Volcano Dictionary
Transcript of Volcano Dictionary
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Volcano Dictionary
A
'a'a'A'a (pronounced "ah-ah") is a
Hawaiian term for a lava flow that
has a rough, broken-up, spiny
surface. It is composed of broken
lava blocks called clinkers. The
interior of 'a'a is very dense.
accretionAccretion is the
accumulation of sediment
(mud, sand, etc.) by
deposition, often occurring
along a shoreline or in a
river delta.
acid rainAcid rain is
polluted and
harmful to the
environment.
active volcanoAn active volcano is one that
has erupted in recorded
history or is currently
erupting.
aerosolAn aerosol consists of tiny
particles of liquids or
solids suspended in the
air.
aftershockAftershocks are small
earthquakes that occur
after a large earthquake.
airfallAirfall (also called
ashfall) is volcanic
ash that falls from an
ash cloud or a
volcanic column.
andesiteAndesite is a type of volcanic
rock. This gray to black rock is
composed of about 54 to 62
percent silica (SiO2), plus some
iron and magnesium.
ash cloudAn ash cloud (also called
an eruption cloud) is the
cloud of ash that forms
after some volcanic
eruptions.
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ashfa
llAshfall
(also
called
airhfall)
is
volcanic ash
that
falls
from an
ashclou
d or a
volcani
c
column.
ash,
volcani
c
Volcanicash is a
harsh
abrasive
type of
ash
(unlike
ash from
a wood
fire) that
is made
up of
small
rock,
mineral,
and
volcanic
glass
fragment
s (these
fragment
s are lessthan 0.1
inch (2
mm) in
diameter)
.
asthenosphereThe asthenosphere (also spelled aesthenosphere) is a part of
the Earth's upper mantle that exhibits plastic properties. It is
located below the lithosphere (the crust and upper mantle),
between about 100 and 250 kilometers deep.
atmosphericshock wave
An atmospheric shock
wave is compressed air
that is formed by a
volcanic eruption.
atomEverything is made up of
tiny atoms. An atom is
the smallest part of an
avalancheAn avalanche is a a large mass offalling and/or sliding material.
Avalanches can be composed of
rock, snow, soil, or ice. Volcanic
eruptions can cause avalanches.
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element that has the
properties of that
element.
B
background extinctionsBackground extinctions are those
extinctions that occur continually
throughout time. These extinctions
are caused by small changes in
climate or habitat, depleted
resources, competition, and other
changes that require adaptation and
flexibility. Most extinctions (perhapsup to 95 per cent of all extinctions)
occur as background extinctions.
ballistic
fragmentA ballistic
fragment is a
piece of rock
that is ejected
from a volcano
with great
speed.
basaltBasalt is a type of volcanic
(igneous) rock. This hard,
dark rock is composed of 45
to 54 percent silica (SiO2)
and is often rich in iron and
magnesium. Basalt is the
most common type of rock
in the Earth's crust - most ofthe sea floor is made up of
basalt.
basaltic lavaBasaltic lava is a lava composed
ofmolten basalt. This type of
lava erupts at temperaturesfrom 1100 to 1250 C. Basalt
lava has a low viscosity
(resistance to flow); it flows
relatively quickly. Shield
volcanoes are almost entirely
composed of basalt.
base surgeA base surge is a
cloud of rock debris,
water, and steamthat moves close to
the ground at high
speeds. It is formed
by an explosive
volcanic eruption.
batholithA batholith is a huge body of
igneous rock that solidified
under that Earth but nowhas at least 100 square
kilometers (40 square miles)
exposed. Half Dome at
Yosemite National Park,
California, USA, is a granite
batholith.
bathypelagicBathypelagic means of,
pertaining to, or living in
the deep ocean near the
bottom.
1,000,000,000
billionA billion is a thousand
million. Multicellular life
evolved on Earth about a
billion years ago.
biomassBiomass is the amount of
animal and plant life in an
area. Biomass is usually
expressed in units of weight
per volume.
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biotaBiota is the
animal andplant life of
an area.
blockA volcanic block is a chunk of rock (over 64
mm) that is ejected (thrown) from a volcano.Blocks usually originate from the volcano's
cone and are solid chunks of older lava flows.
A block is one size oftephra.
blowdownA blowdown is a area
of trees that has beenblown over by a
volcanic blast.
bombA volcanic bomb is a chunk of viscous lava (over 64 mm) that is
ejected (thrown) from a volcano. Since they are still viscouswhen ejected, they often have rounded, aerodynamic shapes.
Types of bombs include: breadcrust bombs, ribbon bombs,
spindle bombs, spheroidal bombs, and "cow-dung" bombs.
1,000,000,0
00
bya"bya" stands for
billions of years
ago.
C
calderaA caldera is a large depression
formed from a collapsed volcano.
Calderas are often circular or
elliptical. Crater Lake (in Oregon,
USA) is an example of a largecaldera (it is 16 miles across).
Caldera comes from the Spanish
word for Cauldron.
Cenozoic eraThe "Age of Mammals" (65
million years ago - today), saw
the emergence of familiar life
forms, humans, the modernlook of the continents, and a
cooling climate. The Cenozoic
followed the Mesozoic Era.
cindersCinders are small
fragments of lava
that are about
1/2 inch (1
centimeter)across.
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cinder coneA cinder cone is a cone-shaped
volcano. Its steep sides are formed
by volcanic loose, fragmented
cinders that fall to the Earth close to
the vent. The lava flows through a
single vent that is usually only up to
about 1,000 feet tall. There is
usually a bowl-shaped crater at the
top. As the gas-filled lava erupts into
the air, the lava fragments and
forms cinders.
composite
volcanoA composite volcano
is a volcano that has asteep volcanic cone
that is built up by
dense lava flows and
pyroclastic debris.
Also called a
stratovolcano.
condensationCondensation is the
process in which a
vapor (a gas) is cooled
to the liquid phase.
Clouds are formed by
the condensation of
atmospheric water
vapor.
conduitA volcanic conduit is a passage through which magma (molten rock) flows in a
volcano.
Top of Form
Forward Backward
Bottom of Form
continental driftContinental drift is the movement of the Earth's continents. The land masses are
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hunks of Earth's crust that float on the molten core. The ideas of continental drift
and the existence of a supercontinent (Pangaea) were presented by Alfred Wegener
in 1915.
continental platesThe crust of the Earth is broken into plates. Theplates are enormous chunks of rock that float atop
the soft mantle. The plates are moving at a speed
that has been estimated at 1 to 10 cm per year.
Continental plates are thicker, older, and less dense
than oceanic plates. These plates are about 125
kilometers thick and are made of granite that is
about 3 billion years old.
continental shelfThe continental shelf is the
part of the ocean floor next to
each of the continents. The sea
floor slopes gradually from the
continent to a depth of about
650 feet (200 m). Beyond the
continental shelf the sea floor
drops steeply.
coreThe core is the innermost
layer of the Earth. It consists
of iron-nickel; it is under great
pressure and is very hot. The
inner core is solid ; the outer
core is molten.
Coriolis forceThe Coriolis force is the force that
results from the rotation of the Earth
around its axis; it makes storms rotate
counterclockwise in the Northern and
clockwise in the Southern
Hemispheres. The French
engineer/mathematician Gustave-
Gaspard Coriolis discovered this force
craterA crater is a
circular
depression in
the ground. It
has steep
sides and
contains a
volcanicvent.
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in 1835. This force has effects on
water currents, but has no effect on
the direction of water going down a
drain.
Cretaceous periodFlowering plants appeared and dinosaurs were at their
height during the Cretaceous period, 146-65 million years
ago. There was a mass extinction (the K-T mass
extinction) at the end of the Cretaceous, marking the end
of the dinosaurs and many other species. Modern-day
sharks existed during the Cretaceous period.
crust
The Earth's crust is itsoutermost, rocky layer.
crystallizationCrystallization is the
process in which
magma solidifies into
solid, crystalline rock.
currentA current is a non-periodic horizontal movement of water.
Currents are caused by winds, temperature differentials,
and other forces. They are NOT caused by tidal forces (the
gravitational forces of the Moon and Sun). Some majorcurrents include the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean and
the Humboldt Current in the Pacific Ocean.
D
daciteDacite is a type of
volcanic rock that is
light-colored and rich in
silica (63 to 68 percent).
debris avalancheA debris avalanche is a
sudden rock/soil/debris slide
and flows with great speed
from a volcano.
debris flowA debris flow (also called a
mudflow or lahar) is a
moving mixture of rock,
water, and other debris.
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decibelDecibels (abbreviated dB) are the unit of
measuring the loudness (or intensity) of sounds. 0
dB is the faintest audible sound. The decibel scale
is logarithmic. Blue whale calls are up to 188 dB;
this is the loudest animal sound, and is painful to
the human ear. Volcano eruptions are one of the
loudest sounds on Earth and are over 272 dB.
degreeA degree is a
measure oftemperature
or angle.
diatremeA diatreme is a
volcanic vent orpipe that is
formed by gas-
charged magma.
dikeA dike is a sheet-like intrusion of magma (molten rock)
that froces its way through a layer of fractured rock. The
magma flows through cracks in the rock and later cools
and solidifies into a sheet of igneous rock.
domeA lava dome is a dome-shaped mound that is
formed around a vent by
viscous lava.
dormant volcano
A dormant volcano is a volcano that isnot active now, but may erupt in the
future.
dustVolcanic dust is a solidified lava that is tiny
particles. It is ejected from volcanos duringan eruption.
E
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EarthThe Earth is the third planet from the
sun.
ejectaEjecta is material that has been thrown
from a volcanic erutption. Some ejecta are
lava bombs and tephra (pyroclastic
material).
elementAn element is a
chemically pure
substance
composed of
atoms of a singletype.
Eocene epochThe Eocene epoch (58-37
million years ago) was the
time when primitive whales
and many other mammals
evolved.
Eon Time
Phanerozoi
c Eon
540 million years
ago through today
Proterozoic
Eon
2.5 billion years ago
to 540 million years
ago
Archaeozoi
c Eon
3.9 to 2.5 billion
years ago
Hadean Eon4.6 to 3.9 billion
years ago
eonTwo or more geological eras form
an eon, which is the largestdivision of geological time,
lasting hundreds of millions of
years.
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epicenterThe epicenter is the point
on the Earth's surface
directly above the place
that an earthquake
occured.
epipelagicEpipelagic menas of or
about the upper part of the
ocean in which there is
enough light to support
plants.
epochAn epoch is a division of a
geologic period; it is the
smallest division of
geologic time, lasting
several million years.
equator
The equator is animaginary circle
around the earth (or
other planet or
moon), halfway
between the north
and south poles.
eraTwo or more
geological periods
comprise an era,
which is hundredsof millions of years
in duration.
eruptionAn eruption is
volcanic activity
in which lava,
tephra, or gases
are released.
eruption cloudAn eruption cloud (also
called an ash cloud) is
the cloud of ash, gas
and rock fragmentsthat forms after some
volcanic eruptions.
eruptive ventAn eruptive vent is a
vent from which
volcanic material is
released.
evaporationEvaporation is the process
in which a liquid is
transformed into a
gaseous form.
extinctAn animal species that is extinct
has died out. Most animal species
that ever existed have gone
extinct, including all the
dinosaurs.
extinct volcanoAn extinct volcano is a
volcano that is not likely to
erupt again.
extrusive igneous rockExtrusive rocks are igneous rocks that have cooled
at the surface of the Earth. They usually have a fine-
grained texture.
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F
fissureA fissure is a
crack in a rocks.
A volcanic
fissure is one
from which lava
erupts.
fold mountainsFold mountains are a type of mountain range that is formed when
two continental plates collide (or one continental plate colliding
with an oceanic plate). The colliding crust is compressed and
pushed upwards (uplifted), forming mountains. For example, the
Himalayas were slowly formed when the Indian plate collided with
the Asia-European plate millions of years ago.
fumarole
A fumarole is a vent from which volcanic gases (like sulphur vapor) escape.Fumaroles can occur along small cracks or long fissures.
G
GASGas is a phase of matter
in which the molecules
are widely separated,
move around freely, and
move at high speeds.
GEOLOGICAL TIMEThe history of the earth is described
in geological time, which is measured
in millions of years and billions of
years. The divisions used are: eon,
era, period, and epoch.
GEOLOGYGeology is the
study of the
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Earth's structure,
including rocks.
GEOLOGIS
TA geologist is
a scientist
who studies
geology.
glacier outburst
floodA glacier outburst flood
is a sudden flood caused
as water flows quickly
from a glacier or a
glacier-dammed lake. It
is caused as volcanic
activity under the
glacier melts the ice.
GONDWANALANDGondwanaland (also known as Gondwana)
was the southern supercontinent formed
after Pangaea broke up during the Jurassic
period. It included what are now South
America, Africa, India, Australia, andAntarctica.
GREENHOUSE EFFECTThe greenhouse effect is an increase in the temperature of a planet
as heat energy from sunlight is trapped in the atmosphere. Excess
carbon dioxide and water vapor increase this effect. The greenhouse
effect is strong on Earth and Venus, maintaining warm temperatures.
grabenA graben (or
rift) is a
valley
between two
faults.
graniteGranite is a type of igneous rock
GUTENBERG, BENOBeno Gutenberg ( June 4, 1889 - 1960) was a
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(volcanic rock that has cooled) that
is light-colored and coarse grained.
Granite is characterized by the
minerals orthoclase and quartz with
some plagioclase feldspar and iron-
magnesium minerals. Granite
underlies much of the continents.
German geophysicist. In 1913, he accurately
determined the size of the core of the Earth.
Gutenberg discovered that the Earth has a
low-velocity zone in the upper mantle; this
zone is now called the Gutenberg
discontinuity. Gutenberg published a series ofpapers with Charles Richter (they were titled
"On Seismic Waves" and published between
1931 and 1939) and Seismicity of the Earth
(published in 1941).
GUTENBERG DISCONTINUITYThe Gutenberg discontinuity separates the
outer core and the mantle of the Earth.
GUYOTA guyot is a flat-topped, undersea
mountain (a seamount) formed from
a volcano.
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A B C D E F G H IJ KL M N O P Q R S T U V W XYZ
H
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half-lifeThe half-life of a radioisotope is the amount of time it takes
for half of the radioisotope to decay.hemisphereA hemisphere is half
of a sphere.
HoloceneThe Holocene (meaning
"entirely recent" in Greek) is
the most recent epoch in
geologic time, lasting from
about 11,000 years ago until
the present day (the time
since the last Ice Age).
hotspotA hot spot is a an area
in the Earth's
lithosphere through
which magma (molten
rock) rises. Volcanoes
often erupt over hot
spots.
hydrologic cycleThe Hydrologic cycle (also
known as the water cycle) is
the journey water takes as it
circulates from the Earth to
the sky and back again.
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cano/glossary/indexv.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/volcano/glossary/indexw.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/volcano/glossary/indexx.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/volcano/glossary/indexy.shtmlhttp://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/volcano/glossary/indexz.shtml 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ice ageAn ice age is a
time lasting
thousands of
years during
which the Earth
is very cold and
largely covered
by ice andglaciers.
igneous intrusion
An igneous intrusion (also calleda laccolith or a plutonic
formation) is a formation in which
magma (molten rock) is trapped
beneath the surface of the Earth
and pushes the rock located
above it into a dome shape. It
has a flat base and a convex
upper surface. The magma cools
and solidifies, and eventually, it is
exposed (as the fractured
sedimentary rock above it erodesaway).
igneous rock
When molten rock cools,igneous rock is formed.
Intrusive rocks are igneous
rocks that have formed (and
cooled slowly) beneath the
surface of the Earth. Extrusive
rocks are igneous rocks that
have formed (and cooled more
quickly) at the surface of the
Earth (like obsidian). Some
igneous rocks include granite,
obsidian (volcanic glass),basalt, and andesite porphyry.
ignimbriteIgnimbrite (meaning "fire rain
stone") is a type of igneous rock
that is formed in the pyroclasticflow (the pumice flow deposit) of
violently explosing volcanoes.
Ignimbrite forms as molten lava
and ash fuse; this rock is
streaked with parallel bands of
black glass. The texture of
ignimbrite varies from hard to
soft.
impact
craterImpact craters
are the remains
of collisions
between an
asteroid or
meteorite and
the Earth.
index fossil
Index fossils are commonlyfound fossils that are limited in
time span. They help in dating
other fossils. For example:
trilobites were common during
the Paleozoic, but not found
before the Permian period, and
ammonites were common
during the Mesozoic Era, but
not found after the Cretaceous
period.
intrusive igneous rockIntrusive rocks are igneous rocks that
have formed (and cooled slowly)
ionAn ion is an atom
that is missing one or
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intertidal
zone
The intertidal
zone is wherethe sea meets
the land.
beneath the surface of the Earth. These
rocks usually have a coarse-grained or
medium-grained texture, like granite.
more electrons; ions
have an electrical
charge.
Iridium anomalyIridium is an element that is rare on the
Earth's surface, but abundant on chondritic
meteors. The presence of excess Iridium at
the K-T layer (the Iridium anomaly) supports
the Alvarez asteroid theory.
ISOTOPEAn isotope of an element is another
form of the same element, that has
a different number of neutrons in
the nucleus (giving it a different
atomic weight).
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JURASSIC PERIODBirds evolved and many dinosaurs flourished during the Jurassic period, 208-146
million years ago.
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laccolithA laccolith (also called a plutonic
formation or an igneous intrusion) is a
formation in which magma (molten
rock) is trapped beneath the surface of
the Earth and pushes the rock located
above it into a dome shape. It has a
flat base and a convex upper surface.
The magma cools and solidifies, and
eventually, it is exposed (as thefractured sedimentary rock above it
erodes away). Laccolith means "cistern
stone" in Greek.
laharA lahar (also called a
mudflow or debris flow)
is a moving mixture of
rock, water, and other
debris that falls down
the slopes of a volcano
and/or a river valley.
Lahar is an Indonesianword
lapilliLapilli are pieces of
rock or lava that
range from 2 and
64 millimeters
across. Lipilli are
thrown into the air
by volcanic
explosions
lateral blastA lateral blast is a
volcanic eruption
that occurs on the
side of a volcano;
the energy of the
blast is directed
horizontally.
latitudeLatitude is the angular
distance north or south
from the equator to a
particular location. The
equator has a latitude of
zero degrees. The north
and south poles have a
LaurasiaLaurasia was the northern
supercontinent formed after Pangaea
broke up during the Jurassic period.
Laurasia included what are now
North America, Europe, Asia,
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latitude of 90 degrees.
The rest of the world is
between zero and ninety
degrees.
Greenland, and Iceland.
lavaLava is molten
rock. It usually
comes out oferupting
volcanoes.
lava bombA volcanic bomb is a chunk of viscous lava (over
64 mm) that is ejected (thrown) from a volcano.
Since they are still viscous when sjected, they
often have rounded, aerodynamic shapes. Type
of bombs include: breadcrust bombs, ribbon
bombs, spindle bombs, spheroidal bombs, and"cow-dung" bombs.
lava domeA lava dome is
a dome-shaped
mound that is
formed around
a vent byviscous lava.
lava flowA lava flow is moving
mass of molten lava onthe Earth's surface. The
solidified lava deposit
from a molten lava flow
is also called a lava flow.
lava lakeA lava lake is a
lake of basaltic
lava contained
in a volcanic
caldera.
lava tubeA lava tube is a tube-like, underground
conduit formed by flowing lava. The
flowing lava crusts over at the edges and
drains out onto lower ground - what is left
is a smooth, tube-like tunnel with
hanging lava stalactites and a flat floor -
a lava tube.
liquid
Liquid is a phase ofmatter in which
the molecules are
close together and
can move around
slowly.
lithosphere
lithospheric plates
Llithospheric plates are aseries of slabs that make up
the Earth's hard outer shell.
There are 16 major
lithospheric plates that float on
softer layers of the Earth's
mantle.
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The lithosphere is the solid,
rocky, outer part of the Earth
consisting of the crust and the
upper mantle.
Littoral Zone
The littoral
(intertidal)
zone is where
the sea meets
the land.
loessLoess is a
deposit of
tiny,
windblownparticles.
longitudeLongitude is the angular distance east or west of
the prime meridian (the north-south line that
passes through Greenwich, England) to a particular
location. Greenwich, England has a latitude of zero
degrees. The farther east or west of Greenwichyou are, the greater your longitude. Midway
Islands (in the Pacific Ocean) have a longitude of
180 degrees (they are on the opposite side of the
globe from Greenwich).
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maarA maar is a shallow, flat-
bottomed crater that forms
above a diatreme (volcanic
vent) when steam explodes.
Maars range in size from 200
maficMafic refers to dark-
colored igneous rock or
magma that have
significant amounts of
iron and magnesium. For
magmaMagma is molten rock
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to 6,500 feet in diameter and
from 30 to 650 feet deep.
Maars often fill with water and
form lakes.
example, olivine, augite,
and hypersthene are
mafic rocks.
(lava) from which
igneous rock forms.
Magma is be formed
from many types of
rocks, including basalt,
andesite, dacite, andrhyolite
magmachamberA magma chamber
is an underground
cavity filled with
gas-rich magma
(molten rock). This
magma erupts
through volcanoes.
magnetic fieldThe Earth's magnetic
field is aligned with the
north and south poles,
and has reversed many
times during geologic
history. Sharks may use
the magnetic field of
the Earth for navigation
purposes on migrations.
magnitudeThe intensity of an earthquake is
described by a number in the Richter
scale, called the magnitude. The
magnitude of an earthquake iscalculated from the logarithm of the
amplitude of waves recorded by
seismographs. A magnitude 2.0 or less
earthquake is called a
microearthquake and is not felt by
people. A magnitude 4.5 or more
earthquake can be measured by
seismographs all over the world.
Tsunamis can be caused by undersea
earthquakes of magnitude 7.5 or
greater.
mantleThe mantle is the layer
of the Earth located
between the crust and
the molten core.
mass
extinctionMass extinction
is the process
in which huge
numbers ofspecies die out
suddenly. The
dinosaurs (and
many other
species) went
extinct during
Mesozoic EraThe Mesozoic Era ("The
Age of Reptiles"),
occurred from 245-65
million years ago. It is
divided into the Triassic,
Jurassic, and Cretaceous
periods. Dinosaurs,
mammals, and flowering
plants evolved during the
Mesozoic, and Pangaea
metamorp
hic rockMetamorphic
rocks are
compacted by
pressure and
heat from deep
inside the
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the K-T
extinction,
which was
probably
caused by an
asteroidcolliding with
the Earth.
broke up. The era ended
with the K-T mass
extinction.
earth.
meteorA meteor is a meteoroid that has
entered the Earth's atmosphere,
usually making a fiery trail as it falls.
It is sometimes called a shooting star.
Most burn up before hitting the Earth.
meteorite
A meteorite is a meteorthat has fallen to Earth.
Meteorites are either
stone, iron, or stony-
iron.
meteoroid
Meteoroids are tinystones or pieces of
metal that travel
through space.
1,000,000
millionA million is a
thousand
thousand. The
dinosaurs lived
millions of
years ago.
mineralA mineral is a
naturally-occurring
solid of definite
chemical
composition whose
atoms usually form
a regular pattern.
Miocene epochThe Miocene epoch was a geologic time span
that lasted from 24 million to 5 million years
ago. During the Miocene, modern birds andmany mammals evolved (including the
horses, dogs, bears, South American
monkeys, and apes in southern Europe).
Ramapithecus appeared; this primate was
pehaps an ancestor of man. The climate was
relatively warm (as compared to the earlier
Oligocene or the later Pliocene). There were
extensive grasslands (and grasses
diversified), and the interior of the continents
were relatively dry; northern coniferousforests expanded. Kelp forests appeared in
the seas. In North America, the Sierra Nevada
Mountains and the Cascade Mountains were
formed; in the South America, the Andes
Mountains arose. The Bering land bridge
formed during the Miocene, connecting
Russia and Alaska, allowing many animals to
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migrat across continents. The Isthmus of
Panama also formed during this time.
Australia became very dry (but went through
wet and dry periods). In Europe, the
Mediterranean Sea and Indian Ocean were
separated (they had been connected by theTethys Sea).
Mohorovicic, AndrijaAndrija Mohorovicic (1857 - 1936)
was a Yugoslavian geophysicist.
After examining seismic wavesfrom the 1909 Kulpa Valley
earthquake, Mohorovicic
theorized that a boundary
between the Earth's crust and the
upper mantle existed (about 50
km beneath the surface) in which
the speed of earthquake waves
became very rapid. This region is
now called the Mohorovicic
discontinuity. A crater on the dark
side of the moon was also named
for Mohorovicic.
MOHOROVICIC
DISCONTINUITYThe Mohorovicic
discontinuity separates
the crust and the upper
mantle of the Earth.
monogeneticvolcano
A monogenetic
volcano is one that
was formed during a
relatively short time
period and during a
single eruption. Most
monogenetic
volcanos are basaltic.
mudflowA mudflow (also called a debris flow or lahar) is a moving
mixture of rock, water, and other debris.
1,000,000
mya"mya" stands for
millions of years ago.
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neckA neck (also called a
volcanic plug) is
solidified lava that fills
the conduit of a volcano.
nereticPertaining to the
shallow waters near the
shore over the
continental shelf.
nuees ardenteNuees ardente (also called
pyroclastic flow) is very hot gas
and ash that explodes from a
volcano at high speeds.
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oceanAn ocean is a vast body of salt water. Oceans cover
more than three-quarters of the surface of the
obsidianObsidian (also called Apache
tears) is a volcanic glass that is
usually black, but is
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Earth. The oceans on Earth include the Pacific
Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, the Indian Ocean, and
the Arctic Ocean. The ocean floors are composed
mostly ofbasalt.
occasionally red, brown, gray,
green (rare), dark with
"snowflakes," or even clear.
This glassy, lustrous mineral is
found in lava flows, and
obsidian stones can bemassive. Obsidian is formed
when viscous lava (from
volcanos) cools rapidly. Most
obsidian is 70 percent silica.
Obsidian has a hardness of 5
and a specific gravity of 2.35.
The pin above is mahogany
(brown) obsidian.
oceanic platesThe crust of the Earth is broken into plates. Theplates are enormous chunks of rock that float
atop the soft mantle. The plates are moving at a
speed that has been estimated at 1 to 10 cm per
year. Oceanic plates (those that are under the
ocean) are thinner, younger, and denser than
continental plates. These underwater plates are
about 75 kilometers thick and are made of
basalt rock. They are relatively young since
plate formation (seafloor spreading) occurs at
the margins of oceanic plates.
oceanographyOceanography is
the science that
studies the
physical geography
of oceans.
outcropAn outcrop is
a place where
bedrock is
visible on the
surface of the
Earth.
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outgassingOutgassing is the
release of gases
into the
atmosphere during
volcanic eruptions.
A lot of of our
atmosphere
(including water
vapor, nitrogen,
and argon) came
from outgassing.
ozoneOzone is a form of
oxygen (O3); it consists
of three connected
oxygen atoms. Ozone is
formed when oxygen
molecules (O2) bonds
are broken by high
energy (bombardment
by energetic electrons
or high energyradiation).
ozone layerThe ozone layer is a region of the
stratosphere which contains most
(about 90%) of the Earth's
atmospheric ozone. It is about10-25
miles (15-40 km) above the Earth's
surface. The ozone layer shields the
Earth from Ultraviolet B rays that
come from the Sun. The ozone layer is
becoming depleted, and there is an
"ozone hole" over Antarctica.
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PahoehoePahoehoe (pronounced
"pah-hoy-hoy") is a
Hawaiian term for lava
that, when solid, has apaleontology
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smooth or rope-like
surface.
Paleontology is the branch
of biology that studies the
forms of life that existed in
former geologic periods,
chiefly by studying fossils.
paleontologistA paleontologist is a scientist
who studies paleontology, the
forms of life that existed in
former geologic periods,
chiefly by studying fossils.
Paleozoic eraThe Paleozoic era
(540 to 245 million
years ago) saw an
explosion of new lifeforms. It ended with
the largest mass
extinction in history
and was followed by
the Mesozoic Era.
PangaeaPangaea was a supercontinent
consisting of all of Earth's land
masses. It existed during the Permian
andJurassic period. It began breaking
up during the Jurassic period, forming
continents Gondwanaland and
Laurasia, separated by the Tethys
Sea.
Pele's hairPele's hair is a
Hawaiian term for
natural spun glass
that can be as much
as 2 m long. It isformed from the
fountaining of fluid
basaltic lava,
cascading lava falls,
or from turbulent lava
flows.
periodThe period is
the basic unit
of geological
time in which
a single type
of rock system
is formed,
lasting tens of
millions ofyears.
Permian periodAlso known as "The Age of
Amphibians" (280 to 245
million years ago), this is
the time when Pangaea
formed and Earth's
atmosphere was
oxygenated to modern
levels. It ended with thelargest mass extinction
and was followed by the
Mesozoic Era. Ancient
sharks swam the seas
during the Permian period.
phases of matterMatter can exist in four phases (solid,
liquid, gas, and plasma) and a few other
extreme phases, like critical fluids and
degenerate gases. The phase diagram
of water (above) shows its phase at
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various temperatures and pressures.
pillow lavaPillow lava is lava that
cools under the sea, with
an interconnected, sack-
like form.
pipeA pipe is a vertical passageway that runs through the
Earth's crust under a volcano. Pipes are formed as
magma (molten rock) travels upward through the
crust. Pipes are often filled with breccia and other rock
debris.
platesThe crust of the Earth is broken intoplates. The plates are enormous chunks of
rock that float atop the soft mantle. The
plates are moving at a speed that has
been estimated at 1 to 10 cm per year.
Oceanic plates (those that are under the
ocean) are thinner and denser than
continental plates.
Top of Form
Forward Backward
plate tectonicsPlate tectonics is the now-established
theory that chunks of the Earth's crust
(plates) float on the surface and change
both position and size over time.
Bottom of Form
plutonic formationA plutonic formation (also called a laccolith or an igneous
intrusion) is a formation in which magma (molten rock) is
plugA plug (also called
a volcanic neck) is
solidified lava that
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trapped beneath the surface of the Earth and pushes the rock
located above it into a dome shape. It has a flat base and a
convex upper surface. The magma cools and solidifies, and
eventually, it is exposed (as the fractured sedimentary rock
above it erodes away).
fills the conduit of
a volcano.
PrecambrianThe Precambrian is the time 540 before
the Cambrian period (before million years
ago). It is the time from when the Earth
formed until simple life-forms evolved.
precipitationPrecipitation is rain, sleet, hail, snow, or
other condensation products falling
from the atmosphere. Precipitation onEarth is is key in the water cycle.
prehistoricPrehistoric refers to the time
before people began
recording history in writing.
This time varies from cultureto culture.
pumicePumice is a light-weight, spongy rock that is formed
in explosive volcanic eruptions. This igneous rock is
light and porous, containing a network of gas bubbles
in volcanic glass and minerals. Pumice can form from
any types of magma, including basalt, andesite,dacite, and rhyolite.
pyroclasticPyroclastic (meaning "fire
fragmented") refers to broken-
up rocks, pumice, ash, and
other bits of material that are
formed in a volcanic eruption.
pyroclastic flowA pyroclastic flow is an avalanche of pyroclastic
materials (broken rocks, pumice, and ash) and
hot gases that erupts from within a volcano. A
pyroclastic flow travels at up to 100 miles per
hour. Within the flow, temperatures can reach
500 degrees C.
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Quaternary period
The Quaternary period, "The Age of Man" (1.8 million yearsago to the present), is the most recent period ofgeological
time.
quartzQuartz is a common
crystalline mineral.
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radioisotope datingRadioisotope dating is used to find
out how old fossils are. Different
radioisotopes are used for
different geologic time periods
because of their different half-
repose
Repose is thetime between
volcanic
eruptions.
reticulite
Reticulite (also called thread-lace scoria) is a very light form
of pumice. It is formed during
very high fountaining volcanic
eruptions, when a lot of air is
included in the rock
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lives.
rhyoliteRhyolite is a a type
of volcanic lava or
rock that is usually
light in color; it
contains 69
percent silica and
is high in
potassium and
sodium.
rhyolite caldera complexthese are the most explosive
volcanoes. They do not look like
common volcanoes -- after an
eruption, the result is a caldera
(crater) caused when the area
around the vent collapses.
Examples are Yellowstone in
Wyoming, USA and Lake Taupo in
New Zealand (which erupted
around A.D. 80).
Richter, Charles F.Charles Francis Richter
(April 26, 1900- April 30,
1985) was a who developed
the Richter scale, a
logarithmic scale that
measures the intensity of
an earthquake. He
developed it in 1935 at the
California Institute of
Technology.
Richter scaleThe Richter scale is a logarithmic scale
that measures the intensity of an
earthquake. It was developed in 1935 by
Charles F. Richter. The magnitude of an
earthquake is calculated from the
logarithm of the amplitude of waves
recorded by seismographs. Beno
Gutenberg also contributed to the more
general application of the Richter scale.
A magnitude 2.0 or less earthquake is
called a microearthquake and is not felt
by people. A magnitude 4.5 or more
earthquake can be measured by
seismographs all over the world.
riftA rift (or
graben) is
a valley
between
two
faults.
ring of fireThe ring of fire is an area
around the Pacific Ocean that
is high in volcanic, mountain-
building, and seismic activity.
rockA rock is an aggregation of
solid matter, a random
conglomerate ofminerals. The
rock cycleThe rock cycle decribes
the relationship between
igneous, sedimentary,
runoffRunoff is water (or
other liquids) that
drains or flows from the
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earth's crust is made of rock.
There are three types of rock:
igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic. Petrology is the
scientific study of rocks.
and metamorphic rocks.
James Hutton (1727-
1797) first developed the
concept of the rock cycle.
land into streams and
rivers, and eventually
into the seas. The water
is generally from rain or
snowpack melt.
S
sciencePeople study
science to
learn about the
physical world.
scoriaScoria are bomb-sized (greater
than 64 mm across) pyroclastic
fragments that are formed as
blobs of lava cool when they are
blasted through the air. Scoria
are filled with cavities formed by
trapped air bubbles.seafloor spreadingSeafloor spreading is the
movement of two oceanic plates
away from each other, which
results in the formation of new
oceanic crust and a mid-ocean
ridge.
seamountA seamount is an underwater
mountain that rises at least 1000
meters above the sea floor. Some
seamounts rise above the water's
surface. Most seamounts arevolcanic in orgin; only a few are
non-volcanic (caused by uplifting).
sedimentary
rockSedimentary rock is
rock that has formed
from sediment. Most
fossils are found
sedimentary rock.
seismographA seismograph is a
device that records and
measures seismic waves
(vibrations in the Earth),
like those fromearthquakes.
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shield volcanoA shield volcano is a volcano
that has gently sloping sides.Shield volcanoes are
composed mostly ofbasalt
(whose lava flows easily and
quickly). The biggest
volcanoes on Earth (like those
on the islands of Hawaii) are
shield volcanoes.
shocked quartzShocked quartz is quartz
that has undergone
deformation due to extreme
pressure and heat. It has
been found in the layer thatmarks the K-T boundary,
leading credence to the
Alvarez impact theory.
skylightA skylight is a an
opening in the roof of alava tube. Skylights
are formed either
when part of the roof
collapses or as a gap in
the tube when the
tube initally forms.
side ventA side vent is an opening in
the side of a volcano
through which volcanic
materials (like lava, gases,
and pyroclastic debris)
erupt.
silicaSilica is a very common
mineral composed of
silicon and oxygen (SiO2).
Silicates make up about
95% of the Earth's crust.
silicatesSilicates are minerals
composed of silicon and
oxygen with one or more
other elements. Silicates
make up about 95% of the
Earth's crust.
skyThe sky on Earth appears blue because
our atmosphere scatters the blue
colors from the sunlight (which consists
of all colors of light). The sky on
planets with a different atmospheric
composition would appear to be a
different color.
solidA solid is one phase
of matter, a phase in
which the molecules
are very close
together and cannot
move around.
spreading ridgeA spreading ridge is
an area of the ocean
floor in which new
crust is being formed
as magma erupts.
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states of matterMatter can exist in four states or phases
(solid, liquid, gas, and plasma) and a few
other extreme phases (like critical fluids and
degenerate gases). The phase diagram ofwater (above) shows its phase at various
temperatures and pressures.
stishoviteStishovite is a very
dense form of quartz
that has only been
found in meteorite
impact craters, inwhich quartz has
undergone high-
pressure shock.
stratovolca
noA stratovolcano
is a composite
volcano.
subductionA subduction is a phenomenon in which one part of the
Earth's crust (a plate) is pushed underneath another
plate as two plates collide. The descending crust meltsas it is pushed deep into the Earth's mantle. Subduction
destroys crust and recycles it back into the mantle.
subduction zoneA subduction zone is an
area on a planet's crust in
which the edge of an
oceanic continental plate
is being pushed beneathanother plate.
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sublimeSubliming is when a
material goes directly
from being a solid to
being a gas (it skips
the liquid phase
altogether).
supervolcanoA supervolcano is an enormous volcano that is an order of
magnitude larger than ordinary volcanoes. A supervolcano
occurs when a huge magma chamber in the Earth's crust
erupts after being under great pressure, causing a large
caldera to form as the land over the magma chamber
collasps