Anolda Cetkauskaite, Dimitry Zarkov and Liutauras Stoskus

Water-Quality Control, Monitoring and Wastewater Treatment in Lithuania 1950 to 1999

The Lithuanian water-management system developed on the basis of Soviet regulations in 1950-1990. Surface- water quality monitoring started in the 1950s, and the system was improved in the 1960s. Today, 48 rivers are being monitored using up to 70 parameters. Statutory monitoring of discharges started in 1962, wastewater standards were issued in 1957 and 1966, and then revised in 1996. Wastewater-treatment plants were built first in rural areas, in factories since the 1950s, and later in towns. Since 1991, large capacity municipal plants have been constructed with foreign assistance. Water quality has improved in some rivers since 1970, but Lithuania's main river, Nemunas, remains moderately polluted. The lower Nemunas is especially affected by discharges of municipal and industrial wastewater from Sovietsk and Neman (Russia), which account for half of the total loading. Hydrobiological data of 1994-1998 indicated the eutro- phication of the Curonian Lagoon, and bacteriological pollution and blue-green algae blooms in the Baltic Sea north of Klaipeda.

INTRODUCTION The Republic of Lithuania is the largest of the Baltic States with an area of 65 000 km2 and a population of 3.7 million. Its popu- lation is concentrated in the interior of the country. Almost 60% of urban residents live in Vilnius, Kaunas, Siauliai, Panevezys, and Klaipeda, which is the only city located on the coast. Rural residents account for less than one third of the total population (1).

Lithuania is characterized by rivers; its shoreline on the Bal- tic Sea is only 99 km long. The 2 largest rivers, the Nemunas

The city of Vilnius located on the Neris River which is a typical medium-sized shallow river in Lithuania. Photo: S. Laakkonen.

i I . t . . _ .1 0 * A . ; < f . . ; . . . 0 0 .

i

and the Neris, can be classified as medium-sized rivers, the oth- ers are small (2-4). The Nemunas and its tributaries drain 71% of the country's territory. The Nemunas is the third largest river according to drainage area, and fourth in the volume of discharge into the Baltic Sea (1, 5). Human impact has been of 2 types: i) the consequences of land reclamation activities, including the straightening and channelling of some riverbeds with loss of aes- thetic value, and with accumulation of persistent organic pesti- cides from agricultural areas in sediment; ii) the pollution of riv- ers as main wastewater recipients is perhaps, the most signifi- cant environmental problem in Lithuania (2-6). Most of the pol- lution problems being faced today in Lithuania have been in- herited from the time of Soviet rule (1940-1990). Most exist- ing wastewater-treatment plants (WWTPs) were built by Lithua- nian engineers, but the regulations and control measures were issued and enforced by USSR central institutions in Moscow. Since independence in 1991, Lithuania has been developing its own environmental policies and practices. This article provides a historical overview on the evolution of water-quality manage- ment with respect to water-quality monitoring and protection, and it also summarizes the development of wastewater manage- ment. The main aim is to assess the contribution of the Nemunas to the pollution of the Baltic Sea.

DEVELOPMENT OF THE WATER-MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Institutional Changes in the Water-management System The centralized Soviet management system practically elimi- nated municipal control with respect to local water questions. This changed in 1991, and since then water supply and waste- water treatment have been managed by enterprises at the mu-

nicipal level, for example, in Vilnius by the municipal water supply and sewer- age joint stock company Vilnius Waters (Vilniaus Vandenys). During the Soviet period several institutions were engaged in water protection. Their establishment or reorganization was decreed by Mos- cow in the form of comprehensive changes in the ministerial network in the USSR or pursuant to special decrees of the Council of Ministry of the USSR that were later ratified by the Council of Ministry of the Lithuanian SSR (7).

The first organizations to oversee surface-water quality, wastewater load- ing and construction of WWTPs were established after World War II. The quality of air and surface water was monitored by the Hydrometeorological Board (Hidrometeorologijos valdyba) from 1946, and the Lithuanian Eco- nomy of Waters for Fishery (Litovskoje ribolovskoje vodnoje choziaistvo, Litry- bvodchoz) was in charge of surface wa- ter monitoring on behalf of fishery (7, 8). Regulation of polluting enterprises

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The River Nemunas and the shore belonging to the Kaliningrad Region of Russia. Photo: S. Laurila.

was the responsibility of State Sanitary Service (Valstybine sanitarine tarnyba), which approved construction plans for new and renovated enterprises and controlled wastewater discharges. In the early 1960s, the duties were tranferred to the newly es- tablished Board of Use and Protection of Water Resources (Vandens resurso naudojimo ir apsaugos valdyba). Until 1965, this agency was responsible for efficient use of water in indus- try, as well as for the protection of surface and underground wa- ter resources against pollution (7, 9). The Hydrochemical Labo- ratory (Respublikine hidrochemine laboratorija) independently monitored wastewater, and harmful discharges and took extra measurements if necessary. The Inspection of Water Economy (Vandens zukio inspekcija) collected information about pollution loads and assessed penalties for industrial pollution beginning in 1965. In 1968, the Republic's Hydrochemical Laboratory be- came the independently operating Water Research Laboratory. New instructions for methods of chemical and bacteriological analysis of industrial discharges and punishment for polluting enterprises were introduced in 1964 throughout the USSR. Re- gional inspections were established in Lithuania in 1965 (7). This can be considered as a beginning of the state control of indus- trial pollution (7). The regulation of construction and renova- tion of WWTPs was also entrusted to a water resources board (7, 9).

All the organizations responsible for pollution monitoring af- ter 1964 have undergone intensive development and reorgani- zation. Only the main functions, management and control, have been preserved. Early in 1965 the State Committee of Water Economy (Valstybinis vandens u2kio komitetas) replaced the Board on Use and Protection of Water Resources, but at the end of the year this agency was reorganized. It became a part of the Ministry of Water Economy and Land Reclamation (Vandens ukio ir melioracijos ministerija), which was abolished in 1988. Water use and protection became the responsibility of the State Committee for Nature Protection, which had been in charge of water management. In 1990, this committee was newly reorgan- ized into the Departmllent of Environment Protection, which later became the Ministry of the Environmental Protection (Aplinkos apsaugos ministerija) and since 1998 has been called Ministry of Environment (Aplinkos ministerija) (7, 10).

Today, surface-water quality monitoring is performed by labo- ratories of the Joint Research Centre of the Ministry of Envi- ronment. The State Inspection of Environmental Protection

monitors polluting enterprises. Both of these agencies have re- gional departments that gather statistics on water use and wastewater discharges (11). Nowadays, responsibility for build- ing new WWTPs rests with the municipalities as a rule. How- ever, when allocations come from the state budget or foreign funds available only through the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry has the responsibility for establishing new WWTPs. The work of water inspection is being revised to meet EU require- ments (especially 96/61/EC, 96/82/EC). The main task at the moment is to create an appropriate control system.

History of Surface-water Monitoring In 1950, the first hydrological stations on Lithuanian rivers were established and the Hydrometeorological Service of the LSSR began to measure surface-water quality. Temperature, pH and dissolved oxygen were measured at 6 permanent sampling sta- tions (8, 12). The monitoring network was organized in 1961. From 1966 to 1970, 12-15 rivers basins were monitored 4 times per year and 15 parameters were measured. Oil products, heavy metals, phenols and others harmful substances have been moni- tored since 1965. Over 30 new hydrochemical sampling stations were included in the monitoring network between 1971 and 1980. In 1985, a new 10-year monitoring program for 60 rivers was approved. Hydrobiological methods became a part of wa- ter quality assessment in 1976. Monitoring results have been published since 1960, first in Hydrochemical Bulletin and later, from 1978, in Water Quality Chronicles (8, 13). In 1991, the environmental protection system was reorganized. and the river monitoring program was also revised: several observation points at small rivulets upstream from the towns were excluded and new sites in polluted rivers were chosen. In 1998, 70 parameters were measured in 48 rivers at 103 points (14). The first National En- vironmental Monitoring Programme was approved by the Lithua- nian Government in 1998. It takes EU requirements into con- sideration and makes it possible to provide reliable, timely and targeted information for water-quality assessment and manage- ment. At present, the Lithuanian river-monitoring network forms part of the European water-monitoring system (15).

Surface and Wastewater-Quality Classification Systems After World War II, surface-water quality was classified by us- ing chemical parameters and maximum allowable concentrations (MAC) which were adopted as state standards throughout the USSR and applied to freshwater fishery requirements. Such standards were prepared by considering physicochemical para- meters, odor and impact on public health (16-18). The MAC list included 13 parameters in 1944 (19); it was updated in the 1970s to measure 250 parameters (12-16). Since 1966 rivers have been classified in 4 categories: clean, moderately clean, polluted, and highly polluted (8). In 1968 a system of saprobic zones was in- troduced. Water quality has been assessed using both hydrobiological and hydrochemical parameters, and a classifi- cation system of 6 classes was proposed in 1971 (20, 21) and officially introduced in 1976 (13). River classification systems vary broadly across Europe (22), but it appears that Lithuania's system is one of the most advanced.

Wastewater-Quality Standards The first regulations containing standards for wastewater dis- charges in the USSR were issued in 1957 and 1961 (23). Com- pilations of these technical regulations were published in Lithua- nia in 1966 (24). The recommendations for activated sludge plants were given in BOD5 values, depending on the capacity of the plant. New standards introduced in 1996 included Maxi- mum Permissible Concentrations (MPC) for effluents: BOD5, COD, suspended solids, total nitrogen, total phosphorus), and for organic (anionic and nonionic detergents, phenols, petroleum products, oils/fats) and inorganic (heavy metals, anions as cya-

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nides, chlorides, sulfates, total chlorine, etc.) substances. In ad- dition general regulations for wastewater discharges (tempera- ture, pH, color, odor, transparency, mineralization, toxicity, etc.) were introduced (25). Most of these currently valid quality stand- ards reflect Soviet norms. These norms are now being revised to be comparable with EU standards.

Development of the Control of Wastewater Discharges Only fragmented information on wastewater discharges is avail- able prior to 1960. The first organized statistical account of dis- charges was begun in 1962. Water consumers had to fill out a form, requesting information on amounts obtained and dis- charged (9). In 1972, a new statistical form was introduced; every consumer using more than 10 m3 day-' of water was obliged to indicate the source of the water taken, the quantity of discharged water, the recipient, and the amount of certain contaminants (9).

Enterprises had to carry out laboratory analyses once a month if the volume of wastewater they produced exceeded 500 m3 day-1; once a quarter if the volume was 100-500 m3 day-'. If the volume was less than 100 m3 day-', the enterprise was not obliged to perform chemical analyses. Some chemical compounds had to be analyzed according to a special list issued by the Ministry of Land Reclamation and Water Economy (26). The Republic's Hydrochemical Laboratory, with regional laboratories in Kaunas,

Klaipeda, Siauliai, and Panevezys, has been testing discharge quality independently from the laboratories of the enterprises according to water inspection plans adopted in 1964 (7, 9).

About 80% of the statistical forms were filled in erroneously in 1973-1975 and are thus not reliable (9, 27). The collected sta- tistical data for 1972 were used for final calculations of total quantities of contaminants entering into surface waters. The re- sults were categorized according to: i) water quality/pollution pa- rameters; ii) different branches of industry; iii) river drainage ar- eas (river basins), etc. (9). A new statistical account form with stricter and more precise instructions was approved in 1991 and is still in use (28).

History of Wastewater Treatment From 1960, the Board on the Use and Protection of Water Re- sources was in charge of the construction of wastewater-treat- ment plants. It issued over 50 decrees for the construction, reno- vation and enhancement of exploitation facilities in the LSSR. This agency was a part of the Ministry of Water Usage and Land Reclamation, and when it was abolished in 1988, water protec- tion was overseen by the State Committee of Nature Protection and later by the Environmental Protection Ministry. Currently, construction of wastewater-treatment plants is part of the activi- ties of local municipalities. Statistical data on wastewater dis- charges are collected by the Water Department which is part of the Division of Environmental Quality in the Ministry of Envi- ronment (1 1).

The first wastewater-treatment plants were small, having been constructed to serve rural areas, and small towns, or industrial enterprises. Only later were larger facilities built in the cities in the form of activated sludge plants (7). An overview of the lo- cation and numbers of plants built up to 1970 and up to 1990 is given in Figures 1 and 2, respectively. The first wastewater-treat- ment facilities were biofilters that were built starting in 1950 and mostly in 1960-1970 (total number 36). They had a capacity of up to 500 m3 day-' and were recommended for industrial and domestic/municipal sewage treatment (23, 29). A total of 97 small filtration fields (mostly underground, with a capacity of 15 m3 day-') in combination with septic tank facilities used for settling were built primarily in the 1970s and the 1980s for mu- nicipalities in order to provide final treatment (30, 31). Alto- gether 162 oxidation ditches were built up to 1990 (mostly in 1975-1980) (14). With mechanical (surface) and diffused aera-

tion and having a capacity up to 1000 m3 day-', they provided comprehensive biological treatment of wastewater (29, 32, 33).

Activated sludge plants were the most commonly used biological puri- fication method in Lithuania (396 plants until 1990). Starting in the 1970s, more activated sludge plants were built than plants of other types in Lithuania and the USSR because of relatively cheap electricity, relatively simple construction, better ability to ac- cept shock loads, better removal of helmints and viruses and popularity of these technologies in Western Europe (29, 34-36). Only 4 high capacity plants (over 1000 m3 day-) were built in 1950-1970 and the construction of larger plants (over 10 000 m3 day-') started after 1975 (29, 32, 43). The rec- ommendations concerning the tech- nologies of biological WWTPs in the Soviet Union, chronology of the litera- ture on technical standards, comparison

Figure 1. Wastewater-treatment plants and water quality of major rivers in Lithuania in 1970.

- - - -- Lithuanian border Rivers (width)

<20m 20-120m > 120m Wastewater treatmenp plnts

* ** oxidation ditch, * ** activated sludge, * ** biofilter,

** primary biological, ** biological pond, * ** chemical,

A *A ** filtration field. * ** mechanical * - plant's capacity less than 1000 m3 day-' **- plant's capacity more than Water quality 1000 m' day'

clean (natural state), BOD5 ? 2mg(O) L-' N slightly polluted, BOD5 ? 4mg(O) U' moderately polluted, BOD5 S 8mg(O) U' w ?E strongly polluted, BOD5 ? 18 mg(O) U' extremely polluted, BOD5 ? 1 8mg(O) U' s

~~CSvenoji. ?sys

Ilaiap.da

Kaliningrad Belar~~~~~~~~ViInus

Polanda faunas

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of technological innovations and chronology of introduction of new Western technologies in the USSR and in Lithuania up to 1990 have been described in an earlier publication (18).

According to the national report issued in 1992 there were 819 operating wastewater-treatment plants (928 constructed in total) (29, 32, 37). Most of the treatment plants (712) were biologi- cal. In addition to municipal plants, industrial enterprises have also had wastewater-treatment facilities. With the collapse of the USSR and of the Soviet economy, some of the low capacity wastewater-treatment plants were abandoned and destroyed af- ter 1990, along with other buildings belonging to those enter- prises and farms. The government (and the Environmental Pro- tection Ministry) decided to finish the building of large-capa- city treatment plants for municipal and industrial wastewater- treatment in cities, towns, and large regional centres.

In the 1990s, the construction of new wastewater-treatment plants was delayed by the first economic recession in independ- ent Lithuania. State budget allocations for building WWTPs in- creased from 13 million Lithuanian Litas (nearly USD 3 mil- lion) in 1992, to 150 (nearly USD 40 million) in 1994, but were cut to Litas 90 million (USD 22.5 million) in 1996 (4). In 1996- 1997, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and the Poland and Hungary: Action for the Restructuring of the Economy (PHARE), Nordic Environmental Financing Company (NEFCO), European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD), and the World Bank invested over USD 92 million (30 million as subsidies and 62 million as credits) for constructing new wastewater-treatment plants. By 1996, more modern biological treatment plants were put into operation in the towns of Lazdijai, Moletai, Pakruojis, and Silale, and in 1998 in Ukmerge and Sirvintos. Each of these towns has about 50 000 inhabitants (4). For example, when chemical removal of phosphorus was introduced in the Moletai plant, phosphorus loadings into the Siesartis River diminished by 4 times the previous levels (14). In 1999, a technically ad- vanced municipal treatment plant, including nitrogen and phos- phorus removal, was completed in Utena; the Klaipeda plant was

The Vilnia River is a small river which flows into the Neris River in Vilnius. Its river valley is rich in natural springs. Photo: S. Laurila.

* .~~~~~~~,W

Figure 2. Wastewater-treatment plants and water quality of major rivers in Lithuania in 1990. Abbreviation and symbols for the map the same as in Figure 1 on page 299.

Kallningrad B s

Poland

300 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2001 Ambio Vol. 30 No. 4-5, August 2001 http://www.ambio.kva.se

Table 1. Pollution of Lithuanian rivers by organic compounds and nutrients In year 1992-1998 (13,15, 38).

Pollutants discharged Amount Year

into surface waters per year 1990 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Suspended solids 103 tonnes yrf 47.9 36.9 30.4 38.5 26.0 17.9 15.0 14.0 BOD 103 tonnes yr-1 74.2 31.9 27.9 34.5 21.0 16.6 15.0 13.0 Total phosphorus 103 tonnes yr' 0.88 1.44 1.53 1.50 1.18 0.96 0.88 0.79 Total nitrogen 103 tonnes yr1' 7.77 10.60 10.20 10.77 7.66 6.45 5.40 4.55 Petroleum products tonnes yr1 0.50 0.34 0.27 0.28 0.22 0.16 0.15 0.13

Table 2. Pollution of rivers by different wastewaters (point-source pollution) in 1992- 1998 (13, 15, 38).

Amount of wastewater in millions of tonnes per year ( %)

Year Total Untreated Total treated Treated to Inadequately MPPS* treated

1990 446.1 (100% 121.7 (21.7%) 324.4 (78.3%) 97.7 (21.9% 226.7 (56.7%) 1992 362.0 (100% 97.74 (27.0% 1994 336.0 (100% 67.6 (20.1% 268.4 79.9%) 85.0 (25.3% 183.4 (54.6%) 1996 252.2 (100% 42.1 (16.7%) 210.1 83.3%) 99.5 (39.5% 110.6 (43.8%) 1998 217.0 (100% 34.0 (16.0%) 183.0 84.0% 117.0 (54.0% 66.0 (30.0%)

MPPS* - Maximum Permissible Pollution Standards

already operational at the beginning of the year, and the first me- chanical treatment line began to function in the Kaunas munici- pal plant (4, 7, 17).

CHANGES IN THE STATE OF THE RIVERS

The State of Rivers in 1970, 1990 and 2000 Lithuania has 758 rivers which are longer than 10 km, and 18 longer than 100 km. In 1992, wastewater discharges accounted for 14% of the average annual water flow of all rivers (38). Hy- drological studies of the Nemunas started 180 years ago at Rusne and Smalininkai. After World War lI the quality of the rivers in Lithuania was directly influenced by industrial development and population growth. The greatest amount of pollutants was dis- charged from the cities of Kaunas, Vilnius, Klaipeda, Siauliai, Panevezys, and Alytus (13, 39, 43). In 1965, the Kulpe, Sesupe and Venta were mentioned as the most polluted rivers in Lithua- nia (8). In 1990, the largest amounts of organic pollutants were discharged into the Neris river basin, i.e. even larger than those discharged directly into Nemunas (13). The following data on the organic and nutrient pollution discharged into Lithuanian riv- ers in 1992-1998 indicate pollution trends over a longer period (Table 1). The trend towards a decrease in polluting substances (suspended solids, BOD, petroleum products) can be also ex- plained by a general slowdown in the Lithuanian economy.

In 1968-1990, the Hydrochemical Laboratory and the infor- mation division of the Department of Environmental Protection (later Environmental Protection Ministry) were responsible for preparing maps on the state of river-water quality. The maps pre- sented annual average flows, and classified water quality accord- ing to sampling data for BOD5, total nitrogen, and total phos- phorus (13, 20, 21). Those maps were manuscripts for internal official use only. The reconstructed maps are presented here in Figures 1 and 2, where water quality is classified according to BOD5 values. In 1970 (Fig. 1), the heavily polluted rivers in- cluded: the Nevezis downstream from Panevezys, the Dane near Klaipeda, the Daugyvene downstream from Seduva, the Musa, the Kulpe, the Saltuona and the Salcia. The Kulpe River was classified as extremely polluted because of its low natural flow rate and the heavy discharges from the city of Siauliai. The other polluted northern small rivers, the Obele, the Tatula and the Sidabra, were heavily polluted. The largest rivers, the Nemunas downstream from Kaunas city, the Neris 100 km downstream

The Nemunas River is the largest river in Lithuania. It also forms the border between the Kaliningrad Region of Russia and Lithuania, thus, the shores are unpopulated. Photo: S. Laurila.

from Vilnius city, were classified as moderately and slightly pol- luted in 1970 (40).

Water quality improved notably from 1970 to 1990 in the fol- lowing rivers: the Nevezis, the Dane, the Daugyvene, the Saltuona, and the Sesupe (Fig.2). The water in the Nemunas and the Neris was classified as moderately polluted. Previously rela- tively clean rivers, such as the Zeimena, and part of the Sventoji, became more polluted due to the development of rural areas re- gardless of a large number of small capacity treatment plants built in these regions. The pollution of the Neris and the Nemunas rivers was related to the growth of Vilnius and Kaunas.

However, airborne transport, (bio)degradation of older persist- ent organic pollutants, and possible infiltration in some places from improper storage of banned and collected pesticides (983 tonnes were registered in 1994) create a risk. In 1998, river wa- ter and sediment analyses revealed new polluted areas: i) in the Merkys river downstream from Puvociai village (0.002 mg ,y-HCH kg-' in sediment and 0.01 mg kg-' DDE, 1.31 mg U' of 3,4-dichlorobenzoic acid in water); ii) in the Neris at Buivydziai (0.002 mg y-HCH kg-1 in sediment and 0.01 mg kg-' DDE, 0.03 mg L-' of 3,4-dichlorobenzoic acid in water), and downstream

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from Vilnius (0.552 mg LU 3,4-dichlorobenzoic acid in water); iii) in the Nevezis downstream from Kedainiai (0.01 mg kg-' DDE in sediment, 1.180 mg L-' 3,4-dichlorobenzoic acid in water); iv) in the Sesupe downstream from Marijampole (0.37 mg L-' 3,4-dichlorobenzoic acid in water); and v) in the Jura downstream from Taurage (0.39 mg L-l 3,4-dichlorobenzoic acid in water) (14).

Nevertheless, wastewater discharges as well as pollution of rivers started to decrease in general in the 1990s due to declin- ing industrial activity, higher prices for water and lower water consumption.

Between 1990 and 1998, discharges in Lithuania were reduced by more than 50%. During the same period, the amount of quali- tatively treated wastewater (WW treatment up to MPPS) in- creased by 54% (Table 2). These promising facts can be explain- able by: i) the increased effectiveness of wastewater treat- ment after putting into operation new large capacity WWTPs;

and ii) the sharp economic downturn in 1991. Now, compared to those of other countries in Europe, the majority of surface waters in Lithuania should be regarded as clean or just moder- ately polluted.

Vilnius: A Case Study Vilnius has been the capital of Lithuania since World War II. The increase in the number of inhabitants in Vilnius city (from 120 000 in 1945 to 550 000 in 1986) caused a pollution load in- crease from 7 up to 12 times, depending on the calculation meth- ods used. The Neris River within the city was most polluted in the mid-i 950s, when as many as 15 outlets emptied into it from the municipal sewerage system. In 1979, all sewage was dis- charged to the Neris River through an outlet located 17 km downstream from the center of the city (i.e. Green Bridge). The industrial wastewater load into the Neris increased by about 40 times. The main polluting substances were nutrients, detergents,

Figure 3. Tributaries in the Nemunas Basin and the sampling sites on the Nemunas River. 1. Upstream from (Ups) Druskininkai, 2. Downstream from (Dwn) Druskininkai; 3. Ups. Alytus, 4. Dwn. Alytus, 5. Prienai, 6. Ups. K unas, 7. Dwn. Kaunas, 8. Smalininkai, 9. Ups. Rusn (Nemunas mouth before the branches Atmata, Skirvyte and Pakalne).

a 1?1

i X S~~~~~~~~~~iauliai_

S~~~~~

ci

s~~~~~~a IF C < lln lWs ' t4 e 1 i\

e AM Jk na s T 3 Amo Dubysa o Neveis ( Nes y s gventoji i

t'i ? XrA9 Siesartis

J>f 1 Sovs i tsi

1976 8518 22~ ~ ~~~~6 34e128 232

19Neman 77 2360 1 0 5

Kuliningrad ~ ~~~ ~ ~~~ ~~~~~~ Svev Vf _ni

~~\ V

Be~lytus

1 skin'iw J l

Poland

Belarus

Table 3. Amounts of polluting substances (tonnes yf') discharged directly into the Neris River (1975 X

1982; parameters: BOD2ft COD, Suspended solids, oil products, Surface active substances, Fe, Ni, chlorides, sulfates).

Amount /tonnes yr-

Year BOD20 Suspended Oil COD SAS Fe Ni crl 402 solids products

1975 9518 378 18 1976 8518 226 34 2128 2323 1977 23 670 10 830 5484 2231 1979 26520 29 490 872 42 350 37 305 1980 27 710 22 160 322 41 250 41 1 101 1981 22 240 18 590 88 35 260 25 1 181 1982 20 240 13 590 579 29 010 10

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oil products, and heavy metals. The amounts of pollutants dis- charged into the Neris in 1975-1982 and from WWTP after me- chanical treatment from 1988-1992 are presented in Table 3 and Table 4. The individual measurements were made during work- ing hours, i.e. times of most intensive discharge. This fact leads us to believe that the statistics on discharges are overestimated. In Vilnius, 33 different factories had their own treatment plants in 1990, of which 7 discharged their wastewater directly into the Vilnia River (29).

A mechanical municipal wastewater-treatment plant started to operate in 1986 (capacity 600 000 m3 day-'), and an activated sludge process was not adopted until 1996 (capacity 420 000 m3 day-) (28). From the mid-1980s until the end of the 1990s, the amount of organic substances from households decreased by about 3 times because of mechanical and biological treatment. After 1996, the organic loading into the Neris decreased to mini- mal amounts. The stormwater system has discharge outlets into the Neris, Vilnia, Voke, Cedronas, Suderve, the Rudamina, and to the ponds of Naujoji Vilnia, and Baltupiai as well. Only 7% of storm sewage is currently being treated (9).

The Nemunas and Load to the Baltic Sea The drainage area of the Nemunas is over 70% of Lithuania's territory, as illustrated in Figure 3. It is one of the most affected rivers, receiving more than two thirds of the total municipal dis- charges (5). Declining industrial production after 1991 and new wastewater-treatment facilities have decreased point-source pol- lution, but due to the lack of advanced tertiary treatment the nu- trient loading is still pronounced (14, 40). Nonpoint source pol- lution has not yet been successfully estimated. Nevertheless, the data on livestock and use of fertilizers allow the assumption that nonpoint source pollution has decreased after 1990 (14, 40). There are 9 monitoring stations along 475 km of the Nemunas River in Lithuania (Fig. 3). In 1992-1998, the BOD5 values ex- ceeded the MAC limits by up to 4 times; and in 1999 concen- trations of phosphates higher than MAC were determined in sta- tions along the river (Fig. 4) (14).

At present, persistent organic pollutants (POPs) do not con- stitute a major problem in the Nemunas.

The concentrations of phenols in the river water were close to detection limits. No DDT. DDE and x-. B- and y-hexachlo- rocyclohexane, HCH, were detected in 1998 (in 1997 y-HCH was found in the Nemunas upstream from Kaunas - 0.027 mg UL). In October of 1998, downstream from the cities of Kaunas and Smalininkai 3,4-di- chlorobenzoic acid (0.024-0.684 mg U'), and pentachlorophenol (0.002 mg L-') was detected upstream from Rusne. Heavy metal concentrations did not exceed the limits in 1997- 1998 except for zinc, chromium (in water) and manganese (in water and sediment) (14). Hygienic quality, however, is often poor in summer downstream from Kaunas. For exam- ple, in July 1998 E. coli index was 2 000 000 L-', whereas upstream from Kaunas it was less than 10 000 L-' (14).

The Nemunas River flows into the Baltic Sea via the Curonian Lagoon and the Klaipeda Straits. The area of the lagoon is 1584 km2 and it is sepa- rated from the sea by a narrow, sandy spit. The total inflow is approxi- mately 22 km3, most coming from

the Nemunas, with the inflow from the Prieglius, the Dane, and the Smeltale being insignificant (39). The southern part of Curonian Lagoon belongs to Russia (Kaliningrad). In 1993, it was estimated that the municipal and industrial wastewater dis- charges of half of the total loadings entering the lagoon via the Nemunas were coming from the Russian towns of Sovietsk and Neman (where paper mills are located) (13). These discharges account for up to 50% of the total load of organic substances and 40% of inorganic nitrogen loading discharged in Lithuania (38, 39).

After 1990, the nutrient loadings decreased; in 1992 the total nitrogen load carried by rivers was almost 26 000 tonnes along with 1500 tonnes of phosphorus (39). Since 1994, the discharges entering the lagoon from the Nemunas have been calculated ac- cording to the HELCOM recommendations (Table 5). Midsum- mer eutrophication is a severe problem in the lagoon. At the mouth of the Nemunas large fish kills were recorded in 1979, 1980, and 1993, and excess bacteriological pollution is registered there every year (39). Phytoplankton studies in 1994-1995 showed blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) blooms, which com- monly continued in the lagoon from the end of June until No- vember. In 1998 Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, Planktothrix agardhii, Limnothrix redekei and Pseudanabaena limnetica blue- green algae species as well as bacteriological pollution and high chlorophyll a concentrations were found in the impact zone of the Curonian Lagoon in the Baltic Sea area north of Klaipeda (41). The biomass of blue-green algae did not exceed 10 mg L-' (25 times less than the toxicity threshold) (41, 42). Based on the abundance of phytoplankton species (over 200 in total), the coastal waters of the Baltic Sea in 1998 were characterized as mezoeutrophic - eutrophic (41).

CONCLUSIONS Between 1950 and 1990, the protection of Lithuanian surface waters was under Soviet water management. Three institutions worked to this end: the Hydrometeorological Service monitored surface-water quality, the Board on Use and Protection of Wa- ter Resources and Republican Inspection of Water Economy in- spected wastewater discharges and assessed fines, and the Board on Use and Protection of Water Resources managed the build- ing and renovations of wastewater-treatment plants.

Table 4. Amounts of polluting substances (tonnes per year) discharged into the Neris River from wastewater-treatment plants after mechanical treatment in 1988-1992.

Tonnes yr-'

Year BOD20 Suspended Oil Fe Cu Cr Ni Zn Solids Products

1988 17 225.6 17 225.5 85.7 59.99 16.30 8.570 34.28 1989 13 142.3 9839.7 82.4 243.0 9.25 12.61 10.090 21.03 1990 12 724.3 12 004 80 144.0 5.60 12.00 8.002 16.81 1991 9987 11 985 79.9 124.6 3.90 5.59 7.989 14.38 1992 8538 11 078 55 98.8 3.42 4.16 4.760 11.06

Table 5. Discharges of organic compounds and nutrients into the Curonian Lagoon from the River Nemunas at the Rusne sampling station in 1994-1999.*

Pollutants discharged Amount tonnes yr1 to surface waters

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999

BOD7 94 306 99 314 66 125 69 632 78 577 87 966 Total phosphorus 3674 1515 1318 1191 2135 2658 Mineral nitrogen 33 261 30 027 16 975 48 168 22 302 Total nitrogen 63 980 61 264 38 085 33 023 61 511 48 192

BOD7 = BDS5 x 1.15 * - Data (calculations from actual concentrations in water of Rusne sampling stations) presented by Joint Research Center of Environmental Ministry (calculated according HELCOM recommendations).

Ambio Vol. 30 No. 4-5, August 2001 ? Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2001 303 http://www.ambio.kva.se

Figure 4. River Nemunas water-quality data (1992-1999) (4, 13, 14) (Sites 1-9, see Fig. 3). * - Data for years 1985,1990 and 1999 presented by Joint Research Centre of Environmental Ministry. ** The numbers 1 to 9 on X-axis mean the sampling sites on the Nemunas River the same as described and marked in Figure 3.

_ 19858*, - - 1990*, 1992, --1... 1994, 0 1996 - 1998, 1999*

Flow rate, m3 sec' 600

400

2. 3.... ... .. 4.5.67.8. B2D0 , 02.. .

...U'. I

g 0v

VA ~ MA

1 ** 2 3- 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sites

BOD2 9 02 MA

9l

2 F - - Wzzzf MAC

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Sites

Mineral niStrogen, mg N L-s

2 11IkAC

1.5 _>

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 S'ites

Phosphates, mg P L-' 0.15 . _

Surface- and wastewater-monitoring data were accessible only to a limited number of specialists. Surface-water quality moni- toring started in the 1950s, and was improved in the 1960s. Monitoring of wastewater discharges by the polluting enterprises began in 1962 under the auspices of the Hydrochemical Labo- ratory of the LSSR. The current water-management system in Lithuania has inherited both the problems and resources of the planned economy. After 1990, the water-management strategy was redirected to solve long-existing problems, and the water management and monitoring system were revised. General en- vironmental policies and projects are now being coordinated ac- cording to European Union guidelines.

Wastewater treatment has had a notable effect on the ecologi- cal state of most rivers after 1970, when large-capacity plants started to be built. In 1990, the water quality remained poor in 4 small rivers in the northern Lithuania only. The Nemunas and the Neris were classified as moderately polluted. In the 1990s,

state and foreign investments were directed towards the construc- tion and renovation of municipal high-capacity wastewater-treat- ment plants. The trend towards a decrease in polluting substances can also be explained by a general slowdown in the Lithuanian economy in the 1990s.

Recent data on the Baltic Sea coastal waters of Lithuania north of Klaipeda indicate bacteriological pollution and eutrophication characterized by moderate chlorophyll a concentrations, and blue-green algae blooms. These are consequences of pollutants from the Nemunas, the Curonian Lagoon, and Klaipeda harbor. Half of the total load originates from the Russian towns of Sovietsk and Neman.

Lithuania, is the only former republic of the USSR whose his- tory of water pollution and protection has been studied so far. Additional comparative studies are needed to examine whether the case study of Lithuania is an indicator of broader trends, or has always been to some extent exceptional.

References and Notes I. Hakanson, L. 1991. PhYsical Geography of the Baltic. Ord och Vetande, Uppsala, pp.

7-8. 2. Burneikis, J. and (Gailiusis, B. 1970. Rivers Cadastre of the Lithuanian SSR. Part IV.

Regulation of Rivers Discharges. "Mintis Publ.", Vilnius, 195 pp. (In Lithuanian). 3. Environmental Protection Department of Lithuania Republic 1992. State and Trends

of Changes of the Environmenit and Management of Environmental Protection. Report. Vilnius, 14 pp. (In Lithuanian).

4. Lithuanian Rivers Water Chronicle of Year 1996, 1997. Environmental Protection Min- istry of Lithuania Republic, Vilnius, 35 pp. (In Lithuanian).

5. The Baltic Sea Joint Comprehensive Environmental Action Programme 1993. Baltic Sea Environment Proceedings. No. 48. Helsinki Commission, pp. 3-9.

6. Baltic State of the Environment Report 1998. Riga, 1 1 pp. 7. Vertelka, B. 1999. Ministry of Environment of Lithuania Republic. Pers. comm. 8. Ceponiene A. 1999. Joint Research Center. Ministry of Environment of Lithuania Re-

public. Pers. comm. 9. Krisciunas, J. 1999. Ministry of Environment of Lithuania Republic. Pers. Comm.

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12. Daubaras, R. 1968. Formation of Chemical Structure, Hydrochemical Characteristics and Self-cleaning of Neris Basin Rivers. Ph.D. thesis, Vilnius. Lithuania. (In Russian).

13. Lithuanian Rivers Water Chronicle for the Year 1993. 1994. Environmental Protec- tion Ministry of Lithuania Republic, Vilnius, 29 pp. (In Lithuanian).

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15. Environmental Protection Ministry of Lithuania Republic. 1998. National Environmen- tal Monitoring Programme. Vilnius, 95 pp. (In Lithuanian).

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17. Cherkinskij, N.S. (ed.). 1977. Sanitary Requirements for Discharges to the Surface Water. Moscow, "Stroiizdat", 223 pp. (In Russian).

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21. Ambraziene, Z. and Merkiene, R. 1971.The pollution of main rivers of the republic by petroleum products. In: Water Resources of the Lithuania SSR and their Protection from Exhaustion and Pollution. Vilnius, pp. 70-71. (In Lithuanian).

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Anolda Cetkauskaite is associate professor in the Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics at Vilnius University. She received her PhD in biology (biochemistry) in 1984, and is working as a senior research scientist in this department. Her recent research interests are biodegrad- ation and mechanisms of toxicity, in microorganisms of chlororganic pollutants and their mixtures with natural organic compounds, analysis of effluent and sediment toxicity. Her address: Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Vilnius University, Ciurlionio Str. 21, Vilnius LT-2009, Lithuania. E-mail: anolda.cetkauskaite@gf.vu.lt

Dmitry Zarkov is a PhD student at the Institute for Environmental Engineering at Kaunas University of Technology. His recent research interests are water quality modeling and management. His address: Institute for Environmental Engineering at Kaunas University of Technology, Donelaicio Str. 20, Kaunas LT-300, Lithuania. E-mail: dmitrijus.zarkovas@takas.it

Liutauras Stoskus is a PhD student at the Department of Botany and Genetics, Faculty of Natural Sciences of Vilnius University, and a chief specialist in the Joint Research Center of the Ministry of Environment of Lithuania. His recent research interests are water quality assessment using biological and toxicological methods. His address: Joint Research Center, Ministry of Environment of Lithuania, Juozapavicius Str. 9, Vilnius LT-2600, Lithuania. E-mail: liutauras.stoskus@nt.gamta.lt

Ambio Vol. 30 No. 4-5, August 2001 c Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 2001 305 http://www.ambio.kva.se