Waterwheel 2010 05 Sep-Oct

8/8/2019 Waterwheel 2010 05 Sep-Oct

1/46 The Water Wheel September/October 2010 3

4 letters6 upfront

14emerging issuesSA hopes to answer big questions around the impact o smallscience

18 AquAtic ecosystemsTe hunts a oot or Krugers amphibians in new kiss-and-tell study 22

WAter historyOli ants River home to one o South A ricas oldest irrigationschemes

28 Acid mine drAinAgeAMD: Local solutions or local challenges31 ripAriAn hAbitAtTe all and all o Mapungubwes riverine orest

34AgricultureWRC tools help armers improve e ciency, cut costs

36 WAter personAlitiesTe ripple efect: Liani and Maria are cycling or change40

cApAcity buildingTe adventure o working together: Promoting transdisciplinarity between young water scientists

43 cApAcity buildingGrowing A ricas uture water leaders

44WAter kidzHow much water did you have today?

46 lAst WordCSIR showcases its science

THE WATER WHEEL is a two-monthlymagazine on water and water researchpublished by the South African WaterResearch Commission (WRC), astatutory organisation established in1971 by Act of Parliament.Subscription is free. Material in thispublication does not necessarily reflectthe considered opinions of the mem-bers of the WRC, and may be copiedwith acknow ledgement of source.

Editorial offices :Water Research Commission, PrivateBag X03, Gezina, 0031, Republic of South Africa.Tel (012) 330-0340. Fax (012) 331-2565.WRC Internet address :

http://www.wrc.org.zaEditor : Lani van Vuuren,E-mail: [email protected];Editorial Secretary : Mmatsie Masekoa,E-mail: [email protected];Layout : Drinie van Rensburg,E-mail: [email protected]

Cover : The debate is raging over the benefitsversus the risks of nanotechnology. See page 14.Cover illustration by Ralf Broemer.

ISSN 0258-2244 September/October 2010 Volume 9 No 5

Nano debate: Revolution or risk?

CONTENTS


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Letters

Appreciation or theWater Wheel

The team producingthe Water Wheel magazine deserves a jolly big paton the back. The magazine contents areinteresting, well written, in ormativeand o a very high quality. The layout andpresentation is superb and very pro es-sional. I particularly enjoy the articleson the history o dams and readerscomments.

Having been involved in hydrologyor some 41 years now, I nd the various

articles on climate change and globalwarming intriguing as many theoriesexist, resulting in our renowned scientistsoccasionally being at loggerheads witheach other, o ten leaving readers amusedand sometimes con used. More o thisplease.

You can truly be proud o an outstand-ing publication. Keep up the excellentwork.Felix Wulf, Pretoria

Why ORP was never expanded

In his letter inthe Water Wheel o July/August 2010 Robert Blythe wrote:The scope o the project as outlined in the1962 White Paper was ar greater thanhas actually been implemented since. Thisis particularly true o the irrigated areasto the west. There has been virtually notrans ormation o the desert .

The idea o making the desert bloomin the Karoo by means o supplyingwater rom the Orange River was simplyan illusion. To make a desert bloom bymeans o irrigated agriculture one needsboth (a) irrigable soils and (b) water. Inthe planning o the Orange River schemeattention was given only to the provisiono water. This consisted only o engineer-ing planning, such as identi cation o dam sites, types o dam wall structures,identi cation o water command lines orthe siting o canals or delivering water

rom the Vanderkloo Dam to envisagedirrigated areas, etc. All emphasis was

on irrigation development south o theOrange River, i.e. in the Karoo. North o the river provision was to be made only

or a small canal to supply water to theRama area.

No soil surveys were done be ore orduring the planning stage o the OrangeRiver scheme to determine how muchirrigable land there was in the envisagedirrigated areas and where these irrigablesoils were. Soil surveys were conductedonly when the Gariep Dam was alreadybeing constructed. When soil surveys

eventually started in the northern Karoo,close to where the Vanderkloo Dam wasto be built, it soon became clear thatthere were extremely little irrigable soilsin the area. There were only a ew smallareas near Hopetown.

The ndings by the young soil scien-tists doing the survey led to great drama.They started contacting Pro Roelo du Toit (Roel or Tu y) Burger, thenHead o the Department o SoilScience at the University o the Orange

Free State, in orming him o their nd-ings. They knew that he had the strengtho character to take this up strongly andclearly with the authorities in Pretoria,which he did repeatedly. He invariablyreceived nasty letters rom Pretoria tellinghim to keep his nose out o the matter. Iwas a young lecturer in his departmentat the time and he always discussed theproblem with me and showed me the let-ters. A ter one particularly nasty letter hesaid to me: Giel, moet ek nie maar liewer ophou nie. Dis nie goed vir my gesondheid nie. He had serious heart problems. Buta ter a while he said: Maar my gewetelaat my nie toe nie.

Eventually tenders were invited orthe construction o the Vanderkloo Dam.One day we received instructions to meeta delegation rom Pretoria in the boardroom o the Faculty o Agriculture to onceand or all tell them what our objectionsand reservations were. I remember wehad to meet on a Thursday in about themiddle o October in I think 1969, a week

be ore the contract or construction o the dam was to be awarded. The personswho received the instructions were Roel

Burger, Giel Laker, Boet Human (seniorlecturer in Agronomy at UOFS), Skroe van Zyl (senior lecturer in AgriculturalEngineering at UOFS) and Dries van derMerwe (soil scientist in the OFS regionat Glen). The Pretoria delegates includedDr SJ du Plessis, Deputy-Secretary o theDepartment o Agricultural Technical Ser-vices, Mr Kriel, Secretary o the Depart-ment o Water A airs, Mr Du Plessis, Chie Planning Engineer o the Department o Water A airs, and others. It was pointedout to the delegation that the extent

o irrigable soils south o the river wasextremely limited, but that there werelarge blocks o irrigable soils north o theriver, especially in the Plooysburg area.

The day o tough discussions was ol-lowed by a site visit on the Friday. I couldnot join the visit because o lecturingduties. As I le t the Agriculture buildingthe a ternoon Skroe arrived ull o smiles.He told me that be ore 10:00 the morningDr Du Plessis told his advisors that theyhad misled him.

The next week it was announced thatit was decided to postpone the construc-tion o the Vanderkloo Dam due to in a-tion. The act is that the dam, especiallythe outlets, had to be redesigned andbarely a year later construction o thedam started. The Minister o Water

A airs also announced that the plansregarding the areas to be irrigated romthe Vanderkloo Dam had been changeddrastically. Although it was very late, theauthorities this time at least listened tosoil scientists and adapted the planningaccordingly. Un ortunately this is seldomthe case, not only in South A rica. Anunused canal section south rom theVanderkloo Dam which was builtprematurely at a cost o about R2-million(a lot o money at the time) is still a silentmonument or what could have been a

major disaster.It can sa ely be said that Roel Burger,

through his unwaivering courage andperseverance saved the country rom aneconomic, agricultural and ecologicaldisaster.

To date there has been no large-scaleirrigation development on the irrigableareas identi ed north o the OrangeRiver. According to the PhD thesis o DrKoos Elo (1984) these amount to about370 000 ha, o which about 160 000 ha

are in the Plooysburg area. Only a ewsmall areas have since been developed.In 2009, a senior Water A airs engineertold me that there is presently no wateravailable or development o these largeirrigable areas. One wonders what wouldhave happened i there were large areas

Letters to the Editor

The Water Wheel September/October 20104


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Letters

o irrigable soils south o the river andthese were developed or i large areasnorth o the river were developed earlier.Ironically there is thus presently not a lacko irrigable land in the central parts o thecountry, just a lack o water.Pro Giel Laker, Pretoria

Climate change reader provides some answers

Pro essor Alexanders letter in theMay/June edition o the Water Wheel (Climate Change More Questions thanAnswers) is a de ense o his argumentthat there is no need to take measures

to mitigate against climate change.In support o his position, he makes anumber o points, none o which carryserious weight:

1 His research has shown no indicationo signifcant changes to rain all trends in South A rica.Pro essor Alexanders interpretation o his own research has been challengedby South A rican climatologists. Butwhatever the interpretation, rain all

in South A rica is but a tiny elemento the global climate. It cannot on itsown be used to judge whether climatemodels are accurate.

2 Rain all trends elsewhere in the world similarly show no evidence o climatechange.This is simply incorrect. For example,Australian researchers have ound alink between sur ace sea tempera-ture changes in the Indian Oceanand o Indonesia to the signi cantdecline in rain all in South EastAustralia since 1950. NASA has ounda link between drought in East A ricasince 1980 and higher Indian Oceantemperatures.

3 There has been no signifcant increasein global temperatures over the past

ew decades.Again, the scienti c evidence is to thecontrary. The UK Met Ofce recentlypublished a report indicating that

global temperatures have risen 0.75over the last 100 years, with 2000 to2009 being the warmest decade on

record. The NASA Goddard Instituteor Space Studies has ound that

global sur ace temperatures haveincreased signi cantly since the late1970s. These ndings (and manyothers) vindicate the hockey stickgraph mentioned in his letter.

4 The European winter o 2009/2010was one o the coldest on record.This is not a serious argument againstglobal warming. Firstly, there is noevidence that average global tem-peratures were cooler than normal,and secondly, climate is a long-termphenomenon. Climate has been

con used with weather.

5 Scientists at East Anglia UniversitysClimate Research Unit have beenmanipulating the evidence that supposedly points to anthropogenic (human induced) global warming(AGW).Pro essor Alexanders account o this episode is highly selective,

ocusing on the media headlinesquoting a ew ragments o themany thousands o e-mails releasedby the hackers. He omits crucialin ormation on subsequent inquiriesinto the matter: In January 2009 theScience and Technology Committeeo the British House o Commonsannounced an inquiry and called orsubmissions. The concerns expressedby the three scienti c institutionsmentioned by Dr Alexander ormedpart o their submissions to theinquiry. The inquiry report wasreleased at the end o March.It

cleared the scientists of all seriousallegations.On the integrity o thescientists, the inquiry ound thatthe scienti c reputation o Pro essorJones and CRU remains intact. Onthe actual climate science, it oundthat the controversy did not chal-lenge the scienti c consensus thatglobal warming is happening andthat it is induced by human activity.A more detailed inquiry into theconduct o the researchers was

set up by the University, led by aninternational team o scientists. TheCRU Scienti c Assessment Panel

was selected in consultation withthe Royal Society. It consisted o scientists rom Cambridge, ImperialCollege, MIT, University o Arizonaand ETH (Swiss Federal Institute o Technology, Zrich). Its conclusionswere even more emphatic. Accordingto the panels chairman, they oundabsolutely no evidence of any impropriety whatsoever , andconcluded that the allegations hadbeen made by people who do notlike the implications o some o theconclusions reached by CRU.

6 The International Panel on Climate

Change (IPCC) has been publishingalse in ormation to support its posi-

tion on AGW.These are errors in how the panels

ndings have been communicated,and have no bearing on theunderlying science. To label them as raudulent activities is ridiculous.What they indicate is that the IPCCshould exclude non-scienti c sources

or in ormation in its reports andimprove its editing procedures.

The IPCCs reports re ect the scienti cconsensus that anthropogenic globalwarming is happening now. This view issupported by the large majority o scien-ti c institutions across the world. Theseinclude the US National Academy o Sci-ences, the UK Met Ofce, the AmericanAssociation or the Advancement o Sci-ence, the American Geophysical Union,the American Institute o Physics andthe American Meteorological Society.Virtually all peer reviewed climato-

logical research on climate change alsosupports this consensus.

The implications o the consensus arethat the risk o rapid global warming isvery high, and that the consequenceso this are likely to be catastrophic orhuman society. In attempting to re utethe scienti c consensus, Pro essor Alex-ander has ocused on media headlinesand has regrettably made un oundedattacks on the integrity on ellow scien-tists at the University o East Anglia.

For any readers who are concernedabout the risk that global warmingposes to uture generations, and who

The Water Wheel September/October 2010 5

are interested in the answers to thepro essors questions, there is plenty o in ormation available. TheNew Scientist has a series Climate change: A guide

or the perplexed andThe Scientifc Americanhas published Seven Answersto Climate Contrarian Nonsense. Bothare easily ound on the Internet.Rob Dyer, Durban

Pro Will Alexander responds:

Climate change scientists have threeundamental obligations. First, theyhave to determine the natural conditions.

Second, they have to determine thedeparture rom these conditions i noaction is taken to control greenhouse gasemissions. Third, they have to determinethe reduction in the undesirable conse-quences i these emissions are controlled.These three responses have to be anumerical ormat in order to acilitatemitigation and adaptation procedures.The procedures in turn require thecooperation o those o us in the appliedand engineering sciences.

Sadly, climate change scientists re useto consider inputs rom those o us in theother disciplines. I have yet to see thisin ormation in a climate change publica-tion. The absence o this in ormation sup-ports my view that there is no need orconcern regarding climate change untilsuch time that this in ormation has beenproduced, veri ed and distributed.

The ollowing are the responses to RobDyers comments.

1 Rain all is the dominant concern glo-bally as well as in South A rica. Withoutit there would be no li e on this planet.I the model outputs predict a drierclimate when the opposite is the case,then they are obviously inaccurate.

2 There is no evidence o a decrease inSouth A rican rain all during the past100 years despite increasing globaltemperatures and emissions. Thisdemonstrates that there is a unda-mental error in the basic theory.

3 The hockey stick growth has been totallydiscredited. It is based on studies o tree


4/46 The Water Wheel September/October 20106

Letters Upfront


Letters

ISSN 0258-2244 July/August 2010 Volume 9 No 4

SAs peatlandsfacing extinction

Water bynumbers

20-million hectares The landarea o South A rica in ested withinvasive alien plants, according toa new report by the AgriculturalResearch Council. This is twice aslarge as previously estimated. Thelargest in estation o invasive alienplants occur in the Eastern Cape(600 000 ha a ected), ollowed byKwaZulu-Natal (300 000 ha).

R800 000 The money set asideby government or the LuvuvhuAdopt-a-River project in Limpopo,according to Deputy Minister o Water & Environmental A airsRejoice Mabuda hasi. Through thisinitiative around 100 women romvillages around Vhembe have beenidenti ed to clean the river or thenext year at a stipend.

1 600 The estimated numbero people who lost their livesin devastating oods triggeredby monsoon rains in Pakistan.

According to the UN, more than300 000 homes were destroyed ordamaged, 14 000 cattle perishedand 2,6 million acres o crop landwas inundated, leaving 17 millionpeople a ected.

50% The percentage o industrialdrainage that is returned or reusein urban and industrial areas suchas Johannesburg and Pretoria.

24 hours The notice given toCoal o A rica to cease all opera-tions at its Vele Colliery in the areao Mapungubwe, in Limpopo.The mine incurred the wrath o environmental groups when itallegedly started illegal miningoperations in this historic area.

15 The number o transboundaryrivers in southern A rica, whosecombined drainage area cover78% o the regions continentalland area. Major internationalrivers in the region include theCongo, Zambezi, Okavango,

Limpopo, Orange, and theCunene.

rings and ice cores. It suppresses thewell-documented historical warmand cold periods during the past1 000 years.

4 Climate change scientists are ond o claiming that unusual events are theconsequence o climate change, exceptwhen they are contrary to model pre-dictions when they become weather,not climate.

5 The climate gate a air and the needto appoint three committees toinvestigate it precipitated a ood o responses worldwide. These, in turn,

resulted in both the Royal Society andthe chairman o the IPC see havingto acknowledge that there were stilluncertainties in climate change theory.Both were previously adamant thatthe signs were settled. This was alsothe consensus view. Obviously theconsensus view is in error.

6 The claims in the IPC reports that theHimalayan glaciers would melt within25 years and that the Amazon orestswere being damaged by climatechange, were both acknowledged to be

alse and misleading. They were by nomeans simple editorial errors. They weredeliberate erroneous statements.

7 The statement that there is a scienti cconsensus that anthropogenic globalwarming is happening now is also

alse. Dr Jones and others haveacknowledged that there has been nosustained increase in global tempera-tures since 1998. The authorities that

are quoted by the writer have beenchallenged. They are ears that theworld could be entering a mini ice age.

8 The conclusion that the consequenceso increases in global temperaturescould be catastrophic or humansociety is unbelievably naive. Varia-tions in global climate are driven byvariations in the receipt and redistri-bution o solar energy, not variationsin global temperatures. Temperature

does not eature in the analysis o oods, droughts and water resourcedevelopment.

9 Finally, why does the writer not quotethe Royal Societys decision to rewriteits document on the basics o climatechange theory? There are also severalpublished books that are critical o climate change science.

Editor : The debate on this matter is now closed. No urther correspondence will be published in this regard.

Who is protectingimported peat?

Great magazine, although I have

some comments regarding thesaving o local peatlands rom exploi-tation (For Peat Sakes,the Water Wheel July/August 2010). The articlewas very in ormative and covered thewide ranging e ects o the destruc-tion o our peatlands, but what was jarring at cross purposes was the waythat the use o imported peat wascondoned.

It makes little sense that SouthA rican peat should not be exploitedor removed commercially by openingup the land or agriculture and devel-opment, but the imported peat romEurope is obtained at the expense o their marshes! Surely what is bad hereis bad there too!

I would not be com ortableprotecting our peatlands and eelingsmug about it when we well knowthat the imported peat we use is aproduct o the very actions we wantto stop here!Riyaz Nakhwa, Cape Town

New researchchair to look at

food securityand waterquality

Rising concern over the e ect o deteriorating water quality on thecountrys ood security has prompted theCSIR to establish a Research Chair in FoodSecurity and Water Quality.

According to Dr Paul Oberholster, lim-nologist at the CSIR, the need to establishsuch a chair became apparent a ter theconsideration o the results o recent pre-liminary studies conducted on behal o the Loskop Irrigation Board. Among oth-ers, the chair will scienti cally investigatethe extent and severity o water pollutionand its e ect on the availability and qual-ity o ood in South A rica. Funding willbe sought rom private-sector partners toachieve its goals.

The Transvaal Agriculture Union (TAU)has expressed its whole-hearted supporto the chair. The elements that go into

produce the nations ood are like the linksin a chain. All o these elements beit ertilisers, good soil or good water need to be in place to ensure optimalcrop production, explained TAU DeputyPresident Louis Meintjies. We have beenconcerned over the deteriorating qualityo South A ricas water or some time, andwe need to understand the overall impactthis is having on crop production and thenations ood security. We hope the newchair will be able to achieve this.



Upfront

A companys e orts to clean up its act

has won it an award.AECI has received the runner-up awardin the innovative strategies categoryo the Mail & Guardians Greening theFuture awards. The award was received

or the rms remediation initiatives at itsUmbogintwini Industrial Complex nearAmanzimtoti, KwaZulu-Natal.

The remediation project, led by SRKConsulting, was initiated in 1995 toaddress the contamination o land andgroundwater resources as a result o historical activities associated with themanu acture, storage and distribution o chemicals, agrochemicals and ertilisers.The Vumbuka Reserve, a 27-ha area inthe north-west portion o the complexproved the greatest challenge to theremediation team. This area was histori-cally used or the disposal o liquid andsemi-solid wastes, and had providedthe source or widespread o -site andon-site groundwater contamination.The main contaminants o concern were

chlorinated solvent. SRK consequently

developed a rehabilitation strategy orthe reserve containing six elements:hydraulic control o contaminatedgroundwater migration; minimisationo rainwater in ltration; managemento sur ace water run-o on to and romthe area; natural and enhancedin-situ source reduction; monitoring o per or-mance; and community liaison.

Hydraulic controls, such as theabstraction and treatment o ground-water, were implemented early in theproject to prevent urther ground-water contamination rom reachingthe neighbouring residential area o Ezimbokodweni. Dewatering the damsin the reserve also served to reducethe hydraulic head that was drivinggroundwater beyond the boundaries o the complex.

Furthermore, a ter much investiga-tion, a vegetative, evapo-transpiration(ET) cover was implemented to cap thedewatered dams and thus reduce rain-

water in ltration. The ET cover provides

long-term sustainability or remediationsince the microbial action associatedwith vegetation and its growth reducesmaintenance and provides contaminantsource reduction as roots grow deeperinto the waste body.

A ter evaluating the likelye ectiveness o various methodso contaminant source reduction,including physical removal by excava-tion and/or pumping and treating,in-situ bio-remediation was selectedas the pre erred approach. Monitor-ing o contaminant levels and otherparameters demonstrated that naturaldegradation is occurring in the damsarea o the Vumbuka Reserve, but thatin the so-called drums area (wheredrums originally containing chlorinatedhydrocarbon wastes have been buried)enhanced degradation will be required.A programme o in-situtrials was car-ried out by SRK and has resulted in theinjection o an organic substrate and

The Vumbuka dams rom theair prior to decommissioning( below ) and a ter rehabilitation ( bottom ).

Chemicals manufacturer cleans up its actbacterial population injected into selected

wells to create a bio-barrier within thedrums area.



Business leaders in biodiversity-richdeveloping economies are concernedabout losses o natural capital, accordingto a new report.

Over 50% o CEOs surveyed in LatinAmerica and 45% in A rica see declinesin biodiversity as a challenge to businessgrowth. In contrast, less than 20% o theircounterparts in western Europe sharesuch concerns.

The ndings, compiled by a study o The Economics o Ecosystems and Biodi-versity and backed by the United Nations,indicate that those corporate chie s who

ail to make sustainable management o

biodiversity part o their business plansmay nd themselves increasingly outo step with the market place. We areentering an era where the multi-trilliondollar losses o natural and nature-basedresources are starting to shape marketsand consumer concerns, noted UNEPExecutive Director Achim Steiner. Howcompanies respond to these risks, realitiesand opportunities will increasingly de netheir pro tability; corporate pro le in themarketplace and the overall developmentparadigm o the coming decades on aplanet o six billion to over nine billionby 2050.

Global nature non-governmental organi-sation (NGO) WWF has launched a newvoluntary rating tool or paper companies toreport on their global ecological ootprint.

Fine papers have everyday uses,including copier/printer paper, bookpaper, envelopes, orms, writing pads,high-quality magazines and brochures,catalogues and annual reports. The PaperCompany Environmental Index assesseskey environmental criteria, such as theuse o recycled or bre coming rom well-managed orests, energy use and carbondioxide emissions, water consumptionand water pollution.

Five globally signi cant ne papermanu acturers, including Mondi Group

rom South A rica, have been the rst to

voluntarily disclose their environmental pro-les on WWFs new Paper Company Index.

WWF applauds these companies or theirleadership and transparency,said Harri Kar- jalainen, WWFs Pulp and Paper ProgrammeManager. They are the vanguard o a moresustainable paper industry.

Other ne paper and tissue companieshave been invited to ollow suit, andshow what they have done to reduce theirglobal ecological ootprint. We hopethis new online tool can promote somehealthy competition within the paperindustry as to who can achieve the light-est ootprint, noted Karjalainen.

Results and pro les o the participat-ing companies can be ound atwww.panda.org/PaperCompanyIndex.

SA government commitsto protecting grasslands

Minister o Water & EnvironmentalA airs, Buyelwa Sonjica, togetherwith eight MECs responsible or environ-mental a airs have signed the GrasslandsDeclaration committing governmentto the conservation o grasslandsbiodiversity.

The Declaration is an e ort to collabo-rate in good aith to pursue biodiversitytargets and objectives in securing andsustaining the ecosystem services o thegrasslands biome. Among others, it com-mits government to take active measuresto involve stakeholders in the manage-ment and conservation o biodiversity o grasslands.

The South A rican grasslands biomeis the second-largest in South A rica,covering an area o 339 237 km2. It occurs

in eight o the countrys nine provinces.The grasslands biome is one o the mostthreatened biomes in South A rica, with30% o grasslands irreversibly trans-

ormed and only 1,9% o the biodiversitytarget or the biome ormally conserved.

According to Sonjica, grasslandssustain the economic heartland o SouthA rica by providing the bulk o its water.Several o South A ricas priority rivercatchments occur in the grasslands biome,including the Thukela River catchment.Good management o South A ricasmountain grasslands will result in morewater being released back into the rivercatchment system in the orm o 12,8 m3 o water in winter river ows. In Rand value,this equates to between R18-milion andR788,7-million per annum.

Biodiversity climbing thecorporate agenda study

Nature NGO measures worlds fnepaper ootprint

Are protected areas harbouringinvasive species?

Protected areas, long thought o assa e re uges or animals and plants,are under increasing threat rom invasivealien species, which not only a ect biodi-versity but also peoples livelihoods.

Protected areas can have huge socialand economic value, particularly in A rica,where national parks are a major touristattraction and a signi cant source o income. But according to the Global Inva-sive Species Programme, many managerso protected areas in A rica are not awareo the severity o the problem which is ontheir doorsteps nor how to address it.

Habitat conservation is vital orstemming the decline in biodiversity andthe establishment o protected areas is animportant mechanism or achieving thisaim, said Sarah Simons, Director o theGlobal Invasive Species Programme. But,with invasive species rapidly invading ourever-increasing protected areas unchecked,we are in danger o exacerbating one o thegreatest threats to our biodiversity.

A negligible amount o the undingspent on biodiversity conservation projectseach year is devoted to invasive species,even though they are the second biggestthreat to biodiversity globally, and in some

ecosystems, the biggest single threat tobiodiversity. In Zambia, or example, theGiant Mimosa ( Mimosa pigra), originallyalien to A rica, has spread over 3 000 hao prime habitat since being introduced tothe Ka ue oodplain in the 1980s, pushingout many large and important aquaticantelopes, water birds, reptiles, amphib-ians, sh, invertebrates and plants romtheir natural habitat.

Mesquite (Prosopis julifora) is one o the most widespread dryland invasivespecies in north and east A rica havingalready invaded 500 000 and 700 000 ha

in Kenya and Ethiopia respectively. Underideal conditions, it has the ability todouble its range every ve years.

We need to build invasive speciesmonitoring and management into regularprotected area management routines,maintained Geo rey Howard, IUCN GlobalInvasive Species Coordinator. Un ortunately,the vast majority o protected areas in A ricado not have the capacity or resources torecognise or identi y invasive species. Peopleare largely unaware o how damagingthey can be and, more importantly, do notpossess the necessary in ormation andequipment to actually manage them.



When rivers are impounded manyaquatic species adapted to ast-owing waters suddenly nd themselves

trapped in still reservoirs.Scientists rom Tulane University, in the

US, have discovered one species o resh-water sh that morphs into a new shape inresponse to a lake-like environment.

Among the characteristics o thereservoir-dwellingC. venusta, commonlyknown as the blacktail shiner, are smallerheads, lower-set eyes, a shorter dorsal npositioned closer to the head and deeperbodies.

The public hears that dams do thingslike prevent salmon rom migrating

upstream to spawn, or that some species arewiped out entirely within a stream whena dam goes in,reports Travis Haas, leadauthor o the study and a PhD student in theDepartment o Ecology and EvolutionaryBiology. But this is an example o a speciesthat remains in a stream that becomes a lakeand changes in response to it.

Haas studied the aquatic li e in eight pairso rivers and reservoir sites in the Mobile RiverBasin in Alabama. He ound that the charac-teristics o shiners rom reservoirs divergedconsistently rom those in rivers. This indicatesthat water impoundment constructingdams may be an evolutionary driver actingon aquatic biodiversity.

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Biodiversity protectioncan save nature and dollars

A more exible approach to theexpansion o protected area systemscould ultimately protect much morebiodiversity or the same budget.

This is according to a paper in scienti c journal,Nature. Lead author Dr RichardFullor o the University o Queensland,in Australia, said that without spendingextra money we could dramaticallyimprove the per ormance o protectedarea systems by replacing a small numbero poor per orming areas with more cost-e ective ones.

Protected areas are one o the mostimportant tools in modern nature conser-vation, with over 100 000 sites coveringabout 12% o the land and territorialwaters o countries worldwide. The paperexamines how e ectively di erent sitescan conserve a range o vegetation types.

Replacing the least cost-e ective1% o Australias 6 990 strictly protectedareas could more than double the numbero vegetation types that have 15% or

more o their original extent protected,Fuller noted. We can do this i wereverse the protection status o the leastcost-e ective sites and use the resultingcapital to establish and manage newprotected areas.

Fuller and his co-authors, includ-ing colleagues rom CSIRO and theUniversity o Queensland, acknowledgethat community values would needto be incorporated when consider-ing changes to the protected statuso selected reserves. However, thebene its o reducing management costsin low per orming areas are also worthexploring.

By being in ormed by this analysismethod, uture investments in protectedareas could better protect biodiversity

rom threats such as climate change. Asthe rate o investment in new protectedareas has slowed globally in recent yearsensuring the best places are protected ismore important than ever.

Shape-shi ting fsh adapts tochanging river conditions

New conservation plans orendangered wetland bird

New conservation plans or theSiberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus)covering its entire range and migrationroutes that span continents have now

been endorsed to save the species romextinction.

During its annual migration, theSiberian Crane travels 5 000 km rom itsbreeding grounds in Yakutia and westernSiberia, intermediate resting and eedingplaces, to its wintering sites in southernChina and Iran respectively. During theseextensive journeys along three migrationroutes, called yways, they overcomeconsiderable obstacles such as highmountains and vast deserts. Major threatslike hunting in West and Central Asia andthe drainage o critical wetlands in EastAsia put them at even greater risk. Only3 000 to 3 500 birds remain globally.

Now, under the new Siberian CraneWetland Project, supported by UNEPs

Global Environment Facility, governmentofcials, scientists and conservationistsare coming together to adopt strategiesto reduce hunting, improve water

management and mitigate the impact o climate change.

Among others, loss o wetlandhabitats is a major threat to the SiberianCrane. Water management or wetlandareas is there ore crucial. Agriculture use,diversion o water resources and channelshave resulted in severe shortages at thebirds critical habitats. This mismanage-ment is enhanced by climate change,intensi ying pressure on the species.

At present, plans are being preparedto improve water resource managementat sites such as the Thanedar Wala GameReserve and the Taunsa Barrage, bothlocated in Pakistan and recognised ortheir importance or migratory waterbirds.

Water onthe web

http://dev.unep-wcmc.org/csn/default.htmlThe critical site network (CSN) tool isa new online resource or the conser-vation o 294 species o water birds,and the important sites upon whichthey depend in A rica and WesternEurasia. Leading global conservation

organisations working or the protec-tion o water birds and their habitatshave joined orces to develop thistool, which makes it easy to obtainin ormation on the sites critical orwater bird species. It accesses severalindependent databases and analysesin ormation at the biogeographicalpopulation level, so providing a com-prehensive basis or managementand decision making.

www.iwawaterwiki.orgThe IWA (International Water Associa-tion) WaterWiki provides a plat orm orthe global water community to interactand share knowledge online. The siteaims to be a re erence or all areas o water, wastewater and environmentalscience and management.

www.wmo.int/youth/This is the youth Webpage o theWorld Meteorological Associa-tion. The site contains interestingin ormation about the climate andweather as well as games, videos, alibrary and links to other weather-related sites.



Global news

Malaria-proo mosquito a

world frstThe creation o genetically-alteredmosquitoes that cannot in ecthumans with malaria is providing newhope to countries where millions o people die rom the disease each year.

University o Arizona (UA) ento-mologists, who created the mosquitoeswhich are completely immune to themalaria parasite,Plasmodium, aim toone day replace wild mosquitoes withlab-bred populations unable to act asvectors. I you want to e ectively stopthe spreading o the malaria parasite,you need mosquitoes that are 100%resistant to it. I a single parasite slipsthrough and in ects a human, thewhole approach will be doomed to ail,says Pro Michael Riehle o the UAs Col-lege o Agriculture and Li e Sciences,who led the research e ort.

Riehles team used molecular biol-ogy techniques to design a piece o genetic in ormation capable o insert-

ing itsel into a mosquitos genome.This construct was then injected intothe eggs o the mosquitoes. The emerg-ing generation carries the alteredgenetic in ormation and passes it onto uture generations. For their experi-ments, the scientists used Anopheles stephensi , a mosquito species that is animportant malaria vector through theIndian subcontinent.

When the researchers studied thegenetically modi ed mosquitoes a ter

eeding them malaria-in ested blood,they noticed that thePlasmodium parasites did not in ect a single studyanimal. We were surprised how wellthis works, reports Riehle. We were justhoping to see some e ect on the mos-quitoes growth rate, li espan or theirsusceptibility to the parasite, but it wasgreat to see that our construct blockedthe in ection process completely.

The research has been published inthe July 15 edition o the journalPublic Library o Science Pathogens. For more

in ormation, go towww.plospatho-gens.org/home.action.

Women are literallywearing theanswer to cleaner waterand better health,according to a study inBangladesh.

Using the simple sarito lter household waterprotects not only thehousehold rom cholera,but reduces the incidence

o disease in neighbouring householdsthat do not lter. During an earlier study,this ltering method was eld tested inMatlab, Bangladesh, and proved to reducethe incidence o cholera by 48%. Thislatest ollow-up study, conducted veyears later to see whether ltering by sarihas persisted, showed that nearly a thirdo the village women continued to lterwater or their households, with bothan expected and unexpected bene t,explains Rita Colwell o the University o Maryland, a researcher on the study.

Over 7 000 village women collectingwater daily or their households inBangladesh were selected rom the samepopulation used in the previous study.Survey data showed that 31% continuedto lter their water, o which 60% useda sari. This is a clear indication o both

compliance with instructions and thesustainability o the method, but it alsoshows the need or continuing educationin the appropriate use and bene ts o simple ltration, notes Colwell.

The researchers also looked at theincidence o cholera in households duringthe ollow-up period. While not statisticallysigni cant, they ound the incidence o hospitalisation or cholera during the

ve-year period between studies reducedby 25%. With the lower rate o ltrationin this ollow-up study, it is not surprisingthat the observed reduction in diseasewas not as high as the 48% observed inthe original trial, suggesting that activerein orcement would have been e ective inensuring higher protection, says Colwell.

Researchers also ound an indirectbene t. Household that did not lter theirwater, but were located in neighbour-hoods where water ltration was regu-larly practiced by others also had a lowerincidence o cholera. Results o this studyshowed that the practice o ltration notonly was accepted and sustained by thevillagers but also bene ted those who

ltered their water, as well as their neigh-bours not ltering water or householduse, in reducing the incidence o cholera,concludes Colwell.

UN declaresaccess to clean

water andsanitation ahuman right

Sa e and clean drinking water andsanitation is a human right essentialto the ull enjoyment o li e and all otherhuman rights, the General Assembly o the United Nations (UN) has declared.

The 192-member Assembly also calledon UN member states and internationalorganisations to o er unding, technol-ogy and other resources to help poorercountries scale up their e orts to provideclean, accessible and a ordable drinkingwater and sanitation to all. The text o thelatest resolution expressed deep concernthat an estimated 884-million people lackaccess to sa e drinking water and morethan 2,6 billion people do not have accessto basic sanitation. Studies also indicatethat about 1,5 million children under theage o ve die each year and 443 millionschool days are lost because o water- andsanitation-related diseases.

Simple sari cloth holdskey to better health

Waterborne diseases could cost US over $500-m a year

Hospitalisations or three commonwaterborne diseases cost the Americanhealthcare system as much as US$539-mil-lion a year, according to researchers rom theCentre or Disease Control and Prevention.

These cost data highlight that water-related diseases pose not only a physicalburden to the thousands o people sickenedby them each year, but are also a substantialburden in healthcare costs, including directgovernment payments, reports MichaelBeach, who led the study.

At present, there are well-documenteddata on the total healthcare costs asso-ciated with all waterborne diseases.However, using data rom a large insuranceclaims database between 2004 and 2007,

Beach and his colleagues estimated thehospitalisation cost o three common

waterborne diseases in the US, namelyLegionnaires disease, cryptosporidiosis andgiardiasis. For each case o disease, theycalculated the cost paid by the insurer, theout-o -pocket cost to the patient and thetotal amount paid.

Total estimated costs or hospitalisationor the three diseases was between

US$154-million and US$539-million.In-patient hospitalisation costs per case aver-aged more than US$34 000 or Legionnairesdisease, about US$9 000 or giardiasis andmore than US$21 000 or cryptosporidiosis.When people think about these diseases,they usually think o a simple case o diar-

rhoea, which is a nuisance but quickly goesaway. However, these in ections can cause

severe illness that o ten result in hospitalstays o more than a week, which can quicklydrive up healthcare costs,notes Beach. Othersymptoms can include rashes, eye and earin ections and respiratory or neurologicalsystems, and can be atal in severe cases.

Modest investments in preventing thesediseases could lead to reduced diseaseand signi cant healthcare cost savings,maintains Beach. Some examples o possible, low-cost interventions includepublic education campaigns, appropriatemaintenance o water systems, and regularinspection o pools and other recreationalwater acilities.



Company news

VWS Envig has been awarded a contractto supply a KwaZulu-Natal basedchemical manu acturing company with awastewater treatment plant.

The plant comprises two evaporationtechnology package units only thesecond pair in the country.

The initial contract negotiated coveredsupply only, however, this was laterconverted to a turnkey contract. Theclient required that no liquid dischargeshould leave the plant. A ter research andconsultation, contract engineer proposedthe so-called EVALED evaporators.

It was established that the e uentproduced by the manu acturing plant wouldhardly be treatable using conventional treat-ment technology, there ore the decision touse these evaporators, which are particularlysuited to treating e uent with high chemi-cal oxygen demand and high concentrationso salts, organics and metals,explains VWS

Envig GM Wayne Taljaard.The e uent will be treated in the rst

evaporator, recovering 12 m3/day o water.Then the treated water or distillate willbe returned to the clients process systemto be re-used. The concentrate rom the

rst evaporator will be trans erred to thesecond or urther treatment.

At this stage, a urther 2 m3/day o water will be recovered, with the result-ing concentrate being discharged as asemi-solid. This plant is unique in that nopre-treatment is required. The e uent willbe ed directly into the evaporators withsigni cant cost savings, notes Taljaard.

With this technology, the produc-tion plant has the potential to become acomplete zero liquid e uent discharge

acility which has ar reaching environmen-tal bene ts. Commissioning o the plantis anticipated during the third quarter o 2010.

Specialist contractor BBE has concep-tualised and designed an unusualwater thermal storage scheme or ImpalaPlatinum in the North West.

The system promises to achievesigni cant power savings. The challengehas been to introduce water thermalstorage into the cooling systems on sevensha ts using existing water storage dams

or both hot and cold water storage at

di erent times during the day, explainsBBE MD Richard Gundersen.Five o the sha ts have dams where

the hot and cold water is stored, relyingon thermal strati cation alone. In thesedams, the height to diameter ratio is suchthat the hot water remains above thecold with minimal mixing. The shape o the other two sha t dams (shallow, largediameter) has required another means o keeping the hot and cold water separate.

New packaged wastewater treat-ment units or chemical company

New pipeline brings more water to iLembe

Robor Pipe Systems has success ullycompleted a contract or UmgeniWater to convey water rom the TugelaRiver to the iLembe District Municipality inKwaZulu-Natal.

The company handled both the bulkwater pumping system and reticula-tion, providing a 150NB steel pipe orthe project. More than 16 000 peoplehave gained access to potable waterthrough this scheme.

The project involved the upgradingo abstraction works on the Tugela River,water treatment works and pumping

systems, concrete reservoirs, 21 km o bulksupply pipelines and take-o points. RoborPipe Systems supplied pipe coating, liningand jointing, and was involved in cathodicprotection particularly or this scheme.

Galvanised piping was selected andexternally coated with a patented shrinkwrap product that helps to protect the steelpipeline rom corrosion and deterioration.The solution also o ers cathodic protection.

In order to meet the requirements o Umgeni Water, TOSAwrap was re-speci edand is now compliant with the internationalstandard EN12068, which governs corrosion

Consequently each dam has been ttedwith ve plasticised canvas bladders, witha combined capacity o 3 M per dam. Thelargest bladder measures 30 m by 7 m andis 6 m high when ull. The bladders havebeen secured to the base o the dam and apiping system eeds and extracts the coldwater in and out o the bladder, while thehot water is ed and extracted rom thesurrounding area.

The capital costs or the simultaneousstorage o hot and cold water in the samereservoir has been achieved at a raction o the cost o a new dam, says Gundersen. Theelectrical operating costs will be reduced byproducing more cold water than is requiredduring o -peak tari periods, then switch-ing the re rigeration machines o duringthe peak tari periods o the day and usingthe stored cold water. The saving is achievedthrough the tari di erential.

Unusual technology separateshot and cold water at Implats

protection or buried pipelines and coversper ormance and quality assurance. Thisstatus elevates Robor Pipe Systems into anunusual market space and o ers customersgreater value, as well as peace o mind.

Robor Pipe Systems GM Gavin Faitexpressed his delight with the companysinvolvement in the iLembe project. It isgreat that the South A rican government isstarting to ul l its promises. The market isbuzzing with activity as municipalities beginto award projects to speed up the delivery o water to people, and Robor Pipe Systems isvery proud to be a part o this drive.



WRC reports

Report No: 1685/1/10The Use o 222Rn as a Hydrological Tracer in Natural and Polluted Environments(PJ Hobbs; R Lindsay; A Maherry; M Matshaya; RT Newman and SA Talha)Radon-222 (222Rn or simply radon) is aninert odourless and colourless noble gasthat occurs naturally in air, water, rocksand soil. The daughter o 226Ra, it is aradioactive isotope with a hal -li e o 3.82days. These properties have promotedits use as a natural t racer in numeroushydrological and hydrogeological applica-

tions. The use o 222Rn in groundwaterstudies has not enjoyed much attentionin South A rica, being limited to thetracing o ault zones in groundwaterexploration. A study o its local applica-tions as a hydrological tracer in naturaland polluted environments is there oreboth appropriate and opportune, as is acomparison o the results produced byvarious measurement methods.

Report No: TT 446/10

Investigation o the Positive and NegativeConsequences Associated with the Intro-duction o Zero-phosphate Detergents into South A rica (LM Quayle; CWS Dickens; M Graham; D Simpson; A Goliger; JK Dickens; S Freese and J Blignaut)

eutrophication o water resources, andthe apparent ailure o the legislate1 mg/ e uent phosphate concentrationstandard to control this problem, theWRC identi ed the need to investigatethe positive and negative consequencesassociated with the introduction o zero-phosphate powdered laundry detergentsinto the South A rican market. Amongothers, the project reviewed currentlocal and international best practicewith regards to the use and restriction o phosphates in detergents; estimated the

impact detergent phosphates are havingon the phosphate loading and e cacyo wastewater treatment plants as wellas the requency and severity o algalblooms in key dams; and investigatedthe impacts o the introduction o zero-phosphate detergents on the wastedischarge charge system.

Report No 1496/1/10 A Stakeholder Driven Process to Develop aCatchment Management Plan or the Kat

Valley (K Rowntree; S Birkholz; J Burt and S Farolf)The WRC has supported catchmentmanagement in the Kat River valley,in the Eastern Cape, since 2004. Thisreport details the process and outcomeso the development o a catchmentmanagement plan or the valley bylocal stakeholders and researchers romRhodes University. In the Kat River valley,the principle objective o the catchmentmanagement plan was to establish awater allocation plan or present and

uture water use in the valley, and toacilitate the water licensing process in

the catchment.

Report No: 1503/1/10Land Use Impacts on Salinity in Berg River Water Research on Berg River Water Management (WP de Clerq; N Jovanovic and MV Fey)Dryland salinity is widespread throughoutsemi-arid regions o the world, including

some o the major catchments o theWestern Cape, with wheat lands inthe Swartland and Overberg regionswidely known to contain brak kolle(saline scalds) where the wheat will notgerminate. Numerous salinisation studieshave been conducted, however, theydo not seem to address the possibilitythat changes in land use over the lastcentury, rom extensive pastoral use tointensive cropping, may have triggeredsalt decantation. This three-year project

ollowed a preliminary study published in

2004, which ound convincing evidenceo dryland salinisation impacts on waterquality in the Berg River. The central aimwas to develop a thorough understand-ing o water and salinity dynamics in theregolith o a small dryland catchmentrepresentative o semi-arid conditionsin the Berg River basin. The perspectivewould include not only salt sources andstorage but also groundwater fuxes andcatchment runo in order to in orm uturelarge-scale modelling, and to guide the

design o practices that reduce the degra-dation o land and water resources.

Report No: 1313/2/10Development o Protocols or Acute FishToxicity Bioassays, using Suitable Indi- genous Freshwater Fish Species (VE Rall; JS Engelbrecht; H Musgrave; LJ Rall;DBG Williams; R Simelane)Toxicity testing is playing an increas-ingly important role in water resourcemanagement in South A rica. A need wasidenti ed or nationally standardised shbioassay protocols as well as or the useo indigenous sh representing receptororganisms actually present in aquaticecosystems to extrapolate meaning ul,relevant and ecologically signi cantresults and management objectives

rom ecotoxicity tests. This project,initiated in 2002, aimed to, amongothers, develop capacity to ensure thecontinued production o adequate testorganisms to be provided to research

and consulting acilities in South A rica;establish protocols or the laboratoryculturing and maintenance o selectedindigenous reshwater sh species, oruse in ecotoxicity testing; and to establish

sh bioassay protocols which will providerepresentative data or ecosystems in theSouth A rican context.

Report No: TT 454/10Integrated Management o Water Hyacinthin South A rica: Development o an Inte- grated Management Plan or Water Hya-

cinth Control, combining Biological Control,Herbicidal Control and Nutrient Control,Tailored to the Climatic Regions o South A rica (M Byrne; M Hill; M Robertson; AKing; A Jadhav; N Katembo; J Wilson;R Brudwig and J Fisher)Water hyacinth is South A ricas mostdamaging foating aquatic weed. Despitenotable success with the biological con-trol o other foating aquatic weeds, and aconcerted biological control e ort againstwater hyacinth, its populations continue

to reach newsworthy proportions onmajor rivers and dams. The researchpresented in this report addressed thee ect o temperature and nutrients onthe growth o water hyacinth and someo its biological control agents. It alsoinvestigated the interaction o herbicideapplication with biological control. This

has been done in light o

New rom the WRC

To order any o these reports, contact Publications at Tel: (012) 330-0340;fax (012) 331-2565; E-mail: [email protected] or visit: www.wrc.org.za

In ve s t iga t ion o f t he po s i t i ve and nega t i

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con sequence s a s soc ia ted w i t h t he in t ro

duc t ion

o f ze ro- p ho s p ha te de te rgen t s in to Sou t h

A f r ica

LM Qua y le, C W S D ic ken s, M G ra ham,

D S im p son,A Go l ige r, J K D ic ken s,

SF ree se &J B l ignau t

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I n T e g r aT e d M an ag e M e n T o f W aT e r H y ac I n T H I n S o u T H af r I c a:

d v l p m t i t t m m t p l w t h i t h t l ,

m b i i b i l i l t l , h b i i l t l t i t t l ,

t i l t t h l i m t i i s S t h a i M s B , M t i H i l l , M k r b t s , a t h

K i , as h w i i J h v , n w j i K t m b , J h W i l s ,

r B v i & J l f i s h

In response to the growing awareness o the role played by phosphate containedin powdered laundry detergents in the



WRC reports

discovering a sublethal dose o herbicidewhich will retain water hyacinth plants ina system to maintain populations o theagents. In addition, a management planhas been developed to guide water man-agers as to what action should be takenin terms o combining biological controlwith herbicidal control under di erentclimatic and nutrient conditions.

Report No: TT 458/10Towards Standards or Municipal Invoicesin South A rica (Sarah Slabbert Associates)

Report No: 1554/1/10Kinetic Development o Oxidation Zones inTailings Dams with Specifc Re erence to theWitwatersrand Gold Mine Tailings Dams(B Yibas; W Pulles and C Nengovhela)The understanding o oxidation zonesand phreatic water sur aces plays animportant role in the prediction o acidrock drainage. Many gold mines in SouthA rica are currently engaged in activereclamation o gold tailings dams. Thislarge-scale reclamation o dams providesa per ect opportunity to study tailingsdam pro les and characterise theiroxidation pro les. This study o oxidationzones o tailings dams was initiated based

on literature surveys conducted by PHDand personal communications, whichshowed that the reported values or thedepth o the oxidation zones o gold-minetailings in the Witwatersrand Basin areinconsistent and have a considerablerange rom 20 cm to more than 7 m. It isbelieved that the ndings o this projecthave advanced our knowledge andability to practically implement improvedprediction capacity by being able to bet-ter understand the active oxidation zonewithin the tailings dams that need to bedescribed in a predictive model.

Report No: 1565/1/10Flow Conceptualisation, Recharge and Storativity Determination in Karoo Aqui-

ers, with Special Emphasis on Mzimvubu-,Keiskamma- and Mvoti-Umzimkulu Water Management Areas (C Dondo; L Chevallier; AC Wood ord; R Murray; LO Nhleko; A Nomnganga and D Gqiba)The WRC and Department o WaterA airs have invested substantial

nancial resources on research into thegeohydrology o Karoo aqui er systemsover the past three decades. However,it has been shown that little geohydro-logical research has ocused on the Karooaqui ers in the Eastern Cape and southernKwaZulu-Natal, where the basic needs

or clean drinking water are the greatest.Thousands o boreholes have been drilledin the area and the data collected, suchas borehole depths, water strikes, strikeyields and pumping tests, were not previ-

ously organised into a use ul and easilyaccessible ormat. The need was there oreidenti ed to properly restructure it in

order to develop reasonable conceptualmodels describing the occurrence andfow dynamics o groundwater in theEastern Karoo Basin.

Report No: 1785/1/09Review o Technology Used in Strategic Asset Management: Existing and FutureNeeds (CJ von Holdt; HMS Belmonte and JE Amadi-Echendu)This study was commissioned by the WRCprimarily to determine what technologiesare currently available to water ut ilitiesthat can be used to determine thecondition o assets deployed or waterextraction, storage and distribution. The

study also reviewed national and interna-tional trends in management processeswith regard to condition assessment,and prediction o asset per ormance andasset risk determination techniques asapplicable to water assets. It is envisagedthat this review would serve as a use ulpoint o re erence or South A ricanutilities as they embark on the journeytowards e ective management o waterin rastructure assets.

Report No: TT 433/09 toTT 443/09Wetland Health and Importance ResearchProgramme (H Malan Series Editor)This series o reports (No 1 to 11) isan output o the Wetland Health andImportance research programme undedby the WRC. This programme orms Phase2 o the National Wetlands Research Pro-gramme, and is broadly aimed at assess-ing wetland environmental condition andsocio-economic importance. The seriesincludes reports on assessing wetland

environmental condition using biota,

TT 434/09

Wetland Health and Importance Research Programme

The Assessment of Temporary WetlandsDuring Dry Conditions

2

Authors: J Day, E Day, V Ross-Gillespie & A KetleySeries Editor: H Malan

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T T 458 /10

To wards s tandards for

municipal in voices in Sou th A frica

Sarah Slabber t Associa tes

broad-scale assessment o impacts andecosystem services, and socio-economicand sustainability studies.

Report No: KV 242/10Developing Sediment Quality Guidelines or South A rica (AK Gordon and WJ Muller)The issue o sediment contaminationin South A rican reshwaters has beenlargely ignored. Currently no sedimentquality guidelines exist or reshwaters inthis country. The objective o this projectwas to critically review sediment qualityguidelines derivation methods beingutilised internationally, and to identi yspeci c actors that need addressing in

order to derive and implement e ectivesediment quality guidelines in SouthA rica.

Report No: 1690/1/09Remote Sensing as a Tool or Resource Assessment towards the Determinationo the Legal Compliance o Sur ace and Groundwater Use (L Gibson; Z Mnch; J Engelbrecht; N Petersen & J Conrad)Since South A rica is such a water scarcecountry, it is important or water resourcemanagers to have accurate in ormationon all aspects o water resource occur-rence and use. This includes knowledgeo the level o compliance o water usersto water use licence legislation and thequantity o unlicensed water usage andstorage. The overall objective o thisproject was to determine the use ul-ness and applicability o using remotesensing technologies as a tool or resourceassessment towards the determinationo the legal compliance o sur ace andgroundwater use.

The tax invoices or bills that municipali-ties send out to customers on a monthlybasis are a key inter ace between localgovernment and citizens. Consumerslevel o understanding o their municipalinvoices is there ore indicative o thee ectiveness o this communication.Local and international research hasshown that consumers o many municipalentities, in both the developed anddeveloping countries, struggle to under-stand their municipal invoices. A lack o understanding o invoices has a negativee ect on customer awareness, participa-tion and the regulation o water services.It also leads to distrust in the correctnesso the invoice, which, in turn, could a ectconsumers willingness to pay. Throughthis document, the WRC has created aplat orm or South A rican municipalitiesto work towards improving complianceand standardising their domestic munici-pal invoices. The standards document isan e ort to steer municipalities, nancial

services, businesses and customerstowards quality and e ciency in watermanagement.


12/46

Emerging issuesSA hopes to answer big questionsaround the impact of small science


Materials with nano-scaledimensions are as old astime and often occur natu-

rally in the environment, for example, volcanic dust, pollen grains and min-eral composites. However, our ability to manufacture engineered nanomate-rials is relatively new. The small size of these materials (one nanometre equalsa billionth of a metre) means they have different properties than thoseof larger particles of the same sub-stance; they may be more conductive,stronger, or more chemically reactive,for example.

Because of these novel proper-ties engineered nanomaterials offerconsiderable promise, from businessopportunities to meeting global chal-lenges in energy, water treatment,healthcare and climate change. To date,billions of dollars have been investedin research and development (R&D)in this field by governments (includingSouth Africa) and private investors.

Since the Water Wheel first intro-duced nanotechnology to its readersin 2008 (January/February edition)the number of consumer productscontaining engineered nanomateri-als has increased considerably. At

present, there are more than 1 000nanotechnology-enabled consumerproducts available to the public

globally and the number is growingexponentially on a daily basis.

Today, one can find these tiny particles in everything from non-stick cookware and batteries to T-shirts andhealth supplements. It is estimatedthat at the present rate, the inventory will reach the 1 600 mark within thenext year. By 2014, nanotechnology isexpected to contribute up to 15% of the global manufacturing output, witha worldwide economic value exceeding

US$2,6-trillion. The USA, Japan andEuropean countries such as Germany,France and the United Kingdom arethe global nanotechnology leaders inbusiness. However, newcomers suchas China, India and Korea are fastgrowing in this field with respect tothe number of patents registered andscientific papers published.

NaNotechNology iNSouth africa

In South Africa, nanotechnol-ogy, while still in its infancy,

has grown rapidly since the launchof the National Nanotechnology Strategy in 2006. To date, the gov-

ernment, through the Departmentof Science & Technology (DST),has invested over R170-million indifferent aspects of nanotechnol-ogy R&D. The core R&D efforts arechiefly focused on the developmentof engineered nanomaterials.

Academic institutions, forinstance, the universities of Johan-nesburg, Witwatersrand, Zululandand Stellenbosch, have developedstrong nanotechnology research

centres. Similarly, the potential of nanotechnology has been recognisedby organisations such as the CSIR,Mintek and the Water ResearchCommission (WRC), and it isexpected that others, particularly from industry, will soon follow suit.

This year the WRC, for example,is investing more than R1,7-millionin nanotechnology R&D projects,mostly towards the treatment of water and wastewater (domestic,industrial and mining) and for envi-ronmental remedial applications,such as the treatment of acid minedrainage. The Commission is also

From everyday consumer productssuch as socks, paints and sunscreens tosophisticated applications in healthcareand water treatment, nanotechnology isfast becoming one of the most important drivers of innovation in the twenty-first century. But whereas promoters of engineered nanomaterials are hailingit as the catalyst of the next industrial

revolution, South Africa has recognised theneed for action against potential health,safety and environmental risks. Article by Lani van Vuuren and Ndeke Musee.



Emerging issues

represented on the Steering Com-mittee of Minteks Nanotechnology Innovation Centre as well as on theInternational Water AssociationsWater and Nano Specialist Groupto closely track global advances innanotechnology.

The potential benefits of nano-technology are staggering andalmost limitless, reports Dr JoBurgess, WRC Research Manager.Just looking at the water sector,nanotechnology has endless poten-tial applications from drinking watertreatment (both routine and in emer-gencies), treatment of sewage, new

water pipes that are hydrophobic anddo not corrode, to selective ways of removing metals from wastewater,one at a time.

BeNefitS vS riSkS

While the potential benefits of nanotechnology in all aspectsof human life is beyond debate, thereis growing global concern over thepotential health, safety and environ-

mental implications of this technol-ogy both to humans and ecosystems.It is recognised that because of thewidespread use of engineered nano-materials in consumer products andindustrial applications our exposureto them is practically unavoidable.For example, engineered nano-materials used in products such asfuel additives, cosmetics, and sprayswill interact directly with people andthe environment.

Another example is silver nano-particles used in socks and otherproducts for antibacterial purposes,which have been shown by US sci-entists to result in unexpectedly highincreases in the concentrations inbiosolids in wastewater systems andare suspected to kill many of themicroorganisms that are essential forthe optimal functioning of biologicalwastewater treatment systems (e.g.nitrogen removing bacteria respon-sible for the removal of nitrates from

wastewater). Other preliminary international scientific research hasshown that many types of engineering

nanoparticles are potentially toxic tohuman tissue and cell cultures.

Unlike macro-scale chemicalswhose toxic effects are dependent oninherent chemical composition, in thecase of engineered nano materials, thetoxicity is dependent on numerous fac-tors, particularly the physico-chemicalproperties (e.g. surface chemistry,size, shape, surface area, etc) andenvironmental factors (surroundingpH, organic matter, ionic strength,cell membrane, etc.). This large num-ber of factors has made it difficult toadequately elucidate the toxicologicaleffects of engineered nanomaterials to

the receptor organisms.Because the properties of engi-

neered nanomaterials are distinc-tive from those of their counterpartmacro-scale chemicals the presentrisk assessment tools used for thelatter may not be adequate to evaluatethe risk of materials with nano-scaledimensions. We simply have not yetdeveloped the tools or the humancapacity to assess the risk of engi-neered nanomaterials and/or monitortheir movement in the environment.For this reason, tracking the fate andbehaviour of engineered nanomateri-als in the environment is currently impossible. (Looking for a nanopar-ticle in a river, for example, is likekicking a soccer ball somewhere onEarth and then attempting to deter-mine where it fell).

It is for these reasons that, accord-ing to Dr Burgess, finding a way of adequately assessing the risk of engi-neered nanomaterials is extremely

important. Among the questionsremaining are those surroundingthe potential bioaccumulation andbio-persistence of these materials inspecies; links between the physico-chemical properties of engineerednanomaterials and the observedecotoxicity in animals and plants; andthe effect of weathering of both engi-neered nanomaterials and covalentsurface modifications under diverseenvironmental conditions, just to

name but a few.It is also important to note thatthere may be a substantial difference

in the toxicity of nanoparticleswhen exposure of them occurs inthe workplace, or near the point of manu facturing due to the high con-centrations of mobile nanoparticles ator near that point, explains StphanRoux of CSIRs National Resourcesand the Environment (NRE). Oncereleased into the environment,nanoparticles may well become bio-unavailable very quickly due to theaggregation in natural, often aqueoussurroundings, he notes. It is there-fore likely that significant fractions of nanoparticles released into the envi-ronment may become inert, or at least

far less toxic than the characteristicsof these nanoparticles may suggestwhen studied in isolation.

If these questions are not answeredadequately it may jeopardise the long-term sustainable use and exploitationof nanotechnology capabilities forthe good of society. This would be anunfortunate scenario especially giventhe numerous benefits associated withthis technology.

regulatiNgNaNotechNology

Regulators all over the worldare entering unknown ter-ritory with respect to legislatingnano technology. Last year, Canadabecame the first country in the worldto introduce a mandatory safety reporting scheme for companies pro-ducing engineered nano materials.In this country, any company pro-ducing more than two kilogramsof engineered nanomaterials must

further readiNg

Musee N et al (2010) A South African research agenda toinvestigate the potential environmental, health and safety risksof nanotechnology in Journal of Science106 (3-4), accessible athttp://www.sajs.co.za/index.php/SAJS/article/view/159

Visit:http://nanohealth.org.za/nano_discussionsfor moreinformation about the First National Workshop on Risk Assess-ment of Nanotechnologies and Nanosciences.

Visit:http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/

browse/categories/for a global inventory on consumer productscontaining nanomaterials.
http://www.sajs.co.za/index.php/SAJS/article/view/159http://nanohealth.org.za/nano_discussionshttp://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/browse/categories/http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/browse/categories/http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/browse/categories/http://www.nanotechproject.org/inventories/consumer/browse/categories/http://nanohealth.org.za/nano_discussionshttp://www.sajs.co.za/index.php/SAJS/article/view/159


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Emerging issues

report the volumes to the regulatory authorities and provide the necessary safety data.

Present environmental and healthregulations, developed long beforethe advent of nanotechnology, areconsidered inadequate to deal withthese new materials. For example,the surface area and chemical com-position of nanoparticles might alsohave to be taken into account anaspect unanticipated by the currentapproaches of dealing with macro-scale chemicals.

When dealing with nanoparticlesit may be important to give signifi-cance to the number of particles per volume or mass of material. Currentregulatory limitation terms weredeveloped mainly to deal with parti-cle-air pollution and with nanoparti-cles, the number ingested or exposedto have more significance than themass of the substance, as is the casewith conventional chemicals or toxic

compounds.The South African government

has recognised the need to establish

regulations to govern nanotechnol-ogy. As with all new technologies,nanotechnology holds potentialrisks to health, safety and toethical practices, said Science &Technology Minister Naledi Pan-dor at a nanotechnology workshopin Harare, Zimbabwe, earlier thisyear. The department is working toprovide a platform for the proactiveidentification and mitigation of suchrisks.

According to JJ Molapisi, DSTDirector: Emerging Research Areas,the government is actively look-ing to address the issue, however,

any regulations considered must bebased on sound scientific principles.The situation is challenging as wehave no precedent to follow. As far asnanotechnology regulation is con-cerned South Africa is in the sameboat as the rest of the world.

Among other proactive measuresDST has formed a Nanotechnology Ethics Committee whose primary focus is ensuring that the develop-ment of nanotechnology nationally is undertaken in a manner that doesnot undermine ethical considera-tions. The committee has already developed ethical guidelines forSouth Africa, which will govern con-duct in the local development andapplication of nanotechnology.

NaNotechNology reSearch platform

South Africa held its f irst NationalWorkshop on Risk Assessment of

Nanotechnologies and Nanoscienceslast year. Among others, the work-shop was aimed at providing a basisto illustrate the need for risk assess-ment of engineered nanomaterials inSouth Africa. It was a notable mile-stone in the country as it marked thestart of a systematic and nationwidecoordinated programme to addressthe potential risks of nanotechnol-ogy. Following the workshop, theneed for the risk assessment of

engineered nanomaterials in SouthAfrica has begun to enjoy wideracceptance as evidenced by the

apparent change in attitude of indus-try role-players, researchers workingin the field of nanotechnology, andgovernment officials from differentdepartments.

It also provided important impe-tus to the establishment of a nationalnanotechnology research platformaimed at systematic investigation of aspects related to health, safety andthe environment, which is currently in early phases of development. Thisplatform, funded by DST, is aimedat promoting the development of human capacity, necessary infra-structure and a dedicated research

programme whose primary goal isto elucidate the potential effects of engineered nanomaterials as well ashow they can be adequately miti-gated. Ultimately we would like tohave two parallel research streams:one developing engineered nano-materials and the other for undertak-ing the necessary risk assessments,notes Molapisi.

In the end, there remains a realneed to find the balance betweenharnessing the benefits and novelcapabilities that nanotechnology bring while preventing and/ormitigating any potential risk stem-ming from this technology. Allrole-players, be they government,funding organisations, researchers orthe public have a duty to ensure theresponsible and sustainable develop-ment of nanotechnology for a betterfuture for all.

Nanotechnology The ability to

measure, see, manipulate, manufacture,and apply materials at between 1 and100 nanometres.

Nanometre Equals one billionth ofa metre. A human hair, for example, is80 000 nm wide.

Nanoparticle A particle with atleast one dimension less than 100 nm,and that exhibits novel properties incomparison to counterpart macro-scalechemicals.

Nanomaterials Materials whichhave structured components with atleast one dimension less than 100 nm.This includes nanowires and nanotubesthat have two dimensions at nano scale,and colloids and quantum dots (tinyparticles of semiconductor materials)that typically have three dimensions atnano scale.

Nanomanufacturing Manufac-turing at the nano scale. The industrialapplication of nanotechnology.

NaNo gloSSary

Storm in a teacup? Globally, concern isbeing raised over the potential health, safety and environmental risksof nanotechnology.

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http://www.sxc.hu/http://www.sxc.hu/http://www.sxc.hu/http://www.sxc.hu/http://www.sxc.hu/http://www.sxc.hu/http://www.sxc.hu/http://www.sxc.hu/http://www.sxc.hu/http://www.sxc.hu/http://www.sxc.hu/



Aquatic ecosystems

Indeed, life for a frog is no fairy-tale. Amphibian populationdeclines and species extinctionare occurring around the world.Locally, the picture is just as gloomy.

According to James Harrison, project leader of The Atlas and Red DataBook of Frogs of South Africa, Lesothoand Swaziland (published in 2004)locally, 25 species are classified asthreatened or as near threatened,more than 20% of the total numberof species. He adds that as new spe-cies are still being discovered anddescribed, the number of threatenedspecies is l ikely to grow.

During Harrisons study, 14

threats to South African frogs wereidentified, of which the four mostimportant are habitat destruction

and fragmentation, alien plants andafforestation as well as pesticides andpollution. Threatened species occurpredominantly in the Eastern andWestern Cape, as well as Kwazulu-Natal. However, the species in thenorthern parts of the country couldalso be, metaphorically speaking,sitting in the boiling pot.

Frogs and toads in the KrugerNational Park (KNP) may beprotected against many of thethreats faced by relatives elsewhere,but they are far from unaffected.Dr Andrew Deacon, ProgrammeManager for Small Vertebratesof the Savanna Unit of the KNPexplains that about 10% of theparks frogs live in its rivers, whilethousands converge at smaller,seasonal wetlands during breeding

seasons. These habitats are espe-cially vulnerable to air and waterpollution. Problems with the parksrivers became glaringly obviousafter recent, comprehensive mediacoverage of the death of hundredsof crocodiles in the Olifants RiverGorge (also discussed in the Water Wheel edition of January/February 2009). Deacon says that some of the rivers predicament relates toa decrease in water volume and anincrease in the amount of pollutiondue to continuous irrigation anddevelopment outside the park.

Another concern, he says, is theincrease in air pollution from nearby industrial areas and Mozambique.It is suspected that the KNP lies in acloud of pollution as a result of itslocation. Questions are now beingraised about the effect of increasedwater pollution, and possibly that of acid rain, on the aquatic stages of theamphibians life.

In 2009, the KNP tasked a groupof researchers, under the helm of Dr Wynand Vlok, to find theanswers to some of these slippery subjects. Vlok and his team are busy with an assessment of the currentbiodiversity of amphibians associ-ated with the major river systemsand wetlands of the KNP, as well asthe physical and chemical factorsaffecting their distribution. The

Water Research Commission (WRC)is one of the sponsors of the project.

Assessing the situAtion

Vlok, of BioAssets, is no strangerto WRC-sponsored projects.He was previously involved in theassessment of the water quality parameters of the Nylsvley flood-plain catchment. He explains that theabsence of many of the mentionedcommon threats to amphibiansmakes it a good place for a com-parison of the current biodiversity

The hunts afoot

for Krugersamphibians innew kiss-and

-tell studyOnce upon a time, a kiss and a frog wereenough for a happy ending. In fact, thehumble amphibian has fared well in therealm of fiction. However, show-stopper names like the Golden Leaf-Folding Frog,the Eastern Olive Toad and the Shovel Foot Squeeker have not seen them shine in thearea of conservation. Now researchers arelooking to save what is left of the Kruger National Parks frog population. Article by Petro Kotz.



Aquatic ecosystems

and chemical influences to histori-cal data. An added plus is the sheerdiversity of amphibians present.

The study is being conductedacross 41 wetlands throughout thepark, while 14 sites in the six riv-ers (winter breeders) are also beingstudied. The rivers being sampled arethe Luvuvhu, Shingwedzi, Letaba,Olifants, Sabie and the Crocodile.

Adult frogs are counted along visual and aural transects. In otherwords, they are physically countedor through identifying the differ-ent species calls to potential matesand rivals. In addition to the adult

frog inventory, tadpoles, oftenfound in larger concentrations atbreeding sites over longer periodsof time, are sampled. Surface-waterand deep-water temperatures arealso recorded. This data can nowbe used to estimate species rich-ness at the sites and to determinewhich sites are more suitable foramphibians development. Theprimary goal of these habitat-basedstudies is a species inventory but,in addition, other aspects suchas the effects of pollution andthe presence of predators can bedetermined.

Chemical factors that mightaffect amphibian distribution aretested at the University of Johan-nesburg. Amphibians from someof the most abundant species aredissected for biochemical analysis.Of special importance for this pur-pose are the livers, adipose tissueand for histological examination,

the gonads.Further tests are done on water

and sediment samples from the testareas. Different chemical factorssuch as metals are identified andquantified, as well as organic con-stituents and pH levels from therivers, pans and rainwater. Lastly,the effect of different concentra-tions of acid water is tested onamphibian eggs and the develop-ment of the tadpoles.

Finally, the physical inven-tory and the biochemical analysistogether will create a clearer picture

t a y a f ab a ba a y, b

a a ff f

a f a a ab .

Top right: The study isconcentrated across 41wetlands and six riversin the park.

Middle right: Amphibians are most conspicuous at breeding ponds or along riversduring the appropriatebreeding period.

Bottom right: A fineexample of the tadpolesof the Mullers Platanna( Xenopus muelleri )under close inspection.

B i o A s s e t s

B i o A s s e t s

B i o A s s e t s



Aquatic ecosystems

of the distribution of amphibiansin the park, as well as the effects of pollution on this. Frogs and tad-poles can then not only be used as

indicators of water quality but, saysDeacon, to put pressure on decisionmakers to curb pollution throughlegislation.

the breeding sites, an abundance of Ornate Frogs ( Hildebrandtia ornate) have been found even though they were thought to be quite scarce.Whats more, the Giant Bullfrog

(Pyxicephalus adspersus), while listedin the historical data, has not beenfound up to date. At Harpi Pan East,researchers have come across a newspecies that was not previously listed,namely the East African Puddle Frog(Phrynobatrachus acridoides).

According to Harrison, the sig-nificance of surveys lies primarily inrevealing patterns of distribution andthe location of threatened species,in order

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