© 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

Police in AmericaPolice in America

Chapter TwelveChapter TwelvePolice-Community Police-Community

RelationsRelations

22

Definition of Police-Community Definition of Police-Community RelationsRelations

Refers primarily to the relations between the Refers primarily to the relations between the police and racial and ethnic minority police and racial and ethnic minority communities.communities.

From PCR to LegitimacyFrom PCR to Legitimacy Police need to establish trust and cooperation with Police need to establish trust and cooperation with

all segments of the community they serveall segments of the community they serve Policing a Multicultural SocietyPolicing a Multicultural Society Definitions of Race and EthnicityDefinitions of Race and Ethnicity

Race – refers to the major biological divisions of the Race – refers to the major biological divisions of the people of the worldpeople of the world

Ethnicity- refers to cultural differences such as Ethnicity- refers to cultural differences such as language, religion, family patterns, and foodwayslanguage, religion, family patterns, and foodways

33

The Major Racial and Ethnic Minority The Major Racial and Ethnic Minority GroupsGroups

African AmericansAfrican Americans Hispanics/LatinosHispanics/Latinos

- More likely to experience More likely to experience police-initiated contactpolice-initiated contact

- Largest racial or ethnic Largest racial or ethnic minority group by 2010minority group by 2010

- Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, - Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Dominican Republic, Central and South AmericaCentral and South America

ArabsArabs- Very diverse groupVery diverse group- Majority trace background to Majority trace background to

LebanonLebanon- Most are native-born Most are native-born

AmericansAmericans- Muslim religionMuslim religion

Native AmericanNative American– Higher crime rate on Higher crime rate on

reservationreservation– Tribal policeTribal police

Asian AmericansAsian Americans– Vietnamese, Cambodians are Vietnamese, Cambodians are

newest immigrantsnewest immigrants ImmigrantsImmigrants

- Primary language is not Primary language is not EnglishEnglish

- Report crimes at lower rates Report crimes at lower rates than other Americansthan other Americans

- Calls for bilingual officers to Calls for bilingual officers to accommodate immigrantsaccommodate immigrants

44

Not Just Race and Ethnicity: Not Just Race and Ethnicity: Gender and Sexual PreferenceGender and Sexual Preference

Police-community relations problems also Police-community relations problems also exist with the following groups:exist with the following groups:– WomenWomen– Gay menGay men– LesbiansLesbians– Transgendered personsTransgendered persons

Problems of sexual harassment, Problems of sexual harassment, disrespect, and physical abusedisrespect, and physical abuse

55

Discrimination versus DisparityDiscrimination versus Disparity

Discrimination: differential treatment based Discrimination: differential treatment based on some extralegal category such as race, on some extralegal category such as race, ethnicity or gender.ethnicity or gender.

Disparity: different outcomes that are not Disparity: different outcomes that are not necessarily caused by differential necessarily caused by differential treatmenttreatment

66

A Contextual Approach to Police-A Contextual Approach to Police-Citizen InteractionsCitizen Interactions

Experiences with police vary according to Experiences with police vary according to department, type of police action, the department, type of police action, the departmental unit involved, etc.departmental unit involved, etc.

– Some departments have better relations with Some departments have better relations with people of color minority communitiespeople of color minority communities

– Interactions are different according to Interactions are different according to location, police unit, and enforcement activitylocation, police unit, and enforcement activity

77

Public Opinion and the PolicePublic Opinion and the Police The vast majority of Americans have a positive attitude The vast majority of Americans have a positive attitude

toward the police.toward the police. Racial and ethnic minorities consistently rate the police Racial and ethnic minorities consistently rate the police

less favorably than whites.less favorably than whites. A majority of African Americans (76%) and Hispanics A majority of African Americans (76%) and Hispanics

give the police a generally favorable rating.give the police a generally favorable rating. Young people rate the police less favorably than older Young people rate the police less favorably than older

people.people. Poor people, less educated people, and crime victims Poor people, less educated people, and crime victims

tend to rate the police lower than others.tend to rate the police lower than others. There are significant differences in opinions about the There are significant differences in opinions about the

police in different cities.police in different cities.

88

Race and EthnicityRace and Ethnicity

2008 survey showed that 25% of African 2008 survey showed that 25% of African Americans had little to no confidence in Americans had little to no confidence in police (compared to 9% of whites)police (compared to 9% of whites)

Attitudes about police roles can vary Attitudes about police roles can vary according to social class, as well as race according to social class, as well as race and ethnicityand ethnicity– Thus, middle-class and lower-class African Thus, middle-class and lower-class African

Americans do not share identical attitudesAmericans do not share identical attitudes

99

Attitudes about Police Use of ForceAttitudes about Police Use of Force

Hispanics and African Americans are twice Hispanics and African Americans are twice as likely to believe the police will use as likely to believe the police will use excessive force excessive force in their communitiesin their communities

In a survey of Cincinnati residents, 46.6% In a survey of Cincinnati residents, 46.6% of African Americans indicated they had of African Americans indicated they had been personally “hassled” by the policebeen personally “hassled” by the police– Compared to only 9.6% of whitesCompared to only 9.6% of whites

1010

Social ClassSocial Class

In 2008, 23% of people with incomes In 2008, 23% of people with incomes lower than $20,000 had little to no lower than $20,000 had little to no confidence in policeconfidence in police

Compared to 6-7% of people with incomes Compared to 6-7% of people with incomes above $50,000above $50,000

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Age: Young People and the PoliceAge: Young People and the Police

Age consistently ranks second to race and Age consistently ranks second to race and ethnicity as a factor in public attitudes ethnicity as a factor in public attitudes toward policetoward police

A 2008 survey found that 17% of people A 2008 survey found that 17% of people between the ages of 18-29 had little to no between the ages of 18-29 had little to no confidence in the policeconfidence in the police– Compared with only 8% of people between Compared with only 8% of people between

30-4930-49

1212

Other Demographic FactorsOther Demographic Factors 1. Where You Live: Neighborhood Quality 1. Where You Live: Neighborhood Quality

of Lifeof Life

2. Crime Victimization2. Crime Victimization

3. Gender3. Gender

4. Level of Education4. Level of Education

1313

Community PolicingCommunity Policing

Community policing has a positive impact Community policing has a positive impact on citizens’ attitudes toward the policeon citizens’ attitudes toward the police

– A study by Weitzer and Tuch found that A study by Weitzer and Tuch found that people who believe their police department people who believe their police department engages in community policing in their engages in community policing in their neighborhood are neighborhood are less likelyless likely to believe that to believe that the police use excessive forcethe police use excessive force

1414

Intercity VariationsIntercity Variations There are important differences in public There are important differences in public

attitudes among cities that apparently reflect attitudes among cities that apparently reflect differences in the activities and reputations differences in the activities and reputations of these departmentsof these departments– The Case of DetroitThe Case of Detroit

More African Americans indicated they were satisfied More African Americans indicated they were satisfied with the police than whiteswith the police than whites

African Americans dominated the local political African Americans dominated the local political establishmentestablishment

Thus, African Americans are more likely than whites Thus, African Americans are more likely than whites to identify positively with the police and other parts of to identify positively with the police and other parts of the political systemthe political system

1515

The Impact of Controversial The Impact of Controversial IncidentsIncidents

Specific cases or controversial incidents Specific cases or controversial incidents (ex: Rodney King beating in LA) can have (ex: Rodney King beating in LA) can have a short term affect on people’s attitudes a short term affect on people’s attitudes toward police officers and police toward police officers and police departments. departments.

1616

Complex Dimensions of Trust and Complex Dimensions of Trust and Confidence in the PoliceConfidence in the Police

PrioritiesPriorities: Whether people feel that the police share their : Whether people feel that the police share their concerns about the neighborhoodconcerns about the neighborhood

CompetenceCompetence: Whether people feel that the police have the : Whether people feel that the police have the knowledge and skills to achieve their objectivesknowledge and skills to achieve their objectives

DependabilityDependability: Whether people feel that the police can be : Whether people feel that the police can be counted on to fulfill their promisescounted on to fulfill their promises

RespectRespect: Whether people feel that the police treat them with : Whether people feel that the police treat them with respectrespect

Theory of Procedural Justice:Theory of Procedural Justice: People distinguish between People distinguish between the outcomes and the processthe outcomes and the process– Ex: People are more likely to be satisfied if the officer explains the Ex: People are more likely to be satisfied if the officer explains the

basis for his action, even if the outcome is unfavorablebasis for his action, even if the outcome is unfavorable

1717

Three Perspectives on Attitudes Three Perspectives on Attitudes Toward PoliceToward Police

The Police and the Larger SocietyThe Police and the Larger Society The Police and Other OccupationsThe Police and Other Occupations The Police in Other CountriesThe Police in Other Countries Summary of attitudes:Summary of attitudes:

– Majority of Americans have positive attitude toward policeMajority of Americans have positive attitude toward police– Racial and ethnic minorities consistently rate police less favorablyRacial and ethnic minorities consistently rate police less favorably– African Americans and Hispanics generally give a favorable ratingAfrican Americans and Hispanics generally give a favorable rating– Young people rate less favorablyYoung people rate less favorably– Poor people, less educated people and crime victims rate less Poor people, less educated people and crime victims rate less

favorablyfavorably– People who view their neighborhood as safe view police favorablyPeople who view their neighborhood as safe view police favorably– Community policing has a positive effect on citizens’ attitudesCommunity policing has a positive effect on citizens’ attitudes– There are significant differences in attitudes among different citiesThere are significant differences in attitudes among different cities– People make important distinctions regarding police actionsPeople make important distinctions regarding police actions– Attitudes toward police reflect attitudes toward society as a wholeAttitudes toward police reflect attitudes toward society as a whole

1818

Police Perceptions of CitizensPolice Perceptions of Citizens

Sources of Police AttitudesSources of Police Attitudes– Selective ContactSelective Contact

Officers do not have regular contact with a cross Officers do not have regular contact with a cross section of the communitysection of the community

Low-income and minorities have a disproportionate Low-income and minorities have a disproportionate level of contact with the policelevel of contact with the police

– Selective PerceptionSelective Perception Officers are more likely to remember traumatic or Officers are more likely to remember traumatic or

unpleasant eventsunpleasant events Officers tend to stereotype African Americans since Officers tend to stereotype African Americans since

they tend to show the most hostility toward officersthey tend to show the most hostility toward officers

1919

Sources of Police-Community Sources of Police-Community Relations ProblemsRelations Problems

Question:Question: How do we explain the apparent How do we explain the apparent contradiction between the generally favorable contradiction between the generally favorable ratings given the police by racial and ethnic minority ratings given the police by racial and ethnic minority communities and the persistence of public conflict communities and the persistence of public conflict between the police and these groups?between the police and these groups?

Answer:Answer: We must examine specific areas of We must examine specific areas of policing policing – 1. The level of police protection received by different 1. The level of police protection received by different

neighborhoodsneighborhoods– 2. Police officer field practices2. Police officer field practices– 3. Administrative practices3. Administrative practices– 4. Employment practices4. Employment practices

2020

Level of Police ProtectionLevel of Police Protection Too Much or Too Little Law Enforcement?Too Much or Too Little Law Enforcement?

– African Americans have been victims of African Americans have been victims of underenforcement of the law throughout timeunderenforcement of the law throughout time

– Four Systems of JusticeFour Systems of Justice in the South during in the South during institutionalized segregationinstitutionalized segregation 1. Crimes by whites against whites handled as “normal” 1. Crimes by whites against whites handled as “normal”

crimescrimes 2. Crimes by whites against African Americans rarely 2. Crimes by whites against African Americans rarely

prosecutedprosecuted 3. Crimes by African Americans against whites received 3. Crimes by African Americans against whites received

harshest responseharshest response 4. Crimes by African Americans against African Americans 4. Crimes by African Americans against African Americans

were ignoredwere ignored

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Level of Police Protection Level of Police Protection ContinuedContinued

Failures to enforce the law in minority communities Failures to enforce the law in minority communities has typically involved crimes of vice (gambling, has typically involved crimes of vice (gambling, prostitution, drugs)prostitution, drugs)– This underenforcement breeds disrespect for the law and This underenforcement breeds disrespect for the law and

policepolice– Exposes law-abiding citizens in minority neighborhoods Exposes law-abiding citizens in minority neighborhoods

to criminal activities and lower the quality of life to criminal activities and lower the quality of life Delay in Responding to CallsDelay in Responding to Calls

Studies found that patrol officers often deliberately Studies found that patrol officers often deliberately delayed responding to calls for service, especially delayed responding to calls for service, especially involving family disturbancesinvolving family disturbances

Black citizens perceived greater delays than whitesBlack citizens perceived greater delays than whites

2222

Police Field PracticesPolice Field PracticesDeadly ForceDeadly Force

– Source of major conflict Source of major conflict between minorities and between minorities and policepolice

– Changed significantly Changed significantly over last 40 yearsover last 40 years Fleeing-felon rule Fleeing-felon rule

unconstitutionalunconstitutional Trend toward defense-Trend toward defense-

of-life standardof-life standard– Does current disparity Does current disparity

between African between African Americans and whites Americans and whites shot and killed by police shot and killed by police represent systematic represent systematic discrimination?discrimination?

Use of Physical ForceUse of Physical Force

– Public Brutality: Public Brutality: excessive use of physical excessive use of physical force by the policeforce by the police

– Most common complaint Most common complaint by minoritiesby minorities

– Use of force continuumUse of force continuum– Police use force more Police use force more

often againstoften against Criminal suspectsCriminal suspects Male suspects Male suspects Black malesBlack males Drunk and Drunk and

antagonisticantagonistic Physical resistancePhysical resistance

2323

Use of Physical ForceUse of Physical Force Fleeing-Felon Rule:Fleeing-Felon Rule: Declared unconstitutional Declared unconstitutional

by the Supreme Court in 1985 (Tennessee v. by the Supreme Court in 1985 (Tennessee v. Garner), allowed police the legal right to use Garner), allowed police the legal right to use deadly force in apprehending a felon attempting deadly force in apprehending a felon attempting to escape.to escape.

Defense-of-Life StandardDefense-of-Life Standard: States that police : States that police officers are allowed to use deadly force only in officers are allowed to use deadly force only in situations where their own lives or the life of situations where their own lives or the life of another person are in danger.another person are in danger.

2424

Situational Factors in the Use of Situational Factors in the Use of ForceForce

- Officers more likely to use force against:Officers more likely to use force against:1.1. Male suspectsMale suspects2.2. African American malesAfrican American males3.3. Drunk citizensDrunk citizens4.4. Citizens who are antagonistic to the policeCitizens who are antagonistic to the police

- Geoffrey Alpert’s Force Factor FrameworkGeoffrey Alpert’s Force Factor Framework-Examines police officer behavior in relationship to the Examines police officer behavior in relationship to the citizen’s actionscitizen’s actions

-If an officer used force where there was no resistance If an officer used force where there was no resistance or threat on part of the citizen, then the force would be or threat on part of the citizen, then the force would be considered excessiveconsidered excessive

2525

Use of Police Canine UnitsUse of Police Canine Units

Being bitten by a police dog is a form of Being bitten by a police dog is a form of police use of forcepolice use of force

Minorities believe police dogs are used Minorities believe police dogs are used more often against them, and that they are more often against them, and that they are bitten far more often than whitesbitten far more often than whites

2626

ArrestsArrests African Americans are arrested more often than African Americans are arrested more often than

whites (relative to their numbers in the population)whites (relative to their numbers in the population) Officers’ decision to arrest is based on Officers’ decision to arrest is based on situational situational

factorsfactors– The strength of the evidenceThe strength of the evidence– The seriousness of the crimeThe seriousness of the crime– The preference of the victimThe preference of the victim– The victim-suspect relationshipThe victim-suspect relationship– The demeanor of the suspectThe demeanor of the suspect

Extremely complexExtremely complex No studies which determines the extent to which demeanor is No studies which determines the extent to which demeanor is

provoked by officer actionsprovoked by officer actions

2727

Field Interrogations and SearchesField Interrogations and Searches

Field InterrogationsField Interrogations: Involve a crime control : Involve a crime control strategy of both identifying and apprehending strategy of both identifying and apprehending offenders, and sending a message of deterrence offenders, and sending a message of deterrence to people on the street.to people on the street.– Young racial and ethnic minority males regard this as Young racial and ethnic minority males regard this as

harassmentharassment– The President’s Crime Commission found that field The President’s Crime Commission found that field

interrogations were a “major cause of tensions interrogations were a “major cause of tensions between the police and minority communities”between the police and minority communities”

2828

Being “Out of Place” and Getting Being “Out of Place” and Getting StoppedStopped

Experts believe that a certain amount of Experts believe that a certain amount of racial profiling in traffic enforcement is the racial profiling in traffic enforcement is the result of a police officer deciding that an result of a police officer deciding that an African American or Hispanic driver is “out African American or Hispanic driver is “out of place” in a white neighborhood.of place” in a white neighborhood.

2929

Discussion: Crime Fighting and Discussion: Crime Fighting and StereotypingStereotyping

Stereotyping of citizens by gender, age, Stereotyping of citizens by gender, age, and race is a problem deeply rooted in and race is a problem deeply rooted in policingpolicing

Racial stereotyping can affect a police Racial stereotyping can affect a police officer’s likelihood of using deadly forceofficer’s likelihood of using deadly force

3030

Other Police Field PracticesOther Police Field Practices

Verbal Abuse and Racial and Ethnic SlursVerbal Abuse and Racial and Ethnic Slurs Language and Cultural BarriersLanguage and Cultural Barriers Discrimination Involving Women, Gays, Discrimination Involving Women, Gays,

Lesbians, and Transgendered PeopleLesbians, and Transgendered People– ““Driving While Female”Driving While Female”– Abuse of sexual minoritiesAbuse of sexual minorities– Bias against young African American women Bias against young African American women

3131

Special Topic: Racial ProfilingSpecial Topic: Racial Profiling

Racial profiling: the practice of police Racial profiling: the practice of police officers stopping drivers because of their officers stopping drivers because of their race or ethnicity and not because of a race or ethnicity and not because of a legitimate law violation.legitimate law violation.– ““Driving while black”Driving while black”– ““Driving while brown”Driving while brown”

3232

Traffic Enforcement PracticesTraffic Enforcement Practices 52% of all citizen-police contacts involve 52% of all citizen-police contacts involve

traffic stopstraffic stops Data on traffic enforcement patterns Data on traffic enforcement patterns

involve several different actions by police:involve several different actions by police:– 1. Stopping a vehicle1. Stopping a vehicle– 2. Resolving the stop through an arrest, 2. Resolving the stop through an arrest,

citation, warning, or no actioncitation, warning, or no action– 3. Searching the vehicle, driver, and/or 3. Searching the vehicle, driver, and/or

passengerspassengers

3333

Data on Traffic Enforcement Data on Traffic Enforcement PatternsPatterns

National dataNational data– Males more likely to be stopped than femalesMales more likely to be stopped than females– Young people more likely than older peopleYoung people more likely than older people– African Americans and Hispanics more likely to African Americans and Hispanics more likely to

be searched than whitesbe searched than whites State and local dataState and local data

– Meehan and Ponder study found that African Meehan and Ponder study found that African Americans were more likely to be stopped and Americans were more likely to be stopped and queried in predominately white neighborhoodsqueried in predominately white neighborhoods

– Location mattersLocation matters

3434

Interpreting Traffic-Stop DataInterpreting Traffic-Stop Data BenchmarkBenchmark for interpreting data was the for interpreting data was the

residential populationresidential population However, However, population datapopulation data do not indicate who is do not indicate who is

actually driving on the roads or who is violating actually driving on the roads or who is violating traffic lawtraffic law

Best method is the Best method is the rolling surveyrolling survey technique technique which utilizes direct observationwhich utilizes direct observation

Another alternative is Another alternative is internal benchmarking (IB)internal benchmarking (IB)– Compares performance of individual officers with peer Compares performance of individual officers with peer

officersofficers

3535

Explaining Disparities in Traffic Explaining Disparities in Traffic EnforcementEnforcement

““Officers act on the basis of prejudicial Officers act on the basis of prejudicial attitudes”attitudes”

A Contextual Analysis:A Contextual Analysis:– Racial profiling occurs in three different Racial profiling occurs in three different

contextscontexts 1. War on drugs1. War on drugs 2. Citizens who are “out of place”2. Citizens who are “out of place” 3. General crackdown on crime3. General crackdown on crime

3636

Police Justifications for Racial and Police Justifications for Racial and Ethnic DisparitiesEthnic Disparities

Major argument is that African Americans Major argument is that African Americans and minorities are more likely to be and minorities are more likely to be engaged in criminal activityengaged in criminal activity

Some argue this involves circular Some argue this involves circular reasoningreasoning– Minorities stopped and arrested more than Minorities stopped and arrested more than

whites producing higher arrest rates and thus, whites producing higher arrest rates and thus, justifying higher rates of stops and arrests. justifying higher rates of stops and arrests.

3737

The Legitimate Use of Race and The Legitimate Use of Race and Ethnicity in Police WorkEthnicity in Police Work

1. Police officer cannot arrest a person 1. Police officer cannot arrest a person solely on the basis or racesolely on the basis or race

2. The police cannot use race or ethnicity 2. The police cannot use race or ethnicity when it is one element in a general profile when it is one element in a general profile of criminal suspects.of criminal suspects.

3. The police may use race or ethnicity 3. The police may use race or ethnicity when it is one element in the description of when it is one element in the description of a specific criminal suspecta specific criminal suspect

3838

Policies to Prevent Bias in Traffic Policies to Prevent Bias in Traffic EnforcementEnforcement

1. Specific written policy prohibiting racial 1. Specific written policy prohibiting racial or ethnic discriminationor ethnic discrimination

2. Improve police officer training2. Improve police officer training

3. Traffic-stop data collection and analysis3. Traffic-stop data collection and analysis

3939

Can Policies Reduce Racial and Can Policies Reduce Racial and Ethnic Disparities?Ethnic Disparities?

The U.S. Customs Service developed new The U.S. Customs Service developed new guidelines for searching foreigners guidelines for searching foreigners entering the country entering the country – As a result, the no. of persons being searched As a result, the no. of persons being searched

declined by 47%declined by 47%– The percentage of people found with The percentage of people found with

contraband rose by 65%contraband rose by 65%– Racial and ethnic disparities in persons Racial and ethnic disparities in persons

searched also declinedsearched also declined

4040

Problem Solving on Racial ProfilingProblem Solving on Racial Profiling

Importance of developing community and Importance of developing community and police partnerships on racial profiling:police partnerships on racial profiling:– 1. Partnerships foster trust1. Partnerships foster trust– 2. Partnerships are a valuable avenue for two-2. Partnerships are a valuable avenue for two-

way communicationway communication– 3. Partnerships can help police departments 3. Partnerships can help police departments

reduce the risk of engaging in unacceptable reduce the risk of engaging in unacceptable practices that might result in being suedpractices that might result in being sued

4141

Improving Police-Community Improving Police-Community RelationsRelations

Several different approaches:Several different approaches:– 1. Maintaining a representative police force1. Maintaining a representative police force

Eliminating employment discriminationEliminating employment discrimination

– 2. Improving the handling of citizen complaints2. Improving the handling of citizen complaints Civilian review boardsCivilian review boards

– 3. Creating special police-community relations unit3. Creating special police-community relations unit For recent immigrants: “newcomer,” “foreign born,” and “non-For recent immigrants: “newcomer,” “foreign born,” and “non-

natives”natives”

– 4. Improving training4. Improving training Assigning officers on the basis of raceAssigning officers on the basis of race

4242

Special Police-Community Special Police-Community Relations UnitRelations Unit

PCR Units operate programs designed to PCR Units operate programs designed to improve relations with minority communitiesimprove relations with minority communities

Ride-along programs: allow citizens to spend a Ride-along programs: allow citizens to spend a few hours riding in a patrol carfew hours riding in a patrol car

Creation of neighborhood storefront offices to Creation of neighborhood storefront offices to overcome isolation of the policeovercome isolation of the police

Special PCR programs tend to be more Special PCR programs tend to be more successfully with groups of people who already successfully with groups of people who already have favorable attitudes toward the policehave favorable attitudes toward the police– Whites, homeowners, older peopleWhites, homeowners, older people

4343

Outreach to Immigrant Outreach to Immigrant CommunitiesCommunities

The new variety of languages and cultures The new variety of languages and cultures in American cities presents new issues for in American cities presents new issues for police departmentspolice departments– Police departments developing new outreach Police departments developing new outreach

programs designed to help establish closer programs designed to help establish closer relations with the police and new immigrant relations with the police and new immigrant communitiescommunities

– Largest number of programs are targeted Largest number of programs are targeted toward Hispanic/Latino communitiestoward Hispanic/Latino communities

4444

Should Local Police Enforce Should Local Police Enforce Federal Immigration?Federal Immigration?

Many local police officials do not want to Many local police officials do not want to be involved in enforcing immigration laws be involved in enforcing immigration laws because they argue that policing requires because they argue that policing requires them to develop close relations with the them to develop close relations with the communities they servecommunities they serve– The role of immigration enforcement might The role of immigration enforcement might

alienate them from communities with large alienate them from communities with large numbers of immigrantsnumbers of immigrants

– People will become reluctant to call the police People will become reluctant to call the police to report crimes, etc.to report crimes, etc.

4545

Race Relations and Human Race Relations and Human Relations TrainingRelations Training

No research has established a direct connection No research has established a direct connection between race relations training and improved between race relations training and improved police officer behavior or improve public police officer behavior or improve public attitudesattitudes

Experts question the value of classroom trainingExperts question the value of classroom training– On-the-street behavior and communication may be On-the-street behavior and communication may be

more effectivemore effective Training in Cultural CompetenceTraining in Cultural Competence

– Information may help explain cultural differences that Information may help explain cultural differences that may lead to misunderstandingsmay lead to misunderstandings

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From PCR to Legitimacy: The New From PCR to Legitimacy: The New ParadigmParadigm

Legitimacy: the belief that the police as a social Legitimacy: the belief that the police as a social institution are acting properly and effectively, institution are acting properly and effectively, and deserve public supportsand deserve public supports

Winning legitimacy is 2-dimensionalWinning legitimacy is 2-dimensional– First dimension: involves substantive outcomes: First dimension: involves substantive outcomes:

controlling crime and disorder and providing services controlling crime and disorder and providing services to the publicto the public

– Second dimension: involves Second dimension: involves how how police do their job: police do their job: treating all people with respect, not engaging in treating all people with respect, not engaging in misconduct or use of excessive forcemisconduct or use of excessive force

Key difference between PCR and LegitimacyKey difference between PCR and Legitimacy– PCR programs are directed only toward one part of PCR programs are directed only toward one part of

the communitythe community

4747

““Best Practices”: Responsive Best Practices”: Responsive Policing and AccountabilityPolicing and Accountability

2001 Justice Department report listed the 2001 Justice Department report listed the best policing practices as:best policing practices as:– A comprehensive policy requiring officers to A comprehensive policy requiring officers to

report all uses of forcereport all uses of force– An open and accessible citizen complaint An open and accessible citizen complaint

procedureprocedure– An early warning system to identify potential An early warning system to identify potential

“problem” officers“problem” officers– Improved police trainingImproved police training– Traffic-stop data collectionTraffic-stop data collection– Improved recruitment, hiring, and retention of Improved recruitment, hiring, and retention of

officersofficers

4848

Community Policing and Improving Community Policing and Improving PCRPCR

Community policing represents a Community policing represents a comprehensive philosophy of policing and comprehensive philosophy of policing and may better address on-the-street police may better address on-the-street police behavior than traditional PCR programsbehavior than traditional PCR programs

Community policing is directed toward the Community policing is directed toward the community as a whole, and not just racial community as a whole, and not just racial and ethnic minority communitiesand ethnic minority communities