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VOLATILE OILS

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VOLATILE OILS

All officialvolatile oils areof vegetable origin.

Normally pre-existin the

plantstored in a

special secretory tissue(e.g. Citrus peel oil cells

or oil ductsin

umbelliferous fruits).

EXCEPTION: Oil of bitter

almondformed by

hydrolysis of the

glycosides.

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USES OF VOLATILE OILS Therapeutically(Oil of

Eucalyptus) Flavouring(Oil of Lemon)

Perfumery(Oil of Rose)

Starting materialsto

synthesize other compounds(Oil of Turpentine)

Anti-septicdue to highphenols (Oil of Thyme). Alsoas a preservative (oils interfere

with bacterial respiration) Anti-spasmodic(Ginger,

Lemon balm, Rosemary,Peppermint, Chamomile,Fennel, Caraway)

Aromatherapy

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DEFINITION OF VOLATILE OILS

Volatile oils are products which are generally complex incomposition, consisting of the volatile principlescontained in plants, and are more or less modifiedduring the preparation process.

Only 2 procedures may be used to prepare official oils

i. Steam distillation

ii. Expression

4 Main types of volatile oilsi. Concretes

ii. Pomades

iii. Resinoids

iv. Absolutes

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CONCRETES

Prepared from raw materials ofvegetable origin(bark,flowers, leafs, roots etc.)

Extracted by HC type solvents,

rather than distillation orexpressionBecomesnecessary when the essentialoil is adversely affected byhot water or steam(e.g.jasmine).

Produces a more true-to-naturefragrance.

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CONCRETESConcretes contain about

50 % wax and 50 %essential oil(jasmine).

Ylang ylang (concrete

volatile) contains 80% essential oil and 20% wax.

Advantages ofconcretes: they aremore stable andconcentratedthanpure essential oils.

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POMADES

True pomades are (volatile

oil) products of a process

known as enfleurage (hot

or cold).

Enfleurage is used for

obtaining aromatic

materials from flowers

containing volatile oils to

produce perfume longafter they were cut.

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ENFLEURAGE: METHODA glass plate is covered with a

thin coating of especiallyprepared and odourless fat(called a chassis).

The freshly cut flowers are

individually laid on to the fatwhich in time becomessaturated with their essentialoils. The flowers are renewedwith fresh material.

Eventually the fragrance-saturatedfat, known as pomade, may betreated with alcohol to extract

the oil from the fat.

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RESINOIDS

Prepared from naturalresinous material (driedmaterial) by extractionwith a non-aqueous

solvent, e.g. Petroleumether or hexane.

E.g. BalsamsPerubalsam or benzoin;

resins (amberor mastic);Oleoresin (copaibabalsam and turpentine);Oleogum resins(frankincense and myrrh)

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RESINOIDS

Can be viscous liquids,

semi-solid or solid.

Usually homogeneous

mass of non-crystalline character.

Uses: in perfumery asfixatives to prolong

the effect of a

fragrance.

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ABSOLUTES

Obtained from a concrete,

pomade, or a resinoid byalcoholic extraction.

The extraction process maybe repeated.

The ethanol solution iscooled & filtered toeliminate waxes.

The ethanol is thenremoved by distillation.

They are usually highlyconcentrated viscousliquids.

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Fx OF VOLATILE OILS

In most cases, the biological

function of the terpenoids

of essential oils remains

obscureit is thought

that they play anecological role

protection from predators

& attraction of pollinators.

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LOCALIZATION

Synthesis & accumulation of essential oils aregenerally associated with the presence ofspecialized histological structures, often locatedon or near the surface of the plant:

- Oil cells of Zingiberaceae

- Glandular trichomes of Lamiaceae

- Secretory cavities of Myrtaceae or Rutaceae- Secretory canals of Apiaceae or Astereraceae(Compositeae)

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VOLATILE OIL COMPOSITION Mixtures of HCs and oxygenated

compounds derived from these HCs.

Oil of turpentinemainly HCs

Oil of Clovemainly oxygenatedcompounds

EXCEPTION: Oils derived fromglycosides (e.g. bitter almond oil &mustard oil).

Oxygenated compoundsresponsible forthe odour/smell of the oil. They are slightlywater solubleRose water & OrangeWater; more alcohol soluble.

Most volatile oils are terpenoid. Some arearomatic (benzene) derivatives mixed withterpenes.

Some compounds are aromatic, but

terpenoid in origin (e.g. ThymolThyme)

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CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

Volatile oils are divided into 2 main classes basedon their biosynthetic origin

i. Terpene derivatives (formed via the acetatemevalonic acid pathway)

ii. Aromatic compounds (formed via the shikimicacid-phenylpropanoid route)

iii. Miscellaneous Origin

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A. TERPENES

Terpenes, or

terpenoids, are the

largest group of

secondary products(metabolites).

They are all formed

from acetyl CoA or

glycolyticintermediates.

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CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES

All terpenes are formed

from 5-C elements

Isoprene is the basicstructural element.

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CLASSIFICATION OF TERPENES

Terpenes are classified by the number of 5-C atoms theycontain

10-Carbon terpenes (contain 2 C-5 units)monoterpenes

15- Carbon terpenes (3 C-5 units) are calledsesquiterpenes.

20-carbon terpenes (4 C-5 units) are diterpenes.

Larger terpenes (30

Carbons) are called triterpenes (triterpenoids), 40Carbonscalled tetraterpenes and polyterpenoids.

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TERPENOIDS

Terpenoids contain only the

most volatile terpenes

(i.e. molecular weight is

not too high) mono

and sesquiterpenes

May occur as oxygenated

derivatives, e.g. alcohols,

aldehydes, ketones,phenols, oxides & esters.

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EXAMPLES OF TERPENES

i. LIMONENE

ii. MENTHOL

iii. BORNEOLiv. SESQUITERPENES

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i. LIMONENE

Structural classification:

Monocyclic terpene

FunctionalClassification:

Unsaturated HC

Occurrence: Citrus fruit

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ii. MENTHOL

Structural classification:

Monocyclic with

hydroxyl group

Functional

classification: Alcohol

Occurrence:

Peppermint

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iii. BORNEOL

Functional

Classification: ////

Occurrence: Cinnamon

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iv. SESQUITERPENES

(Contain 3 isoprene units)

AcyclicE.g. Farnesol

MonocyclicE.g. Bisobolol

Bicyclic e.g. Chamezulene

(Chamomile)

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B. AROMATIC COMPOUNDS

Many are phenols are

phenol esters

E.g. Vanillin

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PROPERTIES OF VOLATILE OILS Almost entirely volatile without

decomposition.

Density: Most are less than 1g/ml. 2 are heavierOil of Cinnamonand

Cloveoil.

Solublein ether, chloroform&alcohol.

Slightly soluble in water: give it acharacteristic odour & taste.

Leaves a temporary translucentstainon paper which disappearsas the oil volatilizes.

Most are colourless. Oxidize onexposure to airand resinifycolour becomes darker(odourchangesslightly).

All are characteristic odours.

Most are optically active.

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PRODUCTION OF ESSENTIAL

OILSEssential oils may be producedi. By steam

- Simple steam distillation

- Saturated steam distillation

- Hydrodiffusion

i. By expression

ii. Other Methods

Concretes & Resinoids may be produced

i. By solvent extractionii. By methods using oils & fats

iii. By extraction by supercritical gasses

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ESSENTIAL OILS:

i.STEAM DISTILLATION

a. SIMPLE STEAM DISTILLATION

Plant material is immersed directly in a still

filled with water. This is then brought toa boil.

Heterogeneous vapours are condensed on a

cold surface.Essential oil separates based on difference

in density and immiscibility.

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b. SATURATED STEAM

Plant does not come into contact with the water steam is injected through the plant materialplaced on perforated trays.

It is possible to operate under moderate pressure.

Advantages: Limits the alteration of theconstituents of the oil

It shortens the duration of the treatmentIt conserves energy

It can also be conducted on on-line in automatedset ups.

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c. HYDRODIFFUSION

Pulses of steam is sent through the plant

material at very low pressure from (top to

bottom).

ADVANTAGE: Normally produces a

product of high quality.

Saves time and energy.

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ii. EXPRESSION

(E.G.OF CITRUSEPICARPS)

The rind is lacerated, and the contents of theruptured secretory cavities are recovered.

CLASSIC PROCESS: an abrasive action isapplied on the surface of the fruit in a flow ofwater. The solid waste is eliminated, and theessential oil separated from the aqueous phaseby centrifugation.

OTHER machines break the cavities bydepression, and collect the essential oil directly prevents the degradation linked to the actionof water.

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EXPRESSION OF CITRUS

EPICARPS

Most facilities allow for the simultaneous orsequential recovery of the fruit juice and of theessential oil, by collecting the oil with a spray ofwater after the abrasion (scarificationpuncture

by pins) before or during the expression of thefruit juice.

Enzymatic treatment of the residual water allowsrecycling, and markedly increases the final yieldof essential oil.

Citrus oils are also obtained directly from the fruitjuices (by vacuum de-oiling)

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iii. OTHER METHODS

- Steam distillation by microwaves under vacuum.

In this procedure, the plant is heated selectively

by microwave radiation in a chamber inside

which the pressure is reduced sequentially.- fresh plants require no added water.

-ADVANTAGE: This method is fast, consumeslittle energy and yields a product which is most

often of a higher quality than the traditional

steam distillation product.

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PRODUCTION OF CONCRETES

& RESINOIDS

i. SOLVENT EXTRACTION

Extraction is generally preceded by a

process of: bruising the fresh, wilted orsemi-desiccated organs, choppingherbaceous drugs, pounding roots &

rhizomes or turning wood into chips orshavings.

The procedure is conducted in specializedfacilities e.g. Soxhlet-type extractor.

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SOLVENT EXTRACTIONThe solvent selectionis influenced by technical &

economical factors

- Selectivity(being a good solvent for the specificconstituents).

- Stability(chemical inertness)

- Boiling pointshould not be so high that the solventcan be completely eliminated; nor too low, to limit losses& control cost

- Handling safety

Solvents most used are aliphatic HCs petroleum ether,hexane, propane& liquid butane.

Although benzeneis a good solvent, its toxicity

increasingly limits is use.

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SOLVENT EXTRACTION

At the end of the procedure, the solvent containedin the plant material is recovered by steaminjection.

Main disadvantagesof solvent extraction- Lack of selectivity, many lipophilic substances

may end up in the concretes & render furtherpurification necessary.

- The toxicity of solvents leads to therestrictive regulations regarding their use

- Residuesin the final product.

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ii. METHODS USING OILS &

FATSThese procedures take advantage of the liposolubility of

the fragrant components of plants in fats.

a. Enfleuragethe plant material is placed in contact

with the surface of the fat. Extraction is achieved by- Colddiffusioninto the fat

- Digestioncarried out with heat, by immersing theplant in melted fat (also known as hot enfleurage).

The final product is known as a floral pomade.

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METHODS USING OILS & FATS

b. PNEUMATIC METHOD: similar in principle to

the enfleurage process.

It involves the passage of a current of hot airthrough the flowers.

The air, laden with suspended (extracted) volatileoil, is then passed through a spray of melted fat

in which the volatile oil is absorbed.

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EXTRACTION BY

SUPERCRITICAL GASSES

DISADVANTAGE: Technical constraints- High cost of initial investment

ADVANTAGES:

- obtain extracts which are very close incomposition to the natural product.

- It is possible to adjust the selectivity &viscosity, etc by fine tuning the temperature &

pressure- All result in the increase of popularity of thistype of method

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EXTRACTION BY

SUPERCRITICAL GASSES

USES

Initially developed to decaffeinate coffees, preparehops extracts or to remove nicotine from

tobacco, the method is now used to- Prepare spice extracts (ginger, paprika, celery)

- Specific flavours (black tea, oak wood smoke)

- Plant oils

- To produce specified types of a certainproduct, e.g. thujoneless wormwood oil.

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TREATMENTS OF THE OILS

Occasionally it is necessary to decolourize,neutralize or rectify the oils obtained.

i. Steam jet under vacuum

Allows for the elimination of smelly or irritatingproducts, and to obtain a final product ofdesired profile.

ii. Chromatrographic techniquesThis permits a good separation of the essential oil

from non-volatile lipophilic compounds.

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VARIABILITY FACTORS OF

ESSENTIAL OILS

i. Occurrence of Chemotypes

ii. Influence of the vegetative cycle

iii.Influence of environmental factors

iv. Influence of preparation method

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i. CHEMOTYPES

Chemical breedscommonly occur inplants containingvolatile oils, e.g.

Thyme (Thymusvulgaris)has 7different chemotypes,each with slightly

different types &amounts of volatileoils.

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ii. THE VEGETATIVE CYCLE

Proportions of the differentconstituents of a volatileoil may vary greatlythroughout itsdevelopment. Wideranges are commonlyfound in fennel, carrotand coriander (linalool ishigher in ripe fruit than

unripe fruit). Mentha(peppermint) is alsogreatly affected by thevegetative cycle.

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iii. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Temperature, humidity,

duration of daylight

(radiation), and wind

patterns all have a direct

influence on volatile oilcontent, especially in those

herbs that have superficial

histological storage

structures (e.g. glandulartrichomes). When the

localization is deeper, the oil

quality is more constant.

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ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

e.g. Peppermint: long days& temperate nights higher yields of oil &menthofuran. Cold nightslead to an increase inmenthol.

Laurus nobilis(Bay) [volatileoil] is greater in thesouthern hemisphere

than the northern.Citrus: higher temperatures

= higher oil content.

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ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

Cultivation practicesalso play an importantfactor to the yield &quality of the final

product.Fertilization and the

amounts of N, P andK have been studied

for various species.The watering regiment

also plays animportant role.

PREPARATION METHOD

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PREPARATION METHODBecause of the volatile nature of the

constituents of essential oils, the

composition of the productobtained by steam distillation is

often different from the

constituents originally found in the

secretory organs of the plant.

During steam distillation, the water,

acidity and tempereature may

induce hydrolysis of the esters.

Rearrangements, isomerizations,

racemiazations, oxidations and

other reactions also occur, all of

which change the composition.

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GINGER: Zingiber officinale

Definition: Ginger is thepeeled or unpeeled

rhizome of Zingiber

officinale(Zingiberaceae).

Common Names:

Jamaican ginger, Ginger

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Zingiber officinalis- Ginger

GEOGRAPHICAL SOURCES Jamaica

China

India Africa

HISTORY

Cultivated in India from the

earliest times. Used by

Greeks and Romans andwas a common article of

commerce in the European

Middle Ages.

CULTIVATION & PREPARATION

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CULTIVATION & PREPARATION Grows well in subtropical

temperatures with highrainfall.

Grown by vegetative means.

Mulching or is necessary as

the plant rapidly exhaustsminerals from the soil.

When the stems wither, the

rhizomes are ready forcollection.

Dried.

MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES

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MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES Scraped/peeled herb has little

resemblance to the fresh herb

(loss in weight & shrinkage). Occurs in branched pieces

hands or races.

Buds

No cork

Aromatic odour & pungenttaste.

Unscraped rhizome:resembles scraped herb

Covered with cork (brownishlayers)

MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES

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Cork cellshigh starchcontent

Cork cells are absent in

the scraped drug.

Outer zone of flattened

parenchyma & inner

zone of normal

parenchyma. Oil cells scattered in the

cortex.

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Zingiber officinale- CONSTITUENTS

Volatile oils (12%) Camphene Cineole

Citral

Borneol

Gingerolpungent componentAnti-inflammatory

Shogaolsincreases bile secretion

Sesquiterpene HCs Zingiberene & Zingiberol (Sesquiterpene alcohol)

Resins

Starch

Mucilage

Zingiber officinale

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Zingiber officinale

VARIETIES

Chinese Gingersliced

African gingerdarker (cortex is

greyblack in colour); lacks the

odour but more pungent than

Jamaican herb.

ALLIED DRUGS

Japanese gingerZ. mioga

Preserved gingerundried rhizomes

preserved by boiling in syrup.

ADULTERANTS

Spent ginger

Vegetable adulterants (detected with

microscopical examination).

USES & ACTIONS

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USES & ACTIONSACTIONS

Carminative

Stimulant

Anti-emetic

Anti-bacterial & Anti-fungal

Sesquiterpene lactonesAnti-ulcer

Gingerolpungent componentAnti-inflammatory

Shogaolsincreases bile secretion& enhanced GIT activity

USES

Motion Sickness

Morning Sickness
http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/spice_photo.htmlhttp://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/spice_photo.html

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CARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL

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CARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL

DEFINITION: Cardamomconsists of the dried, nearly

dried ripe fruits of Elettaria

cardamomumvar miniscula

(Zingiberaceae).

PARTS USED: Seeds (should

be kept in the fruit until ready

to be usedPrevents loss of

volatile oils).

(3RDmost expensive spice).

Elettaria cardamomum

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Elettaria cardamomum

GEOGRAPHICAL

SOURCES Sri Lanka

India

Guatemala

HISTORY

Traditional Indian

ceremonies

PRODUCTION, COLLECTION &

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,PREPARATION

Mainly obtained from

cultivated plants(propagated by seedlings

or vegetatively

[problematic due to virus

infection]).

Capsules on the same

plant ripen at different

timesimportant tocollect them before they

split.

COLLECTION & PREPARATION

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Fruits are dried slowly

(outdoors or indoors).

Too rapid dryingcapsules

split & shed seeds

Calyx at the apex of the stalk

and the stalk at the base may

be removed.

Fruits are graded with a sift

into longs, mediums,

shorts & tiny.

If they have been sulphur

bleached (improved colour),

it will be aired outdoors

before packed for transport.


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Plant is reed-like - > 4 m, with long leaves

growing from the rhizome. Fruitscapsular: inferior, ovoid, 1-2 cm long.

Apex: shortly beaked & shows floral remains.

Base: rounded & shows the remain of a stalk. Internally the capsule is 3-celled; each cell

contains x2 row of seeds.

Each seed: Slightly angular, 4mm long & 3 mm

broad. Colour: dark red-brown (fully ripe seeds)

paler in unripe seeds.

Strong, pleasant, aromatic odour

Pungent taste

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Oil cells

Predominant

Parenchyma

(yellow colour) Cells containing

silica

Starch grains

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VARIETIES & ADULTERANTS

ADULTERATION

Powdered drug adulterated with the fruit pericarp

(powdered).

ALLIED HERBS

Official varietyE. cardamomumvar miniscula

Other: E. cardamomumvar major(more elongated &

sometimes 4 cm long with dark brown pericarps) Amomum aromaticum(Bengal cardamom)

Amomumsubulatum(Nepal cardamom)

Amomumcardamomum(Java cardamom)

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CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS

2.86.2 % volatile oil

Abundant starch (up to 50%)

Fixed oil (110%)

Calcium oxalate

El tt i ACTIONS & USES

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Elettaria: ACTIONS & USES

Flavouring agent

(curries & biscuits)

Liqueur manufacture

Small amount is used

for pharmaceutical

manufacture(Compound Tincture of

Cardamom).

CINNAMON: Cinnamomum

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zeylanicum

DEFINITION: Cinnamonis the dried bark ofCinnamomumzeylanicum(Lauraceae).

GEOGRAPHICALSOURCES

Cultivated in Sri Lanka,South India, Seychelles,

Madagascar, Martinique,Cayenne, Jamaica &Brazil.

CULTIVATION, COLLECTION &

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PREPARATION

Grown from seedCut down when 2-3 years

old.

After 5-6 shoots grow from

the stump (18 months),shoots are harvested,trimmed and fermented.

Bark is removed.

Peeled bark is thenstretched over a suitablestick

Outer cortex is removed.

PREPARATION OF Cinnamomum

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PREPARATION OF Cinnamomum

Individually scrapedbarks are placed

inside each other.

Compound quills aredried on wooden

frames in the open air

without exposure to

direct sunlight.Sorted into grades.


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Normally received in shorter lengths

known as cigar lengths.Consists of a single or doublecompound quill about 6-10 mmdiameter of varying length.

Thickness of the quill varies according

to grade (good quality: Not >0.5mm), bark: 10-40mm.

External surface: is yellow-brown,shining, wavy lines (pericycle fibres)and occasional scars & holes(leave/twig positions).

Inner surface: darker, longitudinallystriated.

Odour: fragrant

Taste: Warm, sweet & aromatic


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Transverse: absence of epidermis & cork

Sclereids (thickened lignified pitted walls) Secondary phloem is composed of phloem

parenchyma containing oil & mucilage cells,

phloem fibres & medullary rays. Some phloem parenchyma contain tannins.

Secretion cells: volatile oils and mucilage

Calcium oxalates

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Cinnamomum- CONSTITUENTS

Volatile oils (at least1.2 %)

Phlobaphenes

Mucilage Calcium Oxalate

Starch

CINNAMON OIL

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CINNAMON OIL

ADULTERATION & ALLIED HERBS

Adulterants Cinnamon Leaf Oil

Oil of Cassia

Allied Herbs

Cayenne CinnamonC. zeylanicumgrown inBrazilnot used in Britain

C. loureiriifrom VietnamClosely resemblesC. cassia

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Cinnamomum zeylanicum- USES

Flavouring agent

Mild astringent

Oil: Carminative

Germicide

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LEMON PEEL

Definition: Dried lemon(Limonis Cortex) peel is

obtained from the fruit of

Citrus limon(Rutaceae).

Botanical Description:

Small tree, growing to 3-5 m

in height.

Geographical Sources

Mediterranean Regions

Limonis Cortex

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Limonis Cortex


Lemons are collected inJanuary, August &

November, before the

green colour changes to

yellow.The smaller fruit, which

would not be sold on the

produce market, are used

in the preparation of oil oflemon - the peel is

removed with a sharp

knife in the form of a

spiral band.

Limonis Cortex

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Limonis Cortex

CHARACTERISTICS

Dried lemon peel occursin spiral bands (2 cmwide; 2-3 mm thick).

The outersurface is

rough & yellow; theinnersurface is pulpy& white (anatomicallysimilar to that of an

orange peel).Odour: Strong &

characteristic

Taste: aromatic & bitter

Limonis Cortex

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Limonis Cortex

CONSTITUENTS & USES

CONSTITUENTS

Should contain at least

2.5% volatile oil

Vitamin C

Hesperidin (Flavonoid)

Mucilage

Calcium Oxalate

USES

Flavouring purposes

LEMON OILS - Oleum limonis

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Definition: Lemon oil is the oil expressed from the outer part ofthe fresh pericarp of the ripe or nearly ripe fruit of Citrus limon

(Rutaceae).

BP: oil should be obtained by suitable mechanical means, withoutthe use of heat, from the fresh peel.

Much oil is derived via steam distillation, but this process yieldsoil of inferior quality.

Distilled oil of lemon is much cheaper than that prepared by

expression. Large amounts are used for non-pharmaceuticalpurposes.

Geographical Sources:

Mediterranean, North & South America, Australia & parts of Africa.

P ti f L Oil

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Preparation of Lemon Oils

i. Hand Methods

No longer applicable to

pharmaceutical oils

Production of Lemon Oils

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Production of Lemon Oilsii. Machine Processes

Quality is inferior to the best hand-pressed oils.

Machines are designed to release oils from the peel via puncture,rasting or cutting and by imitating the gentle squeezing actionof the sponge method. (Superiority of the sponge method isdue to the fact that there is no contact between the oil & the

inner white part of the skin.The newer machines extract oil more completely than the older

ones and give a higher yeild

iii. Distilled OilsAlthough not official, some lemon oils are produced by distillation,

mainly from the residue of the expression processes. It ismuch cheaper than hand-pressed or machine-made oil.

Ol li i CONSTITUENTS

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Oleum limonis- CONSTITUENTS

Terpenesmainly limonene

Sesquiterpenes

Aldehydes (Citral & Citronella)

Esters

Lemon oil has a tendency to resinifyandshould be protected from the action of air

& light as much as possible.

Oleum limonis

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Oleum limonis

ADULTATION & USES

ADULTERATION

Oil of turpentine

Terpenes from terpeneless

oil of lemonDistilled oil of lemon

Oil of lemon-grass

USES

Perfumery

Flavouring

TERPENELESS LEMON OIL

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TERPENELESS LEMON OIL

Definition: Oil prepared byconcentrating lemon oil invacuum until most of theterpenes have beenremoved, or by solvent

partition. Theconcentrate is aterpeneless oil, which hasa citral content of 40-50%.

It is equal in flavouring to10-15 times its volume oflemon oil

BUCHU A th b t li

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BUCHUAgathosma betulina

Agathosma betulina

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CONSTITUENS & USESCONSTITUENTS

Volatile oils Pulegone

Menthone & isomenthone

limonene

DiosminMucilage

Resin

Calcium oxalates

Buchu camphorResponsible for the diuretic action

USES/ACTIONS

Diuretic

Urinary Tract Anti-SepticUsed for UTIs

NUTMEG & NUTMEG OIL

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NUTMEG & NUTMEG OIL

Definition: Nutmeg is thedried kernel of the seedof Myristica fragrans(Myristicaceae).

Geographical SourcesIndigenous to the Molucca

Islands (Spice Islands)

Cultivated in Indonesia,Malaysia & the West

Indies.

NUTMEG M i ti f

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NUTMEGMyristica fragrans

HISTORY

First Introduced to the

Europeans by the Arabs.

Portuguese lost control of

the spice trade to the

Dutch, who maintained

complete monopoly by

destroying all trees in theneighbouring islands &

preventing the export of

living seeds.

CULTIVATION, COLLECTION &PREPARATION

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PREPARATIONTrees can be grown from fresh seed

gown in the shell. The seedsgerminate after about 5 weeks.When the plants are 6 monthsold, they are transplanted to thefields.

Nutmegs are dried in the shells(process differs according to localconditions). Normally they aredried in the sun & covered atnight & rainy weather. They can

also be dried in the oven or overlow flames.

When completely dried, the kernelrattles in the testa, which is then

cracked & the nutmeg extracted.


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Nutmeg trees areevergreen, growing up to

20 m in height.

Nutmegs are oval, 2-3 cm

long & 2 cm broad.If not heavily limed, the

surface is a brown or grey

brown in colour.

Odour: Strong & aromaticTaste: Pungent and slightly

bitter.


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Potassium acid tartratecrystals

Parenchym with thin

brown wallsOval oil cells

Feathery crystals of fat

Few tannin cells

(containing tannin &

starch)

NUTMEG ALLIED HERBS

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NUTMEGALLIED HERBS

Papua nutmegsfrom M. argentea(New Guinea)littleodour & a

disagreeable taste.

Bombay nutmegsM. malabarica(India)

lack thecharacteristic odour ofthe genuine herb.

NUTMEG OIL

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NUTMEG OIL

Nutmeg oil is distilled from thekernels of Myristica fragrans.

CONSTITUENTS

Pinene

SabineneCamphene

Dipentene

Safrole

Eugenol & eugenol derivatives

Myristicina benzene: toxic tohumans (large does of nutmegor nutmeg oil may causeconvulsions).

MACE

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MACECommon mace or Banda

mace consists of thedried arillus or arillode of

M. fragrans.

Description: bright red

colour & lacks in aroma.

MACE CONSTITUENTS & USES

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MACECONSTITUENTS & USES

CONSTITUENTS

Volatile oils (similar to that

of nutmeg)eugenol

derivatives are the main

active constituentsresponsible for the anti-

bacterial effects.

Also has 2 anti-microbialresorcinols(Malabaricone

B and C)

Nutmegs, maces & theiroils, are all used for

Carminatives

Flavouring

Infantile Diarrhoea (Tea

of nutmegAyurveda).

CLOVE

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CLOVE

DEFINITION: Cloves arethe dried flower buds of

Syzygium aromaticum

(Eugenia caryophyllus),

(Myrtaceaea).

Geographical Sources

Molucca or Clove Islands,

Zanzibar, Pemba,Madagascar, Indonesia &

Brazil.

HISTORY OF CLOVE

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HISTORY OF CLOVECloves were used in China as

early as 266 BC, and by the4thcentury, they were knownin Europe, although veryexpensive.

Same as with nutmeg, the

Dutch also destroyed all treesfrom surrounding nativeislands to secure amonopoly, and cultivatedthem only in a small group ofislands.

In 1770, the French managed tointroduce clove trees toMauritius, and startedcultivating them there, as wellas in Zanzibar, Penang and

Sumatra.

http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/spice_photo.html

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The flower buds are

collected when the lower

part turns green-crimson.The cloves are dried in

the open air on mats &

separated from their

peduncles (forming clove

stalks which are also sold

commercially).

If left on the tree for too

long, the buds open & the

petals fall, leaving brown

cloves. Later the fruits

(mother cloves) are

produced.


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Cloves are 10-17.5 mmlong.

The head consists of 4

slightly projecting calyx

teeth, 4 membranouspetals and numerous

incurved stamens around

a large style.

Odour: Spicy & Pungent

Taste: Aromatic


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Heavy cuticularized epidermis

Numerous oil cells (shizolysigenous)

Calcium oxalates (cluster crystals & prisms)

Stomata (epidermis of sepals)

Starch (Fruitmother cloves)

Lignified sclereids

CONSTITUENTS

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CONSTITUENTS

14-21% Volatile oils Mainly eugenol& isoeugenol

Sitosterol

Stigmasterol Campesterol

Tannins

Triterpene acids & esters

Glycosides

USES OF CLOVE

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USES OF CLOVE

Stimulant aromatic

Spice

For the preparation of

volatile oilSesquiterpenes:

potential anti-

carcinogenic

compounds

CLOVE OIL

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Oil distilled in Europe

and the US normallydoes not need

purification, while oil

distilled in other areas

(e.g. Madagascar)does. After

purification the oil is

sold with varying

eugenol contents.

Oil of cloves is yellow or

colourless, is slightly

heavier than water.

CLOVE OIL - CONSTITUENTS

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CLOVE OIL - CONSTITUENTS

Volatile oilsmainly eugenol & acetyleugenol

Sesquiterpenes (and caryophyllenes)

Oil of clovelike other volatile/essential oilsshould be stored in a well-fitted, air-tight

container, & should be protected from light &

heat.

CLOVE OIL - USES

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CLOVE OIL - USES

Anti-septic

Aromatic

Stimulant

Flavouring Agent
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EUCALYPTUS LEAF

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EUCALYPTUS LEAF

DEFINTION: Eucalyptusleaf consists of the wholeor cut dried leaves of theolder branches ofEucalyptus globulus,

(Myrtaceae).

GEOGRAPHICALSOURCES

Portugal, SA, Spain, China,Brazil, Australia, India &Paraguay.

Eucalyptus - DESCRIPTION

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Eucalyptus- DESCRIPTION

MACROSCOPICAL Older dried leaves are

grey-brown & have lateralveins. Secretory oil cellsare visible in leaves held

to the light.

MICROSCOPIC

Epidermal cells have athick cuticle.

Anisocytic stomata Mesophyll has

schizogenous oil glands

Calcium oxalate crystals:Prisms & Cluster crystals

Eucalyptus - CONSTITUENTS

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Eucalyptus CONSTITUENTS

Volatile Oil (at least 2%)

sesquiterpene - Anti-

bacterial actionagainst oral

pathogens.

EUCALYPTUS OIL

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EUCALYPTUS OIL

Oil of eucalyptus is distilled from the fresh leavesof various species of Eucalyptusand rectified.They are produced in the same countries whichproduce the dry herb.

Only a certain amount of species produce oilsuitable for medicinal usethe main criteria is ahigh cineolecontent and lowamounts ofphellandrene and aldehydes.

Suitable oils are obtained from E. polybractea, E.smithii, E. globu lusand E. aus tral iana.

CHARACTERISTICS &

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CONSTITUENTS

CHARACTERISTICSColourless or pale yellow

liquid

Aromatic & camphoraceousin odour.

Pungent & camphoraceousin taste, which is followedby a sensation of cold.

CONSTITUENTS

At least 70 volatile oils(mainly cineole).

EUCALYPTUS OIL - USES

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EUCALYPTUS OIL USES

Alleviating the symptoms ofnasopharyngeal

infections

Treating coughs

Decongestant.

Official preparations

Mixtures, inhalations,

lozenges and pastilles;also applied externally as

ointments and liniments.

FENNEL

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FENNEL

DEFINITION: Fennelconsists of the dried ripe

fruits of Foeniculum

vulgare(Umbelliferae).

GEOGRAPHICAL

SOURCES

Europe, India, China &

Egypt. Mediterraneanorigin.

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS

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1-4 % Volatile oil trans-anethole

Antethole

Estragole Fenchone

Flavonoids

CoumarinsGlycosides

ACTIONS & USES

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ACTIONS & USES

ACTIONS Carminative

Expectorant

Aromatic

- All due to anethole (andfenchone)

USES

Flatulence

Dyspepsia

Chronic coughs & catarrh

Foeniculum vulgare

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Foeniculum vulgare

Foeniculum vulgare USES

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Foeniculum vulgare USES

Culinary purposesUsed in medicine as a

flavouring

Carminative

CARAWAY & CARAWAY OIL

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CARAWAY & CARAWAY OIL

DEFINITION: Carawayconsists of the dried, ripefruits of Caram carvi(Umbelliferae).

GEOGRAPHICALSOURCES

Wild & Cultivated in Central& Northern Europe,

Holland, Denmark,Germany, Russia,Finland, Poland,Hungary, Britain, Egypt,Morocco, Australia &

China


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A biennial herb growing upto 1 m in height.

Herb: Normally consists of

mericarps separated from

the pedicels. Fruits areslightly curved, brown &

glabrous.

Size: 4-7 mm long, 1-3 mm

wideOften the stigma & style are

still attached.

Characteristic aromatic

odour & taste


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Pitted sclerenchymasecretory canals

Dark, red-brown cells

containing a paleyellow or colourless

oleoresin

Thick cellulose walls

Calcium oxalate crystals

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS

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ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS

1-7 % Volatile oils Carvone

Limonene

Carveole

8-20 % Fixed oils

Proteins

Calcium oxalates

Colouring matterResin

CORIANDER & CORIANDER OIL

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DEFINITION: Coriander isthe dried, nearly ripe fruitof Coriandrum sativum(Umbelliferae).

GEOGRAPHICALSOURCES

Indigenous to Italy. Alsocultivated in Holland,Central & Eastern

Europe, Mediterranean(Morocco, Malta &Egypt), China, India &Bagladesh.


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Annual herb growing 0.7 min height with white or

pink flowers.Drug: Normally consists of

whole cremocarpsstraw yellow & 2-4 mm indiameter when ripe.

Considerable variationoccurs (e.g. Indian variety> oval).

Apex has 2 styles.

Fruits have an aromatic

odour & spicy taste.Unripe plant: unpleasant

mousy odour sameodour oil has when madefrom unripe fruit.


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Outer pericarp: stomata& calcium oxalte

prisms.

Thick sclerenchyma

Testa:= brown flattened

cells

Endosperm is curved &

consists ofparenchymous cells

containing fixed oils.

ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS

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1.8 % Volatile oils Linalool/coriandrol

Pinene

Terpinene

Limonene

Cymene

Non-linalool alchols & esters

Flavonoids

Coumarins

Phenolic acidsHigh fat content (16-28%)

Protein (11-17%)

Coriandrum sativum- USES

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Domestic purposes(cooking - curries)

Pharmaceutically:

flavouring agent &

Carminative

PEPPERMINT

& PEPPERMINT OIL

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& PEPPERMINT OIL

DEFINITION:Peppermint is the

dried leaves of

Mentha piperita

(Labiate). It shouldcontain at least 1.2 %

volatile oil.

GEOGRAPHICAL

SOURCES:

Europe & America


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All mints have a square

stem & creeping rhizome.Black mint, which is the

most commonly cultivatedvariety in England, haspurple stems and dark

green petiolate leavestinged with purple. Leafblades are 3-9 cm longwith a grooved petiolateup to 1 cm long.

Pinnate venation.

Glandular trichomes: brightyellow points (hand lens)

Small purple flowers appearin late summer.

MICROSCOPIC FEATURES

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Diacytic stomataMulticellular clothing

trichomes

2 types of glandulartrichomes (one with a

unicellar head; with a

multicellular head).

Calcium oxalate isabsent.

Oleum Menthae

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Oil of peppermint isobtained from Mentha

piperitavia steam

distillation using the

flowering tops.

Oil should contain at

least 44 % menthol,

15-32 & menthoneand 4.5-10 % menthyl

acetate.

Oleum Menthae- CONSTITUENTS

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MentholMenthone & isomenthone

Menthyl acetate

Limonene

Cineole

Menthofuran

Pulegone

Cineole

OIL COMPOSITION: greatlyinfluenced by genetic

factors & seasonal variation.

PEPPERMINT & PEPPERMINT

OIL USES

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OIL USES

OIL: anti-bacterial,cooling, carminative

HERB: Carminative

LESSON TAKE-AWAY

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Definitions of VolatileOils

Methods of

Production of Volatile

Oils

Herbs containing

Volatile Oils

Volatile Oils.240183302

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