the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 (Public Law 107-171, May 13, 2002) confers Federal purchasing preference to bio-based products on the basis of five criteria: environmental performance, cost performance, bio-based content, technical performance, and availability. In support of this legislation, a Federal rule is under development specifying that the USDA will establish a new "USDA Certified Bio-based Product" label. To qualify for the label, bio-based products must be evaluated for life-cycle environmental and cost performance by the NIST BEES tool.

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Relevant Codes and Standards

ASTM E 2129—Standard Practice for Data Collection for Sustainability Assessment of Building Products

Executive Order 13423, "Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management"

ISO 14040 Series—Life-Cycle Assessment Standards Department of Defense: DOD Green Procurement Program (GPP) Green Procurement Requirements Overview U.S. General Services Administration: P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service , 2005

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to most building types and space types.

Design Objectives

Aesthetics—Engage the Integrated Design Process, Cost-Effective, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation—Update Building Systems Appropriately, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, Optimize Energy Use, Sustainable—Protect and Conserve Water, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

Products and Systems

Section 07 41 13:Metal Roofing, Section 07 92 00: Joint Sealants, Building Envelope Design Guide—Sustainability of the Building EnvelopeFederal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers

01 67 00 (01611) Environmental Product Requirements 01 74 13 (01740) Progress Cleaning 01 78 23 (01830) Operation & Maintenance Data 05 05 00 (05050) Common Work Results for Metals 06 05 73 (06070) Wood Treatment 06 10 00 (06100) Rough Carpentry 06 16 00 (06160) Sheathing 06 20 00 (06200) Finish Carpentry 06 60 00 (06600) Plastic Fabrications 06 90 00 (06700) Alternative Agricultural Products

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07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants 08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors 09 29 00 (09250) Gypsum Board 09 30 00 (09300) Tiling 09 51 00 (09510) Acoustical Ceilings 09 65 00 (09650) Resilient Flooring 09 65 16.13 (09654) Linoleum Flooring 09 68 00 (09680) Carpeting 09 72 00 (09720) Wall Coverings 09 90 00 (09900) Painting & Coating 10 21 13.19 (10170) Plastic Toilet Compartments 10 14 00 (10400) Signage 11 13 00 (11160) Loading Dock Equipment 11 28 00 (11680) Office Equipment 11 30 00 (11450) Residential Equipment 12 10 00 (12100) Art 12 48 13 (12482) Entrance Floor Mats and Frames 12 59 00 (12700) Systems Furniture

Project Management

Project Planning and Development, Building Commissioning

Tools

Construction Waste Management Database, LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool

U.S. Life-Cycle Inventory (LCI) Database —Created by NREL and partners, this publicly available database allows users to objectively review and compare analysis results that are based on similar data collection and analysis methods.

Use Green Products

Choose Green Report —Various product recommendations by GreenSeal Energy Star® , EPA Environmental Building News Environmental Design & Construction Magazine Federal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers —The Guide provides model

language that is intended to assist users in achieving green building goals as may be determined by the individual agency and project. It is being developed by EPA with the Federal Environmental Executive and the Whole Building Design Guide.

Green Building Resource Guide by John Hermannsson. Taunton Press, 1997. Green Procurement Program (GPP) , Defense Logistics Information Service Green Products Network

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GreenSage.com —An online source for green and sustainable building materials and furnishings.

GreenSpec™ —The Environmental Building News Product Directory GSA Federal Supply Service Environmental Products and Services Guide Guide to Resource Efficient Building Elements by Tracy Mumma. Missoula, MT:

National Center for Appropriate Technology's Center for Resourceful Building Technology, 1997. eGuide version of book available online.

oikos® Green Building Source —Green product information PATHNET.org —Excellent repository of building materials, case studies, and

innovative techniques A Sourcebook for Green and Sustainable Building , City of Austin Green Builder

Program

Renovate Existing Facilities, Products, and Equipment

Case study: NAVFAC Building 33

Evaluate Environmental Preferability Using LCA

BEES (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability) , NIST—BEES measures the environmental performance of building products by using the life-cycle assessment approach specified in ISO 14000 standards.

Environmental Impact Estimator , Athena Institute—The Estimator lets designers assess the environmental implications of industrial, institutional, office, and both multi-unit and single-family residential designs: new construction or renovation.

Environmental Resource Guide by The American Institute of Architects (AIA), Joseph A. Demkin (Editor). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1996.

Maximize the Recycled Content of All New Materials

Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines (CPG) , EPA Environmentally Preferable Purchasing Program (EPP) , EPA

Specify Materials Harvested on a Sustained Yield Basis

Forest Certification Resource Center Forest Stewardship Council United States (FSC) Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) SmartWood (SW) Sustainable Forestry Initiative , American Forest & Paper Association

Limit Construction Debris

California Integrated Waste Management Board Case study: EPA New England Regional Laboratory Construction and Demolition Debris , EPA

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Construction Waste Management Database , GSA—The Database contains information on companies that haul, collect and process recyclable debris from construction projects. Created in 2002 by GSA's Environmental Strategies and Safety Division to promote responsible waste disposal, the Database is a free online service for those seeking companies that recycle construction debris in their area.

Municipal Solid Waste Management , EPA National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) Research Center—Construction

Waste Management Public Works Technical Bulletins, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers: PWTB 200-1-23 Guidance for the Reduction of Demolition Waste Through

Reuse and Recycling PWTB 200-1-27 Reuse of Concrete Materials From Building Demolition PWTB 420-49-30 Alternatives to Demolition for Facility Reduction PWTB 420-49-32 Selection of Methods for the Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling

of Demolition Waste Residential Construction Waste Management: A Builder's Field Guide by Peter

Yost and Eric Lund. National Association of Home Builders Research Center, January 1997.

WasteSpec: Model Specifications for Construction Waste Reduction, Reuse, and Recycling by Triangle J Council of Governments.

Others

FedCenter.gov —FedCenter, the Federal Facilities Environmental Stewardship and Compliance Assistance Center, is a collaborative effort between the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-stop source of environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information focused solely on the needs of federal government facilities.

Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of Understanding

GSA LEED® Applications Guide GSA LEED® Cost Study U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC): Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) Green Building

Rating System

Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality (IEQ)by the WBDG Sustainable Committee

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Last updated: 05-02-2008

Overview

The Thoreau Institute of Sustainability at the Presidio—San Francisco, California

In the struggle to build cost-effective buildings, it is easy to forget that the ultimate success or failure of a project rests on its indoor environmental quality (IEQ). Healthy, comfortable employees are invariably more satisfied and productive. Unfortunately, this simple, compelling truth is often lost, for it is simpler to focus on the first-cost of a project than it is to determine the value of increased user productivity and health. Federal facilities should be constructed with an appreciation of the importance of providing high-quality, interior environments for all users.

During the facility design and development process, federal projects must have a comprehensive, integrated perspective that seeks to:

Facilitate quality IEQ through good design, construction, and operating and maintenance practices;

Value aesthetic decisions, such as the importance of views and the integration of natural and man-made elements;

Provide thermal comfort with a maximum degree of personal control over temperature and airflow;

Supply adequate levels of ventilation and outside air to ensure indoor air quality; Prevent airborne bacteria, mold, and other fungi through heating, ventilating, air-

conditioning (HVAC) system designs that are effective at controlling indoor humidity, and building envelope design that prevents the intrusion of moisture;

Avoid the use of materials high in pollutants, such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) or toxins;

Assure acoustic privacy and comfort through the use of sound absorbing material and equipment isolation;

Control disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and careful selection of cleaning products;

Create a high performance luminous environment through the careful integration of natural and artificial light sources; and

Provide quality water.

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Note: IEQ encompasses indoor air quality (IAQ), which focuses on airborne contaminants, as well as other health, safety, and comfort issues such as aesthetics, potable water surveillance, ergonomics, acoustics, lighting, and electromagnetic frequency levels.

Recommendations

Facilitate Quality IEQ through Good Design, Construction, and O&M Practices

Acceptable IEQ is often easiest to achieve if "source control" is practiced, not only during building construction, but also over the life of the building. For example, the designer may select building products that do not produce noxious or irritating odors; and design exterior entrances with permanent entryway systems to catch and hold dirt particles. The Operations & Maintenance (O&M) and cleaning staff can also avoid creating IEQ problems by choosing less noxious materials during repair and cleaning activities. While HVAC systems may be designed to isolate operations (kitchens, dry cleaners, etc.) from other occupancies, the O&M staff ensures that pressure differentials are maintained to avoid the undesirable flow of contaminants from one space to another. See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.

Value Aesthetic Decisions

Appreciate the importance of providing windows in all occupied spaces for view and natural ventilation. See also WBDG Aesthetics and Productive—Promote Health and Well-Being.

Design spaces around basic human needs, ancient preferences, and connections to the patterns of nature and the mind. See also WBDG Psychosocial Value of Space.

Demand that individual buildings or facilities are consciously integrated into their natural and man-made context. See also WBDG Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential.

Provide Thermal Comfort

Use ASHRAE Standard 55—Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy as the basis for thermal comfort. See also WBDG Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments.

Evaluate the use of access floors with displacement ventilation for flexibility, personal comfort control, and energy savings.

Understand moisture dynamics as a key criteria in the selection of wall and roof assemblies. See also WBDG Air Barrier Systems in Buildings.

Evaluate the benefit of specifying high-performance windows to increase mean radiant temperature (MRT).

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Supply Adequate Levels of Ventilation and Outside Air

Design the ventilation system to exceed ASHRAE Standard 62: Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality.

Implement a construction management program that ensures key ventilation components are protected from contamination during construction.

Commission HVAC systems to ensure they operate and perform as designed. This will ensure that adequate ventilation rates have been achieved prior to initial occupancy. HVAC system should be installed with filters with a Minimum Efficiency Reporting Value (MERV) of 7.

Investigate the use of separate outside air and conditioned air distribution systems. A good description of various types of heating and ventilation systems can be found at: WBDG High-Performance HVAC and Natural Ventilation.

Ensure fresh air intakes are located away from loading areas, exhaust fans, and other contamination points.

Ensure parking lot/garage usage cannot generate pollutants that affect fresh air intake or pedestrian traffic. Prevent vehicles idling near the facility during normal operations.

Consider installing loading dock purge fans. Investigate the use of a permanent air quality monitoring system. ASHRAE

acceptable level of carbon dioxide (CO2) for an indoor office environment is 1000 ppm ("normal" CO2 outside level is about 300 to 400 ppm). Carbon monoxide (CO) levels in office environments should be below 2 ppm. OSHA regulates levels of CO for industrial locations.

Coordinate ventilation and air filtration with chemical, biological, and radiological concerns and locate outside air intakes so they do not conflict with physical security requirements. See also WBDG Air Decontamination.

During operation, replace filters on periodic basis.

Prevent Airborne Bacteria, Mold, and Other Fungi

Prevention of mold and fungi is dependent upon effective HVAC and building envelope design and construction. The HVAC system must be able to control interior humidity conditions over a wide range of outdoor conditions. The system must be designed to have the capacity to dehumidify at the 1% Humidity Ratio and mean coincident dry bulb temperature, and control interior humidity at both extreme and low load conditions. The building envelope must be carefully designed to prevent intrusion of water and to dry if intrusion should occur. It must also incorporate barriers that control vapor and air infiltration.

Carefully consider the envelope of the building to prevent moisture infiltration. Investigate immediately when there is a moisture condition, either from a leak or

flood. Ensure the number of spores in the indoor air is less than the outdoor air. It is

recommended that there should be less than 700 spores in a cubic meter of air.

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Limit Spread of Pathogens

For health care facilities:

Implement proper maintenance procedures to prevent nosocomial infections. Consider removing restroom doors to reduce the chance of acquiring infections.

Avoid the Use of Materials High in Pollutants

Limit the use of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in such products as cleaners, paints, sealants, coatings, and adhesives. See also WBDG Evaluating and Selecting Green Products.

Avoid products containing formaldehyde, i.e., carpet, wall panels, cabinetry. Remove asbestos-containing material or contain it in a manner that precludes the

possibility of future exposure. In areas where it is prevalent, include measures to control and mitigate radon

buildup. Create safe, convenient, and secure storage spaces for housekeeping chemicals.

See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices. If an area in an occupied building is being renovated, consider isolating and

negatively pressurizing the construction area if work is being performed that would result in dust, fumes, or odors. If conditioned air is required due to high end finishing work, the air should be directly exhausted to the exterior environment and not returned to the fan.

Ensure office equipment installed emit minimal odors or pollutants.

Assure Acoustic Privacy and Comfort

Minimize noise through the use of sound-absorbing materials, high sound transmission loss walls, floors, and ceilings, and equipment sound isolation. See Architectural Graphic Standards, 10th Edition, section on Acoustical Design for more information. See also WBDG Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments.

Consider sound masking systems. These systems introduce an unobtrusive background sound that reduces interference from distracting office noise. Note that some level of HVAC "noise" can serve as a background white noise source, eliminating the need for sound masking systems.

Avoid the use of small diameter ducts with high velocity airflow.

Control Disturbing Odors through Contaminant Isolation and Product Selection

Directly exhaust copying and housekeeping areas, and provide added return air grills in these areas. This will help limit lower atmosphere ozone generation, commonly associated with duplicating and printing processes. Ozone acts as a power oxidant. It can attack surfaces of certain elastomers, plastics, paints, and

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pigments; and aid in sulfide and chloride corrosion of metals. Possible health hazards caused by ozone include eye and mucous membrane irritation as well as chronic respiratory disease.

Minimize disturbing odors through contaminant isolation and careful selection of cleaning products.

Ensure maintenance procedures are in place to remove all trash and recyclables from the building on a regular basis rather than storing them within the building for prolonged periods of time.

Prohibit smoking in all areas of the building. Environmental Tobacco Smoke (ETS) is a known carcinogen.

In special cases where smoking is permitted, e.g., federal judge's private chambers, ensure that the spaces:

o Have lower pressure than adjacent areas;o Comply with ASHRAE Standard 62 for proper ventilation;o Are isolated from the return air system of surrounding areas to prevent

pollutants from spreading to other areas.

Create a High—Performance Luminous Environment

Use daylighting for ambient lighting wherever feasible. Supplement natural light with integrated, high-performance ballasts, lamps,

fixtures, and controls. Substitute magnetic fluorescent lamps with high-frequency electronic ballasts to

reduce flickering. Reduce direct glare from both natural and man-made sources in the field of view

—particularly in spaces with highly reflective surfaces, such as visual display terminals (VDTs).

Use task/ambient systems that provide reduced levels of diffuse, general illumination, and supplement with task lighting. Most people do not need lighting in excess of 300 lux (a unit of illumination).

Use light color on walls and locate windows properly.

Provide Quality Water

Comply with EPA Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) for the levels of various metals and bacteria in potable water systems.

For newly installed or temporarily suspended domestic water systems, follow "start-up" procedures by flushing all down stream outlets.

Conduct periodic 'maintenance flushing' to proactively control drinking water issues.

Control domestic water temperature to avoid temperature ranges where legionellae grow: keep domestic water temperatures above 140°F (60°C) in tanks and 122°F (50°C) at all taps (faucets and showers).

Design cooling tower and building air intake placement so air discharged from the cooling tower or evaporative condenser is not directly brought into the facility's air intake.

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Consider a closed loop system instead of an open system to reduce the potential of exposure at the cooling tower.

Be Aware of Exposure to Electric and Magnetic Fields (EMF)

Electric and magnetic fields (EMF) are generated by forces associated with electric charges in motion, and by microwaves, radio waves, electrical currents, and transformers. EMF are thought to cause cancer, however there is insufficient evidence to prove this. There are no federal standards limiting occupational or residential exposure to EMF at this time, only various U.S. and International voluntary occupational exposure guidelines. Nevertheless, facility designers and managers should consult the following resources to find out the latest scientific research and recommendations on dealing with EMF exposure:

EMF RAPID —Electric and Magnetic Fields Research and Public Information Dissemination Program

World Health Organization (WHO), Electromagnetic fields (EMF) website

Balance IEQ Strategies with Security Requirements

Since the terrorist attacks of 9/11, building owners and occupants have placed greater emphasis on facility security and safety. However, security and safety measures must be considered within a total project context, including the project's environmental goals. Several indoor environmental quality strategies, such as dedicated ventilation systems and tight building envelopes, can be employed to help designers achieve an integrated, high performance facility. See also WBDG Balancing Security/Safety and Sustainability Objectives.

Relevant Codes and Standards

ASHRAE Guideline 1—Guideline for the Commissioning of HVAC Systems ASHRAE Standard 52—Method of Testing Air-Cleaning Devices Used in

General Ventilation for Removing Particular Matter ASHRAE Standard 55—Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human

Occupancy ASHRAE Standard 62—Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air Quality —Sets the

minimum acceptable ventilation requirements. ASHRAE Standard 90.1—Energy Efficient Design of New Buildings Department of Defense: UFC 4-010-01, DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings Air Force: Air Force Engineering Technical Letter ETL 04-3 Design Criteria for

Prevention of Mold in Air Force Facilities. U.S. General Services Administration: P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service , 2005

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Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to most building types and space types, especially for Child Development Centers, Training Facility, Federal Courthouse, Health Care Facilities, Libraries, Office Building, Auditorium, Conference / Classroom, Courthouse: Courtroom, Library (Space Type), Office

Design Objectives

Aesthetics, Historic Preservation—Update Building Systems Appropriately, Productive, Secure / Safe, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, Sustainable—Optimize Energy Use, Sustainable—Protect and Conserve Water, Sustainable—Use Environmentally Preferable Products, Sustainable—Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

Products and Systems

Section 23 28 13: Commercial—Kitchen Hoods, Section 23 31 00: HVAC Ducts and Casings, Section 23 05 93: Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing for HVAC, Building Envelope Design Guide—Sustainability of the Building EnvelopeFederal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers:

01 57 19.11 (01352) Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) Management 01 67 00 (01611) Environmental Product Requirements 01 74 13 (01740) Progress Cleaning 05 05 00 (05500) Common Work Results for Metals 06 05 73 (06070) Wood Treatment 06 10 00 (06100) Rough Carpentry 06 16 00 (06160) Sheathing 06 20 00 (06200) Finish Carpentry 06 60 00 (06600) Plastic Fabrications 06 90 00 (06700) Alternative Agricultural Products 07 10 00 (07100) Dampproofing & Waterproofing 07 20 00 (07200) Thermal Protection 07 30 00 (07300) Steep Slope Roofing 07 50 00 (07500) Membrane Roofing 07 55 63 (07530) Vegetated Protected Membrane Roofing 07 92 00 (07900) Joint Sealants 08 14 00 (08210) Wood Doors 08 50 00 (08500) Windows 09 29 00 (09250) Gypsum Board 09 30 00 (09300) Tiling

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09 51 00 (09510) Acoustical Ceilings 09 65 00 (09650) Resilient Flooring 09 65 16.13 (09654) Linoleum Flooring 09 68 00 (09680) Carpeting 09 72 00 (09720) Wall Coverings 09 90 00 (09900) Painting & Coating 12 10 00 (12100) Art 12 59 00 (12700) Systems Furiture 22 40 00 (15400) Plumbing Fixtures 23 70 00 (15700) Central HVAC Equipment 23 30 00 (15800) HVAC Air Distribution

Project Management

Building Commissioning

Tools

LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Pages Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool

Facilitate Quality IEQ through Good Design and O&M Practices

Federal Agencies and Laboratories Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum

of Understanding Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Indoor Air Quality website Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBL), Indoor Environment Department

website National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) : OSHA, Indoor Air Quality website

Organizations and Associations American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, Air-Conditioning Engineers

(ASHRAE) ASTM International Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) U.S. Green Building Council : Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) Green Building

Rating System

Design and Analysis Tools IAQ Building Education and Assessment Model (I-BEAM) Computer Software —

I-BEAM is computer software for use by building professionals and others

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interested in indoor air quality in commercial buildings. I-BEAM updates and expands EPA's existing Building Air Quality guidance and is designed to be comprehensive state-of-the-art guidance for managing IAQ in commercial buildings. I-BEAM contains text, animation/visual, and interactive/calculation components that can be used to perform a number of diverse tasks.

Multizone Modeling website, NIST —Contains software tools for performing multi-zone analysis (e.g. CONTAMW), information on the applications of multi-zone modeling, multi-zone modeling case studies, and references to multi-zone modeling publications.

Others Aerias —Online resource dedicated to promoting better human health and better

business through IAQ awareness. "Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers" by

U.S. EPA and National Institute for Safety and Health. FedCenter.gov —FedCenter, the Federal Facilities Environmental Stewardship

and Compliance Assistance Center, is a collaborative effort between the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-stop source of environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information focused solely on the needs of federal government facilities.

GSA LEED® Applications Guide GSA LEED® Cost Study High Performance Building Guidelines , City of New York Department of Design

and Construction, 1999. Indoor Air Quality Information Clearinghouse Direct inquiries: Phone (800) 438-4318; Fax: (703) 356-5386; e-mail:

iaqinfo@aol.com. Lessons Learned: High Performance Buildings . "Indoor Environmental Quality"

by John J. Leitner and William Esposito, Jr., CIH, Ambient Group, Inc. New York, NY: Earth Day New York, 2000.

Sustainable Building Technical Manual (DOE/EPA)

Value Aesthetic Decisions

WBDG: Aesthetics, Productive

Provide Thermal Comfort

WBDG: Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments MOIST 3 software —Computer software that predicts the one-dimensional

transfer of heat and moisture, allowing users to investigate the effects of various parameters on the moisture accumulation within layers of the construction. MOIST can also be used to generate guidelines and practices for controlling moisture.

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Supply Adequate Levels of Ventilation and Outside Air

WBDG: Productive—Promote Health and Well-Being EPA Document #402-K-93-007, April 1995. EPA National Center for Environmental Research Fact Sheet: Ventilation and Air Quality in Offices by EPA Office of Air and

Radiation (6607J). EPA Document #402-F-94-003, revised July 1990. Guidance for Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical,

Biological, or Radiological Attacks by Department of Health and Human Services. May 2002.

Guidance for Filtration and Air-Cleaning Systems to Protect Building Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks by National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. April 2003.

The Inside Story: A Guide to Indoor Air Quality by EPA Office of Radiation and Indoor Air (6604J) and United States Consumer Product Safety Commission.

NAVFAC White Paper on Carbon Monoxide UFC 4-010-01, DoD Minimum Anti-Terrorism Standards for Buildings

Prevent Airborne Bacteria, Mold, and Fungi

Air Force: Air Force Engineering Technical Letter ETL 04-3 Design Criteria for Prevention of Mold in Air Force Facilities.

Indoor Environmental Standards Organization (IESO) —IESO is a non-profit organization that provides a national forum for the development and publication of voluntary consensus standards for the assessment of indoor environments. IESO also offers certification programs to promote awareness and compliance to the established standards. The IESO Standards of Practice, Volume 1 for the assessment of indoor air quality includes seven standards on two topics: Mold Sampling and Assessment of Mold Contamination.

OSHA, Molds & Fungi website

Limit Spread of Pathogens

WBDG: Health Care Facilities

Avoid the Use of Materials High in Pollutants

Cleaning Products Pilot Project (CPPP), EPA (PDF 388 KB, 25 pgs) Environmentally Preferable Purchasing, EPA Greenguard Environmental Institute Certified Products GreenSeal Product Recommendations Scientific Certification Systems (SCS) IAQ Product Certification Program

Assure Acoustic Privacy and Comfort

WBDG: Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments

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Architectural Graphic Standards, 10th Edition

Create a High—Performance Luminous Environment

WBDG: Productive—Promote Health and Well-Being, Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments

IESNA RP-5 Recommended Practice of Daylighting Windows and Daylighting Group , Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

Provide Quality Water

EPA Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) NAVFAC Information on Legionella or Legionnaire's Disease

Balance IEQ Strategies with Security Requirements

WBDG: Secure / Safe—Provide Security for Building Occupants and Assets Guidance for Filtration and Air-Cleaning Systems to Protect Building

Environments from Airborne Chemical, Biological, or Radiological Attacks Guidance for Protecting Building Environments from Airborne Chemical,

Biological, or Radiological Attacks by Department of Health and Human Services. May 2002.

Publications

How IEQ Affects Health, Productivity (PDF 220 KB, 3 pgs) by William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, May 2002.

HVAC Characteristics and Occupant Health (PDF 430 KB, 4 pgs) by W.K. Sieber, M.R. Petersen, L.T. Stayner, R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford, T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed. ASHRAE Journal, September 2002.

IEQ and the Impact on Building Occupants (PDF 105 KB, 3 pgs) by Satish Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, April 2002.

IEQ and the Impact on Employee Sick Leave (PDF 105 KB, 3 pgs) by Satish Kumar, Ph.D., Member ASHRAE and William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE. ASHRAE Journal, July 2002.

Ventilation Rates and Health (PDF 115 KB, 5 pgs) by Olli Seppänen, Fellow ASHRAE, William J. Fisk, P.E., Member ASHRAE, and Mark J. Mendell, Ph.D. ASHRAE Journal, August 2002.

Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practicesby the WBDG Sustainable Committee

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Last updated: 05-02-2008

Overview

No matter how sustainable a building may have been in its design and construction, it can only remain so if it is operated responsibly and maintained properly. The use of toxic cleaning products can deteriorate indoor air quality; failure to test sensor control points can compromise energy efficiency; and poor training can lead to early system failures. Buildings must be operated and maintained with the security, safety, health, comfort, and productivity of their occupants in mind, and with an understanding of the next generation's need to reuse and recycle building components.

Throughout the building's life cycle, operations and maintenance should seek to:

Train building occupants, facilities managers, and maintenance staff in sustainable design principles and methods;

Purchase cleaning products and supplies that are resource-efficient and non-toxic; Use automated monitors and controls for energy, water, waste, temperature,

moisture, and ventilation; Reduce waste through source reduction and recycling to eliminate disposal off-

site; and Minimize travel by supporting telecommuting programs and enabling

teleconferencing.

Recommendations

Train Building Occupants, Facilities Managers, and Maintenance Staff in Sustainability Principles and Methods

Implement a comprehensive, preventive maintenance program to keep all building systems functioning as designed. See WBDG Reliability-Centered Maintenance (RCM).

Provide operations support to facilities managers and maintenance crews to answer questions and offer additional information.

Employ Environmentally Preferable Landscaping Practices

Landscape with native, or indigenous, plants. Develop a Pest Control Plan, which includes information about: materials and

equipment for service; method for monitoring and detection; service schedule for each building or site; any structural or operational changes that would facilitate the pest control effort; and commercial pesticide applicator certificates or licenses.

Where unavoidable, use non-toxic outdoor fertilizers and pesticides. Consider composting/recycling yard waste.

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Minimize site disturbance. See also WBDG Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential. Use landscaping products with recycled content as required by EPA's

Comprehensive Procurement Guidelines (CPG) for landscaping products. See also WBDG Sustainable O&M Practices.

Purchase Cleaning Products and Supplies that are Resource-Efficient and Non-Toxic

Use cleaners that biodegrade rapidly. Look for products that are concentrated, using less packaging for more power. Use integrated pest management (IPM) practices in facilities and landscaping to

reduce the use of pesticides and herbicides. IPM has been mandated on federal property since 1996 by Section 136r-1 of Title 7, United States Code, and is cited in Title 41 of the Code of Federal Regulations (102-74.35) as a required service for agencies subject to the authority of the General Services Administration (GSA).

Use non-toxic pest control for indoor spaces and plants. See also WBDG Evaluating and Selecting Green Products.

Keep air ducts clean and free of microorganisms through a structured program of preventive maintenance.

Use Automated Monitors and Controls for Energy, Water, Waste, Temperature, Moisture, and Ventilation Monitors and Controls

Use schedule, occupancy, or luminance sensors to control lighting and other functions.

Use timers for heating/ventilation/air conditioning (HVAC) equipment. Turn off the lights, computers, and equipment when not in use. Enable power-down features on office equipment (e.g., Energy Star® computers). Turn off computer monitors when not in use.

Reduce Waste Through Source Reduction and Recycling

Start a comprehensive recycling program with source separation and occupant incentives.

Use on-site composting of organic materials. Adopt green meeting practices.

Support Practices that Encourage Sustainable Transportation or Minimize Travel

Install sufficient bike racks to meet demand. Designate shuttle/bus stops in safe and accessible areas close to the facility. Provide sufficient parking spaces for carpools/vanpools.

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Support teleconferencing and videoconferencing through proper operations and maintenance of communication systems.

Support telework (aka telecommuting) programs by providing hotelling spaces (flexible and well-equipped office spaces that teleworkers can use when they come into the office) and properly operating and maintaining telework centers.

Relevant Codes and Standards

Executive Order 13423, "Strengthening Federal Environmental, Energy, and Transportation Management"

Executive Order 13221, "Energy Efficient Standby Power Devices" U.S. General Services Administration: P100 Facilities Standards for the Public Buildings Service , 2005

Major Resources

WBDG

Building / Space Types

Applicable to most building types and space types.

Design Objectives

Aesthetics, Functional / Operational, Historic Preservation—Update Building Systems Appropriately, Productive, Productive—Assure Reliable Systems and Spaces, Productive—Design for the Changing Workplace, Productive—Promote Health and Well-Being, Productive—Provide Comfortable Environments, Secure / Safe—Ensure Occupant Safety and Health, Sustainable—Optimize Site Potential, Sustainable—Optimize Energy Use, Sustainable—Protect and Conserve Water, Sustainable—Use Environmentally Preferable Products, Sustainable—Enhance Indoor Environmental Quality

Products and Systems

Building Envelope Design Guide—Sustainability of the Building EnvelopeFederal Green Construction Guide for Specifiers:

01 91 00 (01810) Commissioning 01 78 23 (01830) Operation and Maintenance Data 32 90 00 (02900) Planting 06 20 00 (06200) Finish Carpentry 09 29 00 (09250) Gypsum Board 09 30 00 (09300) Tiling 09 51 00 (09510) Acoustical Ceilings 09 65 00 (09650) Resilient Flooring

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09 65 16.13 (09654) Linoleum Flooring 09 68 00 (09680) Carpeting 09 72 00 (09720) Wallcoverings 09 90 00 (09900) Painting & Coating 10 21 13.19 (10170) Plastic Toilet Compartments 11 13 00 (11160) Loading Dock Equipment 11 30 00 (11450) Residential Equipment 11 28 00 (11680) Office Equipment 12 48 13 (12482) Entrance Floor Mats and Frames 12 59 00 (12700) Systems Furniture 48 14 00 (13600) Solar Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment 48 15 00 (13600) Wind Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment 48 30 00 (13600) Biomass Energy Electrical Power Generation Equipment 14 20 00 (14200) Elevators 22 40 00 (15400) Plumbing Fixtures 23 70 00 (15700) Central HVAC Equipment 23 30 00 (15800) HVAC Air Distribution 26 50 00 (16500) Lighting

Project Management

Building Commissioning

Tools

LEED® Version 2.1 Credit / WBDG Resource Page Matrix, LEED®-DoD Antiterrorism Standards Tool

Optimize Operational and Maintenance Practices

FedCenter.gov —FedCenter, the Federal Facilities Environmental Stewardship and Compliance Assistance Center, is a collaborative effort between the Office of the Federal Environmental Executive (OFEE), the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, and the U.S. EPA Federal Facilities Enforcement Office. FedCenter replaces the previous FedSite as a one-stop source of environmental stewardship and compliance assistance information focused solely on the needs of federal government facilities.

Federal Leadership in High Performance and Sustainable Buildings Memorandum of Understanding

Pennsylvania Green Building Maintenance Manual by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania in partnership with Green Seal and Department of General Services' Property Management.

Operations and Maintenance —Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) U.S. Green Building Council, Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design

(LEED®) Green Building Rating System—Existing Buildings.

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Train Building Occupants, Facilities Managers, and Maintenance Staff in Sustainability Principles and Methods

IFMA Certification Program for Facility Managers —Maintenance and operations management is one of eight competency areas evaluated in becoming a Certified Facility Manager. An ideas exchange among facility managers is available on an advertising-supported web page.

Employ Environmentally Preferable Landscaping Practices

Beneficial Landscaping Guidance by the U.S. Coast Guard Environmental Management Division (G-SEC-3).

GSA Integrated Pest Management Program GSA Landscape Management Program Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and Food Production Fact Sheet by EPA.

Purchase Cleaning Products and Supplies that are Resource-Efficient and Non-Toxic

Environmentally Preferable Purchasing (EPP) , EPA Includes several Cleaning Products Pilot Projects on cleaners listed under

"Solvents." Green Seal South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD) U.S. General Services Administration, Federal Supply Schedule – GSA Schedule

073—Schedule 073 (Food Service, Hospitality, and Cleaning) offers a variety of cleaning equipment and accessories, and cleaning products (including biodegradable products) for daily cleaning-products that keep facilities clean in an environmentally friendly manner. Also available are office recycling containers and waste receptacles, outdoor recycling containers, and industrial trash storage containers.

Use Automated Monitors and Controls for Energy, Water, Waste, Temperature, Moisture, and Ventilation Monitors and Controls

Building Air Quality: A Guide for Building Owners and Facility Managers by U.S. EPA and National Institute for Safety and Health.

Energy Star® , EPA

Reduce Waste Through Source Reduction and Recycling

EPA Office of Solid Waste Green Meetings, EPA Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics GSA Recycling and Waste Reduction Fact Sheet Planning Environmentally Aware Events, EPA Office of Solid Waste

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Waste News.com

Support Practices that Encourage Sustainable Transportation or Minimize Travel

E-Commutair, the Teleworking Impact Estimation Tool from the Consortium on Green Design and Manufacturing, University of California, Berkeley

Interagency Telework/Telecommuting website , GSA/OPM Public Law 106-346, Section 359—Congressional Federal Telework Mandate

2001 (Part of the Department of Transportation Appropriations Act of 2001), 23 October 2000.

The Telework Coalition (TelCoa)

Publications

HVAC Characteristics and Occupant Health (PDF 430 KB, 4 pgs) by W.K. Sieber, M.R. Petersen, L.T. Stayner, R. Malkin, M.J. Mendell, K.M. Wallingford, T.G. Wilcox, M.S. Crandall, and L. Reed. ASHRAE Journal, September 2002.

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Architectureby Julie Gabrielli, NCARB, LEED and Amy E. Gardner, AIAUniversity of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation

Last updated: 04-23-2008

Introduction

The modern profession of architecture echoes with its origins, its rich history, and the fast-paced changes of the 21st century. Through antiquity, architecture and construction were united by the cultural intentions of a "Master Builder," who balanced art, science, materials, form, style and craft to achieve his vision.

Roger K. Lewis illustrates that architects balance ideas, form, and function.(Courtesy Roger K. Lewis)

"The regulated profession of architecture is relatively new. Yet there have been architects for as long as societies have built, with little distinction between designers and builders. In ancient, traditional cultures and languages, the same word was used for both architect and builder. Construction was an integrated craft in which the master mason or master carpenter knew how to design, to assemble labor and materials, to estimate costs, to manage the construction process, and to erect structures from foundation to roof."(Roger K. Lewis, p.149, from Architect? A Candid Guide to the Profession)

Beginning in the seventeenth century, with the rise of professionalism, the discipline of architecture became increasingly specialized. With the nineteenth century expansion of scientific knowledge, the evolution of other technically oriented disciplines such as

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engineering, and the corresponding introduction of more complex construction systems, the discipline of architecture became more focused on questions of basic functionality and aesthetics. In pursuit of professional status, architects wanted no longer to be perceived as craftspersons. During the 19th and 20th centuries, the profession made conscious efforts to distance architects from contractors.

This specialist role now forms the basis of most widely accepted modern definitions of architectural practice. For instance, the United States Department of Labor defines architects as licensed professionals who transform space needs into concepts, images, and plans of buildings to be constructed by others. Still, echoes of the "Master Builder" remain, as architects are usually responsible for orchestrating and coordinating the work of many disciplines during the design phases. It is not unusual for architects also to be involved in the early stages of project feasibility, to help clients define a program, choose the site, and otherwise decide on highest and best uses.

Description

Legal and Cultural Definitions

The discipline of architecture has both legal and cultural definitions. In the United States, all states have regulations that govern conditions of licensure, registration, use of the title "architect" and the provision of professional services, succinctly summarized by The American Institute of Architects. Each state or jurisdiction creates its own requirements for each of these aspects of the discipline. While legal definitions mandate the ways in which the profession is responsible for safeguarding the health, safety, and welfare of the public, cultural definitions characterize the ways in the discipline responds to social, aesthetic, and ethical aspects of making cities, buildings, and landscapes. A "whole building" approach must necessarily incorporate both sets of disciplinary definitions.

Architect's Role

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Sometimes beauty and functionality are in tension, as seen by Roger K. Lewis. (Courtesy Roger K. Lewis)

Today, the required legal, technical, and cultural knowledge base has such breadth and depth that it is no longer in the best interest of the project for one discipline to hold, implement, and be responsible for all building-related knowledge, as did the Master Builder of old. Professional malpractice concerns have led liability insurance companies to encourage, even implicitly force, architects to limit activities to design. For example, "construction supervision" became "construction observation," moving the architect further away from the risks associated with construction activities.

According to some industry analysts, such as Carl Sapers, the architect's role has been further limited by the idea that buildings are commodities, consisting of assemblies of standard materials and systems best understood by their suppliers and constructors. New forms of project delivery, including "design/build", "bridging", and "construction management", come out of a belief that architects are no longer able to stay abreast of complex information in order to lead the design process on the owner's behalf. (Carl Sapers, "Toward Architectural Practice in the 21st Century," in Harvard Design Magazine, Fall 2003/Winter 2004)

However, this standardized approach to efficient building design is not necessarily synonymous with the requirements for whole building design. Integrated, high-performance design requires both efficiency and innovation. It requires a design process in which the users, owners, and project participants are all integral team members.

The Composite Master Builder

An innovative approach to efficiency: a prefabricated structure for an ecologically-sensitive site. Kingman Island Environmental Education Center competition finalist(Courtesy University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation.)

With whole building design, the project team can be guided once again by a collective vision. This structure, along with the process by which the design team works together, has been termed byBill Reed as the "Composite Master Builder". The term recasts the

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historical single Master Builder as a diverse group of professionals working together towards a common end. The intention is to bring all of the specialists together, allowing them to function as if they were one mind. The process avoids, as Mario Salvadori says, the "reciprocal ignorance" of the specialists in the design and building field.

The cast of specialists is potentially quite large, and depending on the complexity of the project, can include:

site professionals, such as planners, civil and environmental engineers, and landscape architects;

design team members such as programmers, architects, and interior designers; building systems experts, such as structural, mechanical, fire protection, and

building science and performance engineers; construction professionals, including cost estimators, project managers,

tradespeople, and craftspeople; owners, including financial managers, building users, and operations and

maintenance staff; and local code and fire officials.

A cast of specialists worked together to design building systems using the building section as a tool. Kingman Island Environmental Education Center competition finalist(Courtesy University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation)

The Team Needs a Leader

The legal obligations of the profession, comprehensive training in holistic problem-solving, and an understanding of broad cultural concerns make architects ideally suited for the leadership of design teams.

Architects in the United States have historically been bound by comprehensive legal requirements and responsibilities for the building design. They are legally obligated to safeguard the public health, safety, and welfare. This presumes that architects maintain at minimum a clear overview of the project team's work. Arguably, the most effective way to discharge this public duty is to oversee and coordinate the work of the project team.

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The profession emphasizes comprehensive training in the arts and sciences, as well as a holistic approach to design problems. Architectural education teaches both abstract and concrete problem-solving. Its core skills are learned and re-learned, in an iterative process that incorporates history, theory, technology, and other social and cultural factors. Architects are both specialists and generalists, which ideally enables them to communicate effectively with other specialists while maintaining the "big-picture" view of the project goals.

In addition to health, safety, and welfare considerations, buildings incorporate the culture that created them. The built environment is both "mirror and lamp", shaping while acting as a repository of cultural meaning. As Churchill said, "We shape our buildings; thereafter they shape us." With their knowledge of the arts and culture, architects hold a comprehensive understanding of the project context and can help the design team move beyond mere problem-solving.

Education, Training, and Process for Whole Building Design

Holistic building design comes out of a comprehensive understanding of the project context. Kingman Island Environmental Education Center competition finalist.(Courtesy University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation)

As leaders and participants in the design process, architects need to understand and work collaboratively with other disciplines. To this end, architects need to pursue education and training throughout their professional careers. Many excellent examples of interdisciplinary design studios exist in the United States. These studios involve students, faculty, practicing design and engineering professionals, and even clients and regulatory officials. Some studios participate in service-learning projects to build structures for deserving clients. Everyone involved—students, professionals and members of the community—benefits from the process itself, as well as the cross-pollination of ideas and techniques. Examples include Studio 804 at the University of Kansas School of Architecture and Urban Design, and Architecture 600/611 Comprehensive Studio and Advanced Technology at the University of Maryland's School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation.

Continuing education is a lifelong endeavor for practicing architects and is mandated in many jurisdictions, as well as by The American Institute of Architects (AIA). Typically,

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this education involves technical training, management courses, legal and liability issues, and learning about new materials and products. The practice of seeking out training in the various aspects of leadership of an integrated design team, such as workshop facilitation, is not yet common. However, critical skills are needed to assume this role, which was addressed in a recent article in Environmental Building News. Current practitioners of integrated design, such as Terry Brennan of Camroden Associates, observe that architects have the intention to become cooperative but lack the skills. "The lead designer must be skilled in nurturing and giving form to the collective vision, rather than expressing his or her own vision. Not all architects are comfortable with this role, which is more akin to that of a midwife than to that of an individual artist." ( EBN , November 2004, "Integrated Design" feature article)

Project charrettes for the Kingman Island Environmental Education Center establish early and regular interaction among design team members.(Courtesy University of Maryland School of Architecture, Planning, and Preservation)

In daily practice, early and regular, structured interaction of the "Composite Master Builder," is critical to establishing a project vision and maintaining momentum throughout the design and construction process. Activities might include charrettes, workshops, peer review, and post-occupancy review.

The whole team interaction focuses on collaborative, integrated problem solving, to address issues such as:

accessibility aesthetics cost-effective solutions functional and operational considerations preservation of cultural artifacts productive environment for users safety and security environmental sustainability .

Emerging Issues

Evolution of Building Types

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Roger K. Lewis' view of emerging issues(Courtesy Roger K. Lewis)

The context of architectural practice is always evolving. Beginning with the subject of buildings themselves, the cataloguing of building types is a practice as old as the discipline. It is common to see evolution of building and program types, and adaptive reuse of waning types, as a mirror of a culture. Building types evolve in response to cultural change—new programmatic needs, recent events that challenge norms of an equitable accessibility as well as secure facilities and environments, and changes in practice to accommodate a diverse populace. Department stores, train stations, shopping malls, airports, high-rise apartment buildings, living machines, and recycling centers have changed our building and urban landscapes.

Smart Growth, Cities, and Landscapes

Evolutions in current architectural practice also include a re-commitment to community and public service, and an abiding interest and concern for our cities and landscapes. Both find articulation in "smart growth" initiatives, inventive real estate investment and development schemes, urban redevelopment, and trends in the historic preservation of cities and buildings. Additionally, cultural preservation is seen as equally important to building fabric preservation and conservation. Sustainable design takes these concerns further in advocating a beneficial relationship between the built and natural environments.

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Left: Cultural preservation and resource conservation in action at the Bradley residence, designed by Amy E. Gardner AIA.(Photo by the authors)And Right: In the Brown residence designed by Julie Gabrielli, sustainable design takes a "cradle-to-cradle" view, combining antique timbers with 21st century technologies—a "wondrous hybrid".(Photo by the authors)

In fact, the tilt towards a sustainable practice might well be thought of as an expected standard of practice, encompassing issues such as those connected to planning, zoning, and building codes; building science and performance; energy sources, management, and use; material resource management, science, and invention; and broad concepts of waste and renewal of natural and technical systems. Discussions of these concepts is persuasively argued by William McDonough and Michael Braungart in Cradle to Cradle.

Impact of Technology

Globalization of practice, especially as it relates to changes in the workforce, labor, and practice, has the potential to dramatically change the discipline. The outsourcing of design and drawing labor overseas; the robotic manufacturing of building components and materials; and the use of sophisticated three-dimensional computer programs to design buildings raise questions and challenge current modes of project delivery. Trends in computer-aided building design and manufacturing figure prominently in any discussion of project delivery methods.

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Norman Foster's Swiss Re Headquarters in London demonstrates sophisticated building technologies developed through advanced modeling systems.(Photo by the authors)

A significant current trend in computer programs for building design and documentation, for example, is the move towards Building Information Modeling. The initial purpose of computer drawing systems was to automate two dimensional drafting. It did so through representing three dimensional building elements with an assemblage of two dimensional symbols such as lines. However, Building Information Modeling (BIM) is an object-oriented CAD system, in which two-dimensional symbols that stood for building elements are replaced by three-dimensional objects with embedded information, capable of representing elements of construction. This allows for multiple views to be generated, for multiple building systems to be coordinated, for materials and quantities to be known and referenced to each other, all during the design and documentation phases of a project. These qualities allow for a degree of interconnectedness during design and documentation phases not readily achievable in two-dimensional CAD systems.

Industry experts predict that BIM will revolutionize not only the delivery of design and documents, but also the relationship between design team members, owners, and construction entities and the relationship between design and construction activities. However, Ken Sanders, FAIA, observes in the September 2004 issue of Architectural Record: that "the critical path isn't BIM, but rather process innovation squarely focused on people, partnerships, shared expertise, and timely decision making." Nevertheless changes in the way that design teams conceive, develop, and communicate information about buildings are positioned to have a dramatic impact on the practice of architecture.

Project Delivery Methods

Architectural projects can be executed through a variety of project delivery methods. Prior to the twentieth century, there was a single project delivery method—the architect won a commission, produced drawings for design and construction, pulled labor and materials lists together, and oversaw the building of the project. As architects moved the discipline towards a profession and away from a craft, different project delivery methods

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developed to accommodate the changing relationship between architects and craftspeople.

Currently, three project delivery methods dominate in the United States: design-bid-build, design-build, and construction management. In order to assist owners and the construction industry by establishing accepted definitions of project delivery methods, the AIA and the Associated General Contractors of America jointly created a document entitled "Primer on Project Delivery", offering information on these methods for owners and architects. However, each method may be summarized to capture a flavor of the intent. Design-bid-build is a method by which project delivery is separated into three distinct phases: a project is designed and documented with drawings and specifications, competitively bid to multiple general contractors, and then built by the general contractor, guided by a contract with the owner of the project. Design-build is a project delivery method in which a single entity (for example a general contractor in a joint venture with a design team including architects and engineers) holds a single contract with an owner for both the design and construction of a project. Finally, the construction management method is a process that involves the coordination and management of the entire process via a single entity—from site survey through occupation. It encompasses the evaluation, selection, and management of all contractors, as well as the administration of the project budget relative to the implementation of design.

Project Management within the Architect's Office

Project management is also a significant term within architectural practice. In the execution of a project, the work of all disciplines and relationships needs to be orchestrated—architectural design, the coordination of other design disciplines, team members' design and drawing work, client relationships, time and fee tracking, to name a few. This orchestration is achieved through the architectural project manger, a conductor of sorts. The goals of project management include the orchestration and integration of an overlapping set of issues including project scope, schedule and budgets, development of the design, management of the delivery team throughout the various phases of the project from inception to initial occupancy.

Contracts

Both project delivery methods and internal project management roles are evolving in a manner commensurate with evolutions in digital technologies, building technology, and construction case law. Similarly, contracts evolve following events in construction and professional case law. Currently, more than 90 documents authored by The American Institute of Architects constitute an industry standard for contracts and project administration forms—according to the AIA, "a significant body of case law concerning contracts for design and construction is based largely on the language of AIA standard forms."

Conclusion

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The changing context of architectural practice points to challenges to and opportunities for whole building design. Evolutions such as BIM have the potential to facilitate—or further complicate—integrated work. Areas of evolution should be carefully analyzed for potential avenues for integrated rather than episodic action, allowing the objectives of whole building design to be met in a holistic fashion.

Relevant Codes and Standards

History of Building Codes

Roger K. Lewis captures the complexity and magnitude of code requirements.(Courtesy Roger K. Lewis)

Since at least the Code of Hammurabi in the 18th Century BC, there have been codes governing the design and construction of buildings. While Hammurabi had rather onerous requirements for quality (for instance, if the owner is killed by a building, its builder is sentenced to death), many subsequent codes were established in reaction to dramatic events such as fires, earthquakes, and floods. Some codes, such as the Code of Napoleon, 18th Century AD, provided for loss replacement as a sort of insurance policy. Still other codes established rules for materials or systems: the Lord Mayor of London in 1189 required party walls between buildings, and the Charlestown General Assembly in 1740 required brick and stone for exterior walls.

Until recently, most building codes have been prescriptive, effectively casting design professionals in the role of negotiators between the owner's ideas and the realities of codes. High-performance, integrated building design recently started leading design teams away from this "just barely legal" approach. As a tool to aid in this process, the new performance-based building codes give the design team more flexibility in meeting requirements.

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1. List of Codes

The international Code Council (ICC) was formed from the joining of publishers of National and Standard Building Codes, Building Officials and Code Administrators International, the Southern Building Code Congress International, and the International Conference of Building Officials. The result of their merging was the International Code Series—part of the U.S.'s first unified comprehensive and coordinated building codes.

A. U.S. Code Organizations:

International Code Council (ICC) International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO), member of ICC Southern Building Code Congress International, Inc. (SBCCI), member of ICC International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials (IAPMO) National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Underwriters Laboratories (UL)

B. Codes:

Americans with Disabilities Act Guidelines (ADAAG) CABO One and Two Family Dwelling Code International Code Series: International Building Code (IBC) International Energy Conservation Code (IECC) International Fire Code (IFC) International Fuel Gas Code (IFGC) International Mechanical Code (IMC) International Plumbing Code (IPC) International Property Maintenance Code (IPMC) International Residential Code (IRC) National Building Code (BOCA NBC) National Fire Protection Association codes (NFPA) National Electric Codes (NEC) Uniform Building Code (UBC)

2. List of Standards and Organizations

Many of these organizations have voluntary standards for quality assurance. Others publish standards that are referenced by the LEED Green Building Rating Guide, for meeting requirements of various credits.

American Forest and Paper Association (AFPA) (formerly the National Forest Products Association)

American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) American National Standards Institute (ANSI) APA - The Engineered Wood Association (APA)

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American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)

ASTM International Architectural Woodwork Institute (AWI) American Wood Council (AWC) Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Federal Energy Management Program (FEMP) Federal Housing Administration (FHA) Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Illuminating Engineering Society of North America (IESNA) International Performance Measurement and Verification Protocol (IPMVP) National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) National Association of Home Builders (NAHB) National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) National Institute of Building Sciences - Construction Criteria Base (CCB) Underwriters Laboratories (UL) U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory

(FPL) U.S. Department of Commerce, National Technical Information Service (NTIS) U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)

3. Federal and Non Government Databases for Standards and Regulations

Whole Building Design Guide—Mandates/References Whole Building Design Guide—Construction Criteria Base

Major Resources

Professional Associations

Association of Collegiate Schools of Architecture (ASCA) The American Institute of Architects (AIA) American Institute of Architecture Students (AIAS) National Council of Architectural Registration Boards (NCARB) National Architectural Accrediting Board, Inc. (NAAB)

Related Organizations

Architecture Research Institute, Inc. Association for Computer Aided Design in Architecture (ACADIA) Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) Congress for the New Urbanism (CNU) Department of Energy (DOE):

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Energy Sources Energy Efficiency National Association of Homebuilders (NAHB) National Association of the Remodeling Industry (NARI) National Organization of Minority Architects (NOMA) Sustainable Buildings Industry Council (SBIC) Urban Land Institute (ULI) U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC)

Links to Other Organizations through NCARB

Bibliography

Resources are central to a knowledge-based practice of architecture.(Courtesy Roger K. Lewis)

History/Theory A History of Architecture: Settings and Rituals, 2nd edition by Spiro Kostof and

Greg Castillo. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 1995. A History of Architectural Theory: From Vitruvius to the Present by Hanno-

Walter Kruft. New York, NY: Princeton Architectural Press, 1994. Modern Architectural Theory: A Historical Survey, 1673-1968 by Harry

Mallgrave. New York, NY: Cambrige University Press, 2005. Sir Banister Fletcher's History of Architecture by Sir Banister Fletcher. New

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Building Science, Technology, Materials, and Assembly Architectural Graphic Standard by Charles George Ramsey, Harold Reeve

Sleeper, John Ray Hoke, 10th Edition, New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2000.

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The Architect's Studio Companion, 3rd Edition by Edward Allen and Joseph Iano. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2001.

Building Envelope by Randall Stout and Michael Garrison. Washington, DC: NCARB, 2004.

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Concrete Construction Manual by Friedbert Kind-Barkauskas, et al. Basel, Boston: Birkhauser, Ed. Detail, 1993.

EEBA Builders' Guides by Joe Lstiburek and Betsy Pettit. Canada: EEBA, 2001. Façade Construction Manual by Thomas Herzog, et al. Basel, Boston: Birkhauser,

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Climate and Architecture by Jeffrey Ellis Aronin, New York, NY: AMS Press, 1979.

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Daylighting Performance and Design, 2nd Edition by Gregg D. Ander. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2003.

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Hawkes. London, UK: E&FN Spon Press; New York: Chapman & Hall, 1996. A Golden Thread: 2500 Years of Solar Architecture and Technology by Ken Butti

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Hunter Lovins, Maureen Cureton, and William D. Browning. New York, NY: J. Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1998.

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Reshaping the Built Environment by Charles Kibert. Washington, DC: Island Press, 1999.

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Sustainable Architecture and Urbanism by Dominique Gauzin-Muller. Basel, Boston: Birkhauser 2002.

The Technology of Ecological Building by Klaus Daniels. Basel, Boston: Birkhauser, 1997.

Thermal Delight in Architecture by Lisa Heschong. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1979.

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Architect's Handbook of Professional Practice by Joseph Demkin. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2004.

Architectural Practice: A Critical View by Robert Gutman. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Architectural Press, 1988.

Architecture: Chapters in the History of the Profession, Reprint Edition by Dana Cuff and Spiro Kostof. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 2000.

Architecture: The Story of Practice by Dana Cuff. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992.

In the Scheme of Things: Alternative Thinking on the Practice of Architecture by Thomas Fisher. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2000.

A Theory for Practice: Architecture in Three Discourses by Bill Hubbard. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1995.

Digital Technologies Advanced Building Simulation Malkawi, Ali, and Augenbroe, Godfried, Eds.

New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2004. Architecture in the Digital Age: Design and Manufacturing Kolarevic, Branko Ed.

New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2003. Performative Architecture: Beyond Instrumentality Kolarevic, Branko and

Malkawi, Ali, Eds. New York, NY: Taylor & Francis, 2004. Digital Tectonics Leach, Neil, et al, Eds. London, UK: Wiley-Academy Press,

2004.

Webliography

Building Science, Technology, Materials, and Assembly

a. General: Building Envelopes.org Building Science Corporation DOE: Building Energy Codes ebuild HUD User: Building Technology Toolbase Services Whole Building Design Guide—Mandates/References Whole Building Design Guide—Construction Criteria Base

b. Materials: American Concrete Institute (ACI) American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Architectural Woodwork Institute (AWI) APA - Engineered Wood Association (APA) Canadian Wood Council Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) Hardwood Information Council

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Natural Building Resources Structural Board Association (SBA)

Sustainable Building Environments

a. General: BuildingGreen.com Built Green Center for the Built Environment Center for Resourceful Building Technology Development Center for Appropriate Technology DOE: Building Energy Codes Eco-Home™ Network Green Building Alliance Green Matrix Greener Buildings Greenroofs.com High-Performance Buildings Research Institute for the Built Environment NAHB Research Center: Guide to Developing Green Builder Programs OIKOS: Green Building Source Sustainable Buildings Industry Council Sustainable Sources

b. Sustainable Design Guidelines: Green Building Challenge National Park Service U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC)

c. Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy: Alternative Energy Store American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy Energy and Environmental Building Association (EEBA) EnergyStar GreenGoat HomePerformance.com RReDC Energy Tidbits The Source for Renewable Energy

d. Recycling: GreenGoat Recyclers' World ReDo: Reuse Development Organization Steel Recycling Institute

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Journals

AIArchitect Architecture Architecture Week Architectural Digest Architectural Record Architectural Review Archis Building Design and Construction Detail Dwell Ecotecture.com Environmental Building News Environmental Design and Construction Fine Homebuilding Harvard Design Magazine Metropolis Residential Architect Traditional Building Wood Design and Building

Dictionaries and Encyclopedias

Almanac of Architecture & Design Library 2005 by James P. Cramer, and Jennifer Y. Evans, eds. Atlanta, GA: Greenway Communications, 2004.

Sturgis' Illustrated Dictionary of Architecture and Building: An Unabridged Reprint of the 1901-1902 Edition by Russell Sturgis. New York, NY: Dover, 1989.

Dictionary of Architecture & Construction, 3rd Edition by Cyril Harris, Ed. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill, 2000.

Encyclopedia of Architecture: Design, Engineering & Construction by Joseph Wilkes and Robert Packard. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1989.

Illustrated Encyclopedia of Architects and Architecture by Dennis Sharp. New York, NY: Whitney Library of Design, 1991.

Multilingual Dictionary of Architecture and Building Terms by Chris Grech. New York, NY: Brunner-Routledge, 1998.

Design and Analysis Tools

Energy-10 IES "Virtual Environment" (IES (USA) Limited) REScheck (U.S. DOE Building Energy Codes Program, Residential Compliance) TRNSYS - (TRaNsient SYstem Simulation Program) VisualDOE (Architectural Energy Corporation)

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Training

Education and Continuing Education

See: Professional Organizations above

Acknowledgements–Credit and gratitude to Roger K. Lewis FAIA for wisdom, insight, and the use of his cartoons–Credit and gratitude also to George Holback AIA for the ideas in the section on the the History of Building Codes

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ToolsWelcome to the Tools section of the Whole Building Design Guide. These pages offer information on a variety of desktop or Web-based tools used in the building industry.

Browse Alphabetically

Browse by Category

Code ComplianceCost-EstimatingDesign & AnalysisEnergy AnalysisLife-Cycle Costing / AssessmentLife-Cycle Management / MaintenanceProfessional & Construction ServicesProgram & Project ManagementSpecification Aids

Browse by Agency Use

Air Force Civil Engineer Support Agency (AFCESA)Army Corps of Engineers (COE)Department of Energy (DOE)Department of Interior (DOI)Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)General Services Administration (GSA)National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)Naval Facilities Engineering Command (NAVFAC)U.S. Coast Guard (USCG)

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