Vocational Ed in HS

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VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN HIGH SCHOOL: A FUTURE OUTLOOK

by

Darnelle H. Wilson

CHERYL BULLOCK, Ph.D., Faculty Mentor and Chair

MARY DERESHIWSKY, Ph.D., Committee Member

PAULINE EVERETTE, Ph.D., Committee Member

Barbara Butts Williams, Ph.D., Dean, School of Education

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy

Capella University

April 2010


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Darnelle Wilson, 2008


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Abstract

Thoughtful high school reformers have formulated the following questions about how

effective is vocational education: Does vocational education work? Does it teach the

necessary basic academic skills? Does it keep students who would otherwise dropout in

school? Would students be better off using one-track academic oriented schools? Most

curriculum-based studies hardly deal with vocational education as part of their study.

They tend to study only the upper and lower track academic classes and how they differ

as well as the differences between academic and nonacademic programs. This study

specifically deals with the vocational education track. The objective of this study is to

gather as much information as possible and draw conclusions about how effective are

vocational education programs in high school. The study uses the mixed research method,

which includes quantitative and qualitative research. Therefore, conclusions are based on

careful examination of vocational questionnaires and systemic search of literature dealing

with vocational education. There are four major conclusions that can be drawn from and

is supported by our analysis of the information. (a) Non-college bound students who

participate in vocational education programs will more likely finish high school. (b)

Mastery of basic academic skills is affected very little by a students participation in a

vocational education program. (c) If vocational education students participated in other

curricular programs in high school, the chances of them pursing a post-secondary

education increased slightly. (d) Vocational education program graduates tend to have

more job satisfaction than other high school graduates from other school programs.


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Acknowledgments

Though only my name appears on the cover of this dissertation, a great many people have

contributed to its production. I owe my gratitude to all those people who have made this

dissertation possible and because of whom my graduate experience has been one that I

will cherish forever.

My deepest gratitude is to my mentor, Dr. Cheryl Bullock. I have been

amazingly fortunate to have a mentor who gave me the freedom to explore on my own

and at the same time the guidance to recover when my steps faltered.

My niece Mechelle Geddis, who has been there to listen and give me

advice.

Dr. Christopher Robinson and Dr. Robert Johnson, insightful comments

and constructive criticisms at different stages of my research were thought-provoking and

they helped me focus my ideas.

Many friends have helped me stay on course through these difficult years.

Most importantly, none of this would have been possible without the love

and patience of my family. My immediate family, to whom this dissertation is dedicated

to, has been a constant source of love, concern, support and strength all these years.

Finally, I appreciate the support from Lee County School District students

and administrators and their participation in parts of the research discussed in this

dissertation.


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Table of Contents

Acknowledgments iv

List of Tables vi

List of Figures vii

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 1

Introduction to the Problem 1

Background of the Study 1

Statement of the Problem 2

Purpose of the Study 2

Research Questions 3

Significance of the Study 3

Definition of Terms 7

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 9

Introduction 9

General Review of Vocational Education 9

Teachers Attitudes toward Vocational Education 17

Tearchers Grading Perceptions 19

CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY 21

Reserch Question 21

Mixed Method research Design 21

Population and Sample 21

Instrumentation 22

Procedures 22


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Data Analysis 23

Summary of Methodology 23

CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS 24

Introduction 24

Findings 26

CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS 49

Teachers and Students Preceptions of Grading 51

Importance of the Problem of Vocational Adjustment 53

Compulsory Part-Time Continuation Law 55

Related benefits to Vocational Education 59

Vocational Education Critique 65

Assessement of Future Benefits of Vocational Education forHigh School Students 66

Vocational Education and the Community 76

Other Strategies for Improved Vocation Education 78

Future Research 90

Conclusion 92

Disscusion 95

Suggestions 96

REFERENCES 98

APPENDIX A. CONSENT FORM 103

APPENDIX B. CAREER AND TECHNOLOGY CENTER SURVEY 107

APPENDIX C. VOCATIONAL TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE 114

APPENDIX D. EMPLOYMENT RELATED PROVISION IN STATECOMPULSORY SCHOOL ATTENDANCE BY STATE 121


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List of Tables

Table 1. Summary Of Subject Responses 25

Table 2. Possessive Position 26

Table 3. Vocational Teachers What Makes Up A Students Grade 30

Table 4. Grouping Level For Students By Grade 49


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List of Figures

Figure 1: Vocational Students future plans 26

Figure 2: Vocational Students employment status 27

Figure 3: How Students viewed courses as a whole 28

Figure 4: Expected grade 28

Figure 5: Effort to succeed 29

Figure 6: Vocational Students concerns 30


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CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

Introduction to the Problem

Simply stated, some students with learning disabilities are not oriented toward

traditional high school learning, so vocational education may advance this segment of the

high school population. The curriculum for academic and vocational courses is the same.

Therefore, grading is a process for both mainstream and students with learning

disabilities are the same.

Background of the Study

There are worldwide examples regarding the efficacy of vocational learning.

According to Doucouliagos (2000), one way to respond to the problem of trying to

expand tertiary education with limited resources is to consolidate the polytechnics into

larger institutions in the hope that they will reap the economies of scale. Essentially the

problem has to do with grading and learning efficacy. From the perspective of this

researcher, it might be useful to further expand upon those vagaries that have to do with

both cultural imperatives and vocational education. This assumption is based on the

average unit cost per person being lower for larger sized institutions. A great deal of work

has been conducted on this phenomenon for American tertiary institutions and for various

other countries.

Another area of interest is the perception of grading by teachers as well as

students. As noted by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES, 1994),


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Generally, the pattern of use for various types of assessments in vocational courses was

similar for comprehensive and vocational schools. However, performance in school labs

or shops and attendance and/or class participation were more common measures of

performance in vocational schools than in comprehensive schools.

Vocational teachers in vocational schools were more likely than their

comprehensive school counterparts to consider a host of competencies. In addition to the

greater emphasis placed upon occupational skills (job-specific skills, general

employability skills, and application of academic concepts to occupational tasks),

teamwork skills were more important in vocational courses in vocational schools than in

comprehensive schools.

Statement of the Problem

Although vocational education is provided at the secondary and postsecondary

levels, its focus differs somewhat at each level. It is the specific focus of this study to

identify the benefits of vocational education in high school for students who want to

make the transition directly from school to work and for those who want to use it as a

foundation for taking a trade to a profession. These types of students, who are staying on

the vocational path by completing four vocational courses, are simply not oriented

towards traditional high school education.

Purpose of the Study

The focus of this qualitative study is to describe secondary vocational education

teachers practices and perceptions toward grading students. Integrated within the


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primary focus of this study shall be the views of students, educators, and researchers to

further clarify their perceptions of grading as well as what students do with their

vocational education upon leaving high school.

Though vocational education can vary from job specific to field specific, this

researcher recognizes that some secondary vocational courses provide general labor

market preparation by teaching general employment skills such as introductory typing or

word processing, industrial arts, career education, and applied academic skills rather than

preparing students for paid employment in specific occupations. It is the purpose of

vocation education in the high school to prepare all students for the job market, whether

or not they achieve academic success in terms of traditional education. Furthermore,

consumer and homemaking education courses, unlike occupational family and consumer

science courses, prepare students for unpaid employment in the home.

Research Question

What are the perceptions of vocational teachers with regard to how they grade

their vocational education students?

Significance of the Study

The research contends that other decisions can be made regarding ways in which

vocational education in the high school may be made more useful. Understanding the

perceptions of teachers as they grade students will allow us to see what components they

think are the most important when evaluating students. Similarly, the researcher shall

delineate the best approach to grading levels in vocational education for mainstream and


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learning conditions for students who are enrolling in vocational courses in increasing

numbers (Smith, 2004). Smith raises the point that nontraditional learning, or vocational

education in the high school, can impact learners, who are in greater need for more

hands-on or practical skills in order to earn a living.

The researcher contends that students with LD also could benefit from vocational

learning. Increasing numbers of persons with LD who are now entering college have

special needs related to academic survival and career development that often are

unrecognized and unmet in institutions of higher learning. Students with LD may require

considerable intervention before vocational decisions can be made.

In October 1990, Congress enacted the Education of the Handicapped Act

Amendment of 1990 (P.L. 101-476), an amendment of P.L. 94-142, the Education of the

Handicapped Act (EHA). Under this law, EHA was changed to the Individuals with

Disabilities Education Act (IDEA). IDEA includes a definition of transition that is

currently the basis for many school-based transition programs. Section 602(a) of IDEA

defines transition services as a coordinated set of activities for students designed within

an outcome-oriented process which promotes movement from school to post-school

activities including post-secondary education, vocational training, integrated employment

(including supported employment), continuing an adult education, adult services,

independent living, or community participation. The coordinated set of activities shall be

based upon the individual students needs, taking into account the students preferences

and interest, and shall include instruction, community experiences, the development of

employment and school adult living objectives, and, if appropriate, acquisition of daily

living skills and functional vocational evaluation (Education of the Handicapped Act


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Amendments of 1990, P.L. 101-476, Section 602 (a)). P.L. 101-476 requires that a

students individual education plan (IEP) address the issue of transition, and that

transition planning be initiated by at least age 16 (Ohler, 1998).

Frequently, when addressing vocational education, the literature discerned

between secondary and postsecondary levels, or high school and college requirements.

According to Ohler, successful transition planning for postsecondary students with LD

involves multidimensional formal and informal assessment beginning early in the

students educational career. The assessment and transition planning process should be

integrated within the schools K-12 career education or career development program and

should be guided by career development theory.

Definitions of Terms

Labor intensive.The labor-intensive education or technologies refer to the notion

that government should focus on the fact that people want employment and it is the

primary duty of the government to provide jobs for them.

Occupational program.The job or occupation referred in this study deals only

dealing with proper desk or field research jobs paying more than or the equivalent to

$20,000 per annum.

Secondary schools.These schools pertain to the education of K-12 or lower

education of students. Colleges and or universities do not fall into this category, even if

they offer courses that also are offered in the secondary education domain.

Tertiary education. This term broadly refers to all postsecondary education,

including, but not limited to, universities. Universities are a key part of all tertiary

systems, but the diverse and growing number of public and private tertiary institutions,


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colleges, technical training institutes, community colleges, nursing schools, research

laboratories, centers of excellence, distance learning centers, and many more, form a

network of institutions that support the production of the higher order capacity necessary

for development.

U.S. education system.The system refers to all federal, state, and local education

subsidiaries combined.

Vocational education.Organized educational program offering a sequence of

courses directly related to the preparation of individuals in paid or unpaid employment, in

current or emergent occupations, requiring other than a baccalaureate or advanced

degree.


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CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction

Vocational education holds much promise for many high school students who

may otherwise attain the traditional high schools curriculum. Some examples of these

benefits include students being more productive, contributory to society, and capable of

caring for themselves and possibly their families. In many cases, this is something that a

traditional high school education, without any vocational training, simply cannot manage.

It is to this extent that this literature review will include literature to address this issue.

General Review of Vocational Education

As previously indicated, different grade levels, namely, secondary,

postsecondary, and tertiary, are often mentioned in the literature in concert with

vocational education in the high school. One study provided relevant insight into this

topic, stating that the issue of vocational placement upon graduation for college students

with LD has become an important and crucial one. Changes in society are forcing many

students to seek postsecondary education to succeed in the labor market. College

graduates with LD are attempting to enter the employment arena but are facing numerous

problems. This study reviews the problems that students with LD encounter and discusses

their lack of preparation to handle these problems.

The importance of the rehabilitation counselor in educating themselves and others

on the topic of LD to assist this segment of the student population is stressed. For college

students with LD, graduation may be the ultimate successful goal. However, it is only the

beginning. Once college students with LS receive their diploma, the expectation is that


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focus on occupation-oriented learning might comprise academic standards and

achievement (Kazis, 1996).

The reality is that not everyone believes that vocational education should be part

of the high school curriculum. At the same time, and in accordance with Kaziss (1996)

idea to redesign high schools, based on the evolution that have been seen in a range of

school-to-career programs from design to early implementation, high school reform

agenda can be base on the following four design principles:

1. High schools should organize around nontracked thematic programs of

study designed to prepare all students for entry into both higher education

and high-skill employment through intellectually rigorous practical

education.

2. Selection of a career-focus program of study in high school should be base

on general interest and should not be a high-stakes career decision.

3. Work-based learning should be an integral part of the core curriculum for

all students because it yields benefits that school-based education alone

cannot provide.

4. The integration of secondary and postsecondary learning environments is

critical to the development of rigorous programs of career-related

education.

According to Stapleton (as cited in Thomas & Woods, 2003), effective marketing

is fundamental to the survival or enhanced stature of vocational education schools. The

National Association of Vocational-Technical Education Communicators (NAVTEC)

sponsors communication awards competitions that showcase the schools that utilize the


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best marketing tools and campaigns. NAVTEC was organized to improve the image of

vocational schools. School image building connotes using a marketing tool that reflects

its audience and should contain information that is clear and concise. Presentation is also

essential to campaign success. Whether trying to save a worthy Vo-tech program from

extinction or boost your schools image in your community, effective marketing can

make all the difference. At this point, Stapleton commented in a message to vocational

educators: there is no time like the present to toot your own horn (p.10). Everyone has

heard the growing gripes about failing enrollment, dwindling funds and our struggling

image, but also hearing more and more from business and industry. Employers are

lauding tech, prep and school-to-work programs because they are producing the skilled

professionals they need.

Effective marketing requires a comprehensive plan and a continued commitment.

The National Association of Vocational-Technical Education Communicators has been

making a commitment to improving vocational educations image for more than 25 years.

NAVTEC, an affiliate of American Vocational Association (AVA), is composed of more

than 200 marketing and design professionals throughout the United States who work in

the vocational and education field. These voc-ed trumpeters use NAVTEC as a

professional network. A telephone call or e-mail message to another member can provide

free technical support or just a second opinion for the lonely marketing staff of one

(Stapleton, 1997).

Stapleton provided what this author believes can go a long way in helping

individuals throughout the nation, especially those who are not traditional curricula

oriented. Furthermore, older people as well as children with special needs and adults with


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High school teachers and administrators, like their elementary counterparts, are

increasingly being called upon to provide inclusive education programs to better meet the

educational needs of students with LD and others at risk for school failure. However,

efforts to restructure and transform the high school into an inclusive environment can be

exacerbate by structural, curricular, instructional and expectancy factors and conditions

that are not found in elementary schools, but still need to consider and address.

Contemporary high school programs expect to prepare students to meet the

complex demands of society. One common expectation is that high school teachers

provide quality learning opportunities and instruction sufficient to enable all students to

learn advanced or complex curricula, as well as demonstrate academic excellence as

delineated in national, state, and district goals measure by student performance on

standardized tests. Another expectation is that high school teachers and programs prepare

all students to meet graduation requirements and to require the necessary academic,

cognitive, social, and technological skills required for successful and productive

independent living along with entry into colleges, universities or the workforce. As a

result, high school administrators and teachers are under great deal of scrutiny and

pressure from the state and local government as well as public and private agencies to

meet these expectations.

According to the National Center for Learning Disabilities (2004), under the

umbrella of inclusive education, high school teachers expect to assume new roles in

serving students with disabilities and others with special instructional needs (e.g.,

students who are at risk for failure, culturally and linguistically different, or gifted and

talented). For example, high school teachers expect to plan and work cooperatively and


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collaboratively with special education teachers and other ancillary teachers (e.g.,

bilingual educators, speech pathologists, vocational adjustment coordinators, interpreters,

mobility trainers, etc.) in order to provide inclusive instruction. The degree to which high

schools provide effective and equitable inclusive education may depend to a large extent

on the attitudes and beliefs teachers hold regarding their abilities to teach students with

disabilities, and their willingness to assume responsibility for the achievements of all the

students assigned to their classroom.

Websters New Collegiate Dictionary (2006), defined attitudeas the mental

position, emotion, or feeling held towards a fact or state. Attitude also can be defined as

a predilection toward a particular behavior. In other words, a persons attitude or belief

about something affects that persons behaviors, actions, and efficacy. Likewise, the

attitudes and beliefs that teachers, administrators, and other school personnel hold toward

inclusion and the learning ability of students with disabilities may influence school

learning environments and the availability of equitable educational opportunities for all

students (Gardner & Lipsky, 1987). (Barker, 2000)

Barker (2000) underscore an essential tenet regarding vocational education in the

high school the also may apply to secondary, postsecondary, and tertiary levels. The most

important aspect of the aforementioned report has to do with the impact of teachers

attitudes on the learning ability of students; the availability of equitable educational

opportunities; and ones place in society as well as the job market, which, is the reason

individuals attend school in the first place. Both teacher and counselor attitudes have

been shown, according to the literature, to be of ultimate and significant importance in

terms of how well the secondary, postsecondary, and tertiary levels of the American


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educational system perform their tasks and uphold their responsibilities to their students.

School attendance at all levels is essentially a preparatory exercise for ones place in

society, how one will view or define by society, and how well one shall be able to

contribute to society. Therefore, the factors may apply not only to immediate or

individual students, but they have repercussions and implications for a myriad of people

and, collectively speaking, all of society. Such is the value of vocational education

throughout the high schools.

Teachers Grading Perceptions

Grading is a complex topic that involves philosophical, pedagogical, and

pragmatic issues for all students, especially for students with LD. Teachers have their

own ideas of how grades should be assigned and what they should reveal about student

performance. Perceptions of grading practices are influenced largely by teachers own

experiences with grades their general level of satisfaction with the grading system in the

local school is higher if their own children receive high grades and lower if their children

receive lower grades (Bursuck, Munk, & Olson, 1999; Munk, 2005).

From the special educators perspective, grading students with LD can be

particularly challenging because it may involve (a) attempting to apply the same grading

system use for general education students to students with disabilities, (b) developing a

grading system for a special class, or (c) individualizing an existing grading system to

meet the needs of a particular student. As increasing numbers of students with LD are

included in general education classes, the need for special educators to be aware of

general education grading practices is magnified. Furthermore, most general educators


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receive minimal formal training on developing a grading system (Guskey & Bailey,

2001; Munk, 2005).

The purpose for grades may also be thought of as what the grading system is

designed to measure and report, or what the grade means to a student, parent, teacher,

counselor, or employer. Establishing what purpose(s) a grade will serve and

implementing a grading system that is perceived to meet that purpose can lead to

increased student, parent, and teacher satisfaction (Munk, 2005; Munk & Bursuck, 2004).


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CHAPTER 3. METHODOLOGY

Research Question

The research question that drove this study was What are the perceptions of

vocational educational teachers and students with regard to how they grade their

vocational education students?

Mixed Method Research Design

Surveys were given to participants (students and teachers at XYZ High School, a

pseudonym used to protect confidentiality, Career and Technology Center). Two surveys

were given, one that prompted questions from the perceptive of the student and another

which prompted question from the teachers perceptive. Ten teachers from XYZ High

School completed the Vocational Teachers Survey. The total of 100 Student Career and

Technology Surveys was distributed and a total of 62 participants responded.

The student survey provided quantitative data for this study. However, the data

from the teachers survey was qualitative. Consequently, the design for this research

study involved mixed methodology

Population and Sample

The survey population for the primary analysis represented the total aggregate of

vocational teachers who reside in South Carolina and are actively teaching vocational

courses and also vocational students who reside in South Carolina and are enrolled in

four career and technology education (CATE) courses. The sample pulled from the

population included 100 vocational education students (40 men and 60 women) and 10


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vocational teachers (4 men and 6 women). Convencience sampling was used to identify

possible participants.

Instrumentation

The primary data-gathering instruments employed in the research design were

self-administered mail questionnaires, as follows: Career and Technology Survey for

Students and the Vocational Teacher Questionnaire for Teachers. The Student Career and

Technology Survey consist of 31 questions and the Vocational Teachers Survey consists

of 10 questions, both concerning the effectiveness of their vocational education

experience. Both of these surveys were adapted from established instruments used by the

State Department of Education and the participants school district, respectfully.

Procedures

All participants were given a survey to complete and mail back to the researcher

using the stamped and self-addressed envelope included in the original mailing. The letter

of consent was typed and printed with the Capella University header. Its contents

included a description of the purpose of the study, an appeal to the professional

responsibility and intellectual curiosity of those sampled, an assurance of confidentiality,

and the telephone number of the researcher for use if problems or questions arose when

completing the questionnaire.


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Data Analysis

Analysis of the respondents survey data was systematically entered into an excel

database. The documents that were reviewed were coded using an emerging theme

context.

Summary of Methodology

This research involved document review of school, state, and district information.

The primary focus of the methodology; however, involved results from both a vocational

teacher survey and a vocational high school student survey. Both surveys were slightly

modified from established State level and district level instruments.


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CHAPTER 4. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Introduction

This study sought to identify the perceptions of vocational educational teachers

with regard to how they grade their vocational education students. Additionally, students

were surveyed to determine to add some depth to the study by providing a numerical

description of the typical vocational student. Past this descriptive value, the student

surveys collected data regarding vocational students perceptions of vocational courses

and how they compared to more traditional academic courses in the high school setting.

Surveys were mailed to 100 vocational education students and 10 vocational

teachers with an explanation of the purpose for the survey and a request to assist in the

data collection process. High school vocational students and teachers who completed the

questionnaires were completers from the following programs: accounting, automotive

technology, business, cosmetology, electricity, health science, marketing, small engine,

child development, food science, and horticulture. The data collected from the

questionnaires provided greater insight into vocational education courses from the point

of view from students and teachers.

A total of 68 (61.8%) participants responded to the surveys. The first follow-up

was mailed on October 2, 2006, to 64 nonrespondents. An additional 22 (20%) surveys

were returned. Table 1 presents a summary of subject responses. Final data analysis

involved 68 (61.8%) respondents.

Table 1. Summary of Survey Responses

_______________________________________________________________________Mailed Returned Usable

n % n %________________________________________________________________________


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First mailing 110 46 41.8 46 41.8First Follow up 64 22 20.0 22 20.0Total 68 61.8 68 61.8________________________________________________________________________


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Table 2 shows the participants positions. Vocational students were highest

respondents (n= 59, 87%) This was follow by vocational teachers with (n= 9, 13%)

Table 2. Respondents Position

Position Number Percent

Vocational teachers 9 13%Vocational students 59 87%Total 68 100%

Findings

Vocational students would have the option to go straight to the workforce. After

all, the students have been trained for specific jobs and have very employable skills.

However, the vocational students in this study plan to attend college after graduating high

school, using their vocational education as a foundation for their college career. The

percentages in the study were as follows: 55% of vocational students planned to attend

college, 35% planned to enter the workforce, and 10% planned to join the military (see

Figure 1).

COLLEGE

MILITARY

WORK

Figure 1. Future plans of vocational students


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Vocational student participants tended to be employed in full-time or part-time

positions. This is not a surprising outcome because the purpose of vocational education is

to develop students employability skills. The male students in the study tended to hold

full-time jobs more than the female students, but the female students tended to hold more

part-time jobs. Unemployment rates were about the same for both (see Figure 2).

0

10

20

30

40

50

FULL-TIME

MALE

FEMALE

Figure 2. Employment status of vocational students

All of the students who completed the questionnaire viewed their vocational

courses very positively. They were asked to rate their course based on their whole

experience. Twenty percent of the students have an excellent opinion of the courses

overall, 45% viewed it as very good, and 35% as good. No student viewed the courses as

fair, poor, or very poor (see Figure 3).


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0

10

20

30

40

50

0

10

20

30

40

50

Excellent Very Good Good Fair Poor Very Poor

STUDENTS

Figure 3. Students views of courses

Students also were asked to rate their vocational course relative to other high

school courses they have taken. When asked what grade they expected in the vocational

course compared to other high school courses, 63% said much higher, 22% said higher,

and 15% said average. No one said lower or much lower (see Figure 4).

Much Higher

Grade

Higher Grade

Average

Grade

Figure 4. Expected grade


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Students also were asked how much effort to succeed they had put into the

vocational course compared to other high school courses. Fifty-four percent said much

higher, 33% said higher, and 13% said average. Again, no student checked lower or much

lower. The students expected grade correlated with the amount of effort they put into the

vocational course (see Figure 5).

Much Higher

Effort

Higher Effort

Average Effort

Figure 5. Effort to succeed

The vocational students were asked to rank their top concerns now that they were

leaving high school. Seventy-two percent of the students ranked getting a job as their

primary concern. Fifteen percent identified getting additional vocational training as their

main concern. Ten percent viewed advancing to a better job as their main concern, and

only 3% of students thought bout planning their vocational future. Because the students

were in a vocational course program, they were more concerned about getting a job and

finding additional vocational training that would lead to a better job (see Figure 6).


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0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80Getting A Job

Advancing To A

Better Job

PlanningVocational

Future

Getting

Figure 6. Vocational students concerns

The vocational teachers surveyed were asked to explain how they graded and

what their concerns were about vocational education in their school. When asked to

assign percentages to the following areas relevant to students grades, the teachers

weighed students presentations or projects the heaviest, followed by teacher-developed

tests, student class work, student homework, class participation, and performance in

school lab or shop. The teachers stated that the following competencies greatly

influenced the students grades in class: completion of work on time; teamwork skills;

ability to use technology (e.g., computers and calculators) to solve problems; basic

mathematic skills; basic reading skills; oral communication; general employability; and

ability to apply academic concepts to occupational tasks (see Table 3).

Table 3. Basis of Students Grades

Vocational teacher What makes up a student grade

1. Student presentations2. Teacher-developed tests3. Student class work4. Student homework5. Class participation6. Performance in school lab or shop


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proportion who also completed a course in chemistry rose from 15% in 1982 to 34.6

percent in 1994, and the proportion who took physics grew from 7.8 to 13%.

Moreover, many students who take vocational courses go to college after graduating from

high school. College-going students from the graduating class of 1982 accounted for 48

percent of all occupationally specific vocational coursework taken by members of that

class during their four years of high school (Muraskin, 1993).

According to the accountability provisions in the 1998 Perkins Act, Congress did

not limit the states to just measuring the outcome for vocational students only. In

addition, studies conducted by the National Assessment of Vocational Education

(NAVE) did not label a subset of students as vocational. For the past 30 years,

Elementary and Secondary Title I acts have allocated federals funds to low-income

schools based on the students meeting a specific set of criteria.

Vocational educational studies raise the achievement of high school students who

were not enrolled in college-prep courses. As of 1999, the High School That Work

(HSTW) network includes close to 800 schools. The two major goals of the initiative are

(a) to raise the mathematics, science, communication, problem-solving and technical

achievement of career-bound youth to the national average; and (b) to blend the essential

content of traditional college preparatory studiesmathematics, science, language arts

and social studieswith quality vocational and technical studies (Bottoms & Presson

1995).

One of the major features ofHSTWis the biannual assessment of student

progress. Vocational completer seniors are required every 2 years to complete a special


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HSTW achievement test based on the National Assessment of Educational Progress tests

in mathematics, language, and science. The HSTW assessment included information for

each student on vocational courses taken, academic courses taken, and student reports

about specific instructional practices related to academic concepts to vocational

applications. The Educational Testing Service, in a report to each school, compiles data

from this test, along with results of a student survey, faculty survey, and follow-up of

recent graduates. In addition, HSTWstaff conducts on-site visits and used these

occasions to examine school practices based on the survey data, which are used for the

periodic data collection.

The set of New American High Schools, which include vocational or work-related

education as a central component of their curriculum, identified by the Office of

Vocational and Adult Education (OVAE) in the U.S. Department of Education provides

more information on vocational education. The OVAE asked these high schools to supply

trend data on one or more performance indicators in the following categories:

How to analyze school wide data? The primary plan of action was to

conduct qualitative studies within a quantitative frame. That is, numerical data would be

used to identify schools that show relatively rapid rates of improvement over time, and

descriptive information from observations and interviews would provide insight into how

vocational education is delivered in these schools, compared to others. The result will be

proof of how vocational education can be part of an instructional package in schools

where student attainment is growing relatively fast.

Qualitative studies within a quantitative frame. The smallest amount of

quantitative data needed for this analysis would include information on multiyear trends


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achievement is not improving as fast. Surveys should look for differences along the

following dimensions:

Integrating academic and vocational curriculum and instruction.

1. Do all or most students take a set of challenging academic classes as well

as a coherent sequence of vocational courses?

2. Do vocational courses reinforce academic skills and concepts?

3. Do academic courses include work-related applications?

4. Do students engage in projects that link academic and vocational subjects?

Work-based learning.

1. Do all or most students engage in job shadowing, service learning,

internships, school enterprises, or other forms of work-based learning?

2. Are these experiences tied directly to academic courses?

3. Do nonvocational teachers participate in work experiences outside of

school, and do they supervise students who do the same?

Connecting secondary with postsecondary education.

1. Do all or most students satisfy prerequisites for admission to a four-year

college or university?

2. Do they acquire occupational skills that will make it easier for them to

work their way through college?

3. Are there explicit arrangements for students to earn college credits while

in high school?


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The second important question is whether schools who have experienced

improved student academic achievement at a relatively fast rate also have higher levels of

student attainment in work-related knowledge and skill. Because the state accountability

systems rarely take into account the measures of work-related knowledge and skill,

available data on the subject has been collected as part of the in-depth study of each

school. Bishop (1999) proposed a set of possible measures. Along with measures of

students actual knowledge and skill, it also will be useful to describe the different

aspects such as:

Career-related curriculum.

1. Does the high school offer a set of curricular themes related to broad

industry groupings or occupational clusters?

2. Do all or most students choose such a theme?

3. Do students share their core academic classes (English, mathematics,

social studies, and science) with others who have chosen the same theme?

Postsecondary pathways.

1. Do curricular themes in high school lead directly to opportunities for

employment and further education?

2. Do students receive any kind of formal certification along the way?

The main strategy here is to use descriptive information to identify, which high

schools are improving rapidly in student achievement in vocational education. After

identifying high schools with rapid improvement, the researcher can then examine the

instructional methods used in those schools and possibly implement them in the high

schools that are not improving as fast. It is still debatable whether the results proved that


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the instructional methods are the reason for the significant improvements. However, it is

important for Congress and the field simply to know whether schools with rapid

improvement are practicing a different kind of vocational education.

This study does not discuss in detail the specific data collection procedures for the

in-depth, on-site studies, but it does briefly review several closely related precedents.

Bradby and Teitelbaum (1998) piloted this kind of qualitative study within a quantitative

frame for NCRVE, using data fromHSTW. Rock and Ham (1999) describe a similar

approach being used to evaluate Accelerated Schools. Hudis and Visher (1999) give

descriptions of New American High Schools, which show how qualitative accounts can

compare certain practices among schools. Stasz (1999) outlines how qualitative studies of

high schools can be conducted for NAVE (Stern, 1999).

Purely quantitative studies. A purely quantitative study can be

conducted with a dozen or more high schools. Bloom (1999) stated that trend data can be

used to determine whether a certain intervention has had an impact on a set of schools.

For example, a group of 20 schools will be able to detect a 2.0 standard deviation. This

method gives strong support to the cause and effect of student achievement and

intervention. Blooms method assumed that most schools are implementing a well-

defined program. Blooms method may not have been accurate because high schools are

adopting new initiative all the time.

However, combined data from a set of schools over time may be used to detect

whether changes in school practices are associated with subsequent changes in student

performance. When the number of schools exceeds 30 more, standard regression analysis


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as well as changes in student body characteristics can be used. Because NAVE uses a 2-

year time line, this kind of analysis would require retrospective data on school practices.

When additional data on individual students are available, such as measures of

their performance and background characteristics, course-taking data, and other

indicators of their educational experience, more analysis can be done. For example,

HSTW collects this type of additional information every 2 years as part of its assessment

of seniors. To measure the degree of association between students individual educational

histories and their performance on tests, as well as how those associations depend on

school characteristics, hierarchical linear modeling can be used.

Vocational students naturally tend to know something about the trade for which

they were trained. They are job conscious when they enter high school, and they spend

50% of their school time in vocational courses preparation for a trade, which

subsequently accounted for a considerable part of the favorable attitude that these

vocational students had toward employment.

General high schools are frequently not in a position to give dependable

vocational advice. In fact, many cases were found by Gray where the school actually had

given wrong advice. One school, for example, recommended students for admission to an

apprenticeship course in a local company, even though many such students had not taken

the high school subjects required for admission. It would seem that the persons giving the

advice had not taken the time to find out what was expected of the applicants (Gray,

1992). In many communities, the relationship between the general high school and

industry is not cooperative. From the employers point of view, general high school

people for the most part know little about local occupations.


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These statements do not apply to most career and technology schools, which

usually give helpful advice, and the relationship between such schools and local industry

is close. The schools attempt to maintain contacts with employers, utilize advisory

councils, and invite employer groups to their schools. Their teaching personnel comprise

men and women who maintain their connections with local industrial groups through

membership in trade organizations of all kinds.

Employers frequently report to the interviewers that the recommendation of an

applicant by a general high school was almost worthless. The earning of a diploma made

a significant difference in the schools willingness to recommend a student for

employment. The measures of school success, which general high schools commonly use,

had little predictive value with respect to a student's immediate chance of employment.

Scholastic standing, except as indicated by the possession of a diploma, yielded no clue

why one group of students obtained jobs, but another did not. Neither among graduates

nor among nongraduates of general high schools did employment show any relation to

school marks (Gray, 1989). The basis on which general high schools recommended

students for employment differed considerably from that on which employment was

actually made. Though the recommended students tended to be more intelligent than

those who were not recommended, they obtained jobs with only slightly greater

frequency.

From the interview study of former vocational students, it would seem that the

schools recommendations were looked on more favorably by employers than was the

case with the general high school group. At least this seemed to be true in many

instances. To have the confidence of employers is one of the most valuable assets a


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vocational school can have. If its recommendations become worthless its effectiveness is

destroyed. During visits to many vocational schools in the spring of 1937, investigators

were shown lists of students, graduating in a few months, who already had jobs to which

they would go upon graduation. Some schools find it difficult to hold many of their

Grade 12 students during the last few months of school because employers are willing to

hire them. That all schools, however, have not attained such an enviable reputation is

attested by the fact, noted earlier, that the vocational schools as a group secured jobs for

only 33.9% of their male graduates (Gray & Norman, 1992).

Many students graduated from general high schools with the feeling that they

were not ready to begin work when they left school, which they had neither the

information nor the skills that would help them to begin work. Employers agreed with the

statements of these students, adding that the attitudes of many would handicap them on

their jobs. Independent of the interview study, a check was made on the future vocational

plans of leaving students at the time of the testing program. Many of the general high

school students, that is, from 17% of the postgraduate females to over 40% of the males

leaving before graduation, apparently had no long-range vocational objectives. Of those

students who had decided on such objectives, about half considered their decision

unalterable. The males displayed a somewhat more intelligent appreciation of

opportunities for jobs than did the females. The male set themselves more generalized

vocational goals, and showed more conscious recognition of factors that might change

their plans (Hershey, 2000).

The presence of reputedly excellent guidance facilities in the general high schools

where these students were enrolled had no observable effect on the nature of the students'


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plans for the future. Students from schools whose guidance facilities were rated as

outstanding by the state education department showed the same vagueness in their plans

as characterized the replies of students from other schools. Students had made rigid plans

quite as often in schools maintaining organized guidance programs as in schools offering

no such service.

The interview study disclosed that irrespective of the type of community or the

occupation in which their parents were engaged, a majority of the former students of

general high schools, at the time interviewed, wanted white-collar jobs. They were

discontented and unhappy when they found it necessary to take any other type of job. For

example, one male, whose father is an odd-jobs man, graduated from high school at age

21 and stayed for 2 more years of postgraduate work. He will take no job except a clerical

one, which, he says, a high school diploma entitles me to. In addition to low

intelligence, the male is handicapped by a speech defect. Many looked forward to

entrance into the professions, even though there was little chance that their hopes would

be realized. Many students from homes classified as poor or indigent wanted to become

nurses, teachers, engineers, and lawyers. A female whose father is dead and whose

mother earns thirteen dollars a week in a dress factory, said she wanted to go to college in

order to become a teacher. She stated that the school had advised her to take the college

preparatory course. Although she has high hopes, there is little chance that she will ever

have enough money for college (Harvey, 2004).

As far as the present job is concerned, the aforementioned situations do not apply

to the vocational students to this researchers study. Their attitudes toward their present

jobs, as mentioned earlier, were more favorable. Nevertheless, large numbers did want to


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enter white-collar professions. Among male graduates, 24.6% wanted to enter

professions, and 13.6% of the male withdrawals hoped to do the same thing. About one

half of the males who wanted a professional career looked forward to the field of

engineering. Most of these former students realized they would need to go to college if

they were to reach a professional goal. Many of them undoubtedly will not be able to do

so. A job in the manufacturing field was naturally the vocational outlook of the largest

group of these vocationally trained young people.

Former vocational students seemed more optimistic about their vocational future

than did the former students of general high schools. The vocational male graduates

aimed higher than the male graduates of the general high schools, but the aims of the

dropouts in the two types of schools were about the same. When one considers that many

of the vocational students came from handicapped homes (33.1% of the male graduates

and 49.3% of the male withdrawals came from homes classified as poor or indigent), the

nature of their training was largely manual, and the scholastic aptitude of many of them

was low, one doubts if any large number of these students will be able to attain their

objectives.

The majority of the general high school students did not consider school an

agency for giving advice, and only infrequently did they return to the school in order to

seek it. As a matter of fact, many students who were interviewed doubted the ability of

the school officers to give dependable advice on nonscholastic affairs. Vocational

graduates returned to the school for advice more frequently than did the general high

school graduates. In response to the question, have you ever gone back to the school for

advice or help? 44.6% of the male graduates of vocational schools indicated that they


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would, whereas only 23.2% of the male graduates of general high schools gave the same

response. The proportion of yes responses among the male withdrawals in both types of

schools was about the same at 15%, which suggests that the vocational schools were less

concerned with dropouts than with graduates.

Only one or two former general high school students out of 100, at the time of the

interviews, were training for their next jobs in public evening or vocational schools. A

much larger proportion enrolled in courses offered by private proprietary schools. Many

cases of exploitation were found among this latter group. Only a few among the

vocational group had received any formal training for their next job. Many of them

believed that experience would train them. For example, 47.8% of the male graduates

believed that experience was all they needed in order to advance. Though the graduates

of vocational schools appeared to be getting along fairly well at their jobs; apparently

they were not doing much in the constructive nature. They were using their leisure time

less effectively than were the former general high school students.

Among former vocational students, the male withdrawals seemed to be using their

leisure time less effectively than were the graduates, although there was less employment

and more leisure time among the withdrawals. The reading activities of former vocational

students were rather meager. Approximately three quarters of these young people had not

read any part of a paper during the 2 weeks preceding the interview. The fiction read was

largely of an inferior type. About three quarters of the males who were interviewed read

magazines. About two thirds of the male graduates read some magazines, which

contained nonfiction, but only one third of the male withdrawals read magazines of this


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type. Most of the latter group read the type of material frequently seen on display in drug

stores. Most of the former students read newspapers regularly (Hershey, 2000).

Forty-five per cent of the male graduates and about two thirds of the male

withdrawals belonged to no clubs or groups of any kind. At least 80% of the males

played games and sports of one kind or another. About two thirds of them had hobbies, a

larger proportion than was the case with the former general high school students.

Practically all those who were interviewed were movie fans. About 20%of the male

graduates and nearly 30% of the male withdrawals attended motion pictures twice a

week. At least 95% of the vocational students listened to the radio, with variety and

popular music and comedy the favorite types of program. Only 4.6% of the male

graduates listened to news commentators, as contrasted with 15.1% of male graduates of

general high schools; and 10% listened to sports, as contrasted with 3% of the male

graduates of general high schools.

Of the male graduates of vocational schools, 35.4% stated that they did not

participate in home activities of any kind. Of the male graduates of general high schools,

24.2% stated that they did not participate in home activities. Nearly 65% of the male

graduates of vocational schools stated that they were doing no studying of any kind.

From the previous discussion of the data on the vocational adjustment of

secondary school students during the first 6 to 11 months after they had left school, the

following generalizations can be made:

1. The graduates of vocational schools were probably better adjusted

vocationally than were the general high school graduates, but both groups

needed help and encouragement from adults.


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CHAPTER 5. RESULTS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Three groups of students, differentiated on the basis of grade level, will be

provided with the opportunity of receiving training in the field of vocational education.

These three groups were designated in this report as Level 1, Level 2, and Level 3. Level

1 included students through grade 9; Level 2 included students from grades 10 through

12, whose full-time high schooling will presumably end with the secondary high school

period; Level 3 included persons who have successfully completed a secondary high

school course through grade 12 and those who had demonstrated their vocational

competence under adult working conditions. After completion, the Level III students will

receive a certificate in their trade.

TABLE 4 GROUPING LEVEL FOR STUDENTS BY GRADE

LEVEL 1 Students through grade 9

LEVEL 2 Students grades 10 through 12 Full-time high schooling will presumably end with the secondary high schoolperiod

LEVEL 3 Persons who successfully completed a secondary high school course throughgrade 12 Persons who have demonstrated their vocational competence under adult workingconditions

Before the student finishes grade 9, the secondary high school should have

provided an opportunity for him to explore the training required for each of the major

vocational fields represented in the secondary high school program. For students whose

subsequent education was to be along academic or professional lines, these introductory

survey courses still held value in developing a general understanding of important kinds


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of educational and vocational activity. For students whose full-time high school career

would have ended with the high school, these courses should have lead to an intelligent

choice of a major vocation for which the individual student should have sought definite

training.

At the present time, one of the disturbing problems concerning the various

vocational fields was the absence of an adequate admissions policy. The vocational

industrial and vocational technical courses had on the whole as good admission policies

as any group, but all fall short of desirable standards. Virtually no scientific methods

were used in selecting students for the commercial field, for which it was estimated by

commercial teachers in some South Carolina high schools that as high as 50% of the

students enrolled were naturally unfitted for the work. In some industrial high schools,

tryout courses were given in the ninth grade, while in certain other communities, the

student was admitted to industrial courses in senior high schools without such experience,

and students was required to give only meager information about him-or herself.

In order to aid the student in making a wise selection the high school, in addition

to offering introductory survey courses, should have established under competent

supervision a testing program, which would have revealed the native and acquired

characteristics of the student. The high school used a scientific basis of selection rather

than merely rely on the student's desire, which by itself was an inadequate guide. From

the day the student enters to the day he leaves, he should have received the advice and

assistance of someone in the high school who had the ability to aid him. An adequate

record of each student was maintained, containing among other things information

regarding test results, health and activity information, subject marks, data gathered from


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interviews, and program and personal adjustment problems. For every student whose full-

time high schooling ended within the secondary high school period, the secondary high

school provided vocational education leading toward initial vocational competence.

Admission to specific initial vocational courses was restricted to those students who have

shown an aptitude and interest in the training, which such courses provided during the

introductory survey courses, but the total program, made provisions for all who intend to

terminate their full-time high schooling with the secondary high school (Pautler, 1994).

Teachers and Students Perceptions of Grading

During the grading process, tensions can arise when there were a difference

between the grades that the teachers assign and the grades that the students expect

(Goulden & Griffin, 1995). This type of tension has important consequences for the

student, who may be discouraged from further investment in the learning process or who

may be motivated to work harder. Furthermore, students self-esteem, self-worth, and

self-efficacy can be impacted by grades (Edwards & Edwards, 1999; Goulden & Griffin,

1995; House, 2000). One way to explain this tension of grading was to discuss the

student perceptions of grades.

In order to better understand the factors that contribute to students tension, the

person-in-environment (PE) paradigm can be used to study the students created personal

perception of grades through interaction with his/her environment, which included

classroom, school, physical, social and psychological environments (Germania &

Gitterman, 1996). The broader context of student environments is affected the actions of


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the students in all these environments, which then affect their achievement in the

classroom (Strobino, Gravitz, & Liddle, 2002).

According to the PE paradigm, when personal factors or characteristics are

viewed in relation to the persons classroom, school, physical, social and psychological

environments, one can begin to understand students perceptions of grades. Previous

school experiences, student efforts to learn, motivation to learn, expectations regarding

grades, and readiness or preparedness for the academic program are included in personal

characteristics (Strobino et al., 2002). Often, teachers are not usually aware of or take into

account the demands on students time, including those from other classrooms and from

their personal environments. If students believe that if they meet teachers demands, they

can achieve the desired grades; their perspective gives external control of grades to

teachers, which minimizes student academic efforts in affecting the grade.

Using the conceptual paradigm of PE Fit highlighted the importance of

environments as impacting on student engagement in the academic enterprise (Strobino et

al., 2002). By documenting student perceptions of the grading process, teachers were

given insights that they used to reconsider or fine tune rubrics for grading. A rubric is a

tool for assessing instruction and performance according to predetermined expectations

and criteria. Rubrics let the students know exactly what it takes to make the grade they

desire. It was something tangible that they could use to put the responsibility on the

students to do the work necessary to achieve the desired grade, which lessened the

grading tension between teachers and students. This information also had important

implications for curriculum development and program planning which led to the


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identification of student perceptions of grades (and grading practices) had improved

teachers discussions about the grading systems that should have been in place.

Importance of the Problem of Vocational Adjustment

The analysis of the available social and economic data, the results of the

interview, leaving student and test studies and the existing total offerings of the

secondary high schools in the state showed clearly that it was desirable to pay more

attention to the problem of the vocational adjustment of secondary high school students.

In 1936, 4,700,000 young persons in the United States between the age of 16 and

25 were unemployed, out of high school, and seeking work. According to the Welfare

Council of New York City (2006), there were 390,000 such young people in that city.

During recent years, it has been difficult for young people to find employment because of

the economic downturn, but the changing policies of industry and business regarding

desirable hiring ages have been a more fundamental reason for their unemployment.

One of the most significant trends among the employed population in the last 2

decades has been the constant decrease in the proportion of children ages 10 to 15 who

are gainfully employed. There has also been a comparable decline in the proportion of

adolescents ages 15 to 20 who are gainfully employed, but the extent of the decline has

not been as great as with the former group. In addition to the hiring policies of employers,

higher standards of living among the people and a greater concern for the education of

the young have had their influence on the employment of young people.

Secondary high school education is not today primarily concerned with preparing

students for entrance into higher institutions. From 150,000 to 200,000 students in


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secondary high schools annually terminate their full-time high school education. Many

such students seek employment, but an examination of the high school offerings in the

state have shown that thousands of students in general high school courses graduate, or in

many cases simply leave high school, without being trained adequately to meet the

problem of finding and holding a job, even when one is available (Hershey, 2000).

Vocational adjustment is not the problem of only a few of the secondary high

school students when they leave high school. By one means or another, virtually the

whole of this group must be occupationally adjusted. At the present time, the main source

of help for these students is their own initiative. However, the history of what happens

too many of them is clear evidence that self-reliance is not sufficient when the training is

inadequate. To rely on children to find their own callings results in tragic cost. The

problem is a social as well as an individual one and the State must concern itself with it.

Policies of employers, higher standards of living among the people and a greater

concern for the education of the young have had their influence on the employment of

young people.

Secondary high school education was not today primarily concerned with the

preparation for entrance into higher institutions. Many such students sought employment,

but an examination of the high school offerings in the State shows that thousands of

students in general high school courses graduate (or in many cases simply leave high

school) without being trained adequately to meet the problem of finding and holding a

job, even when one is available. Thousands more have been graduated from the

commercial courses, but as far as could be determined, less than 30 per cent of such

graduates have been employed in jobs involving skills in which they were trained. The


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vocational industrial high schools made a better showing in this respect, but even in this

group only 63 per cent of the 1936 graduates were holding jobs for which they had

received training in high school (Gray, 1989).

Compulsory Part-Time Continuation Law

The subject of the compulsory high school attendance age raised questions, which

go beyond the scope of this report, but certain aspects of the problem, which have been

encountered in this investigation, might be mentioned. The present continuation high

school law was conceived when males and females left high school at fourteen and

fifteen years of age, not 16 and 17 years of age. A different situation needed to be faced

today.

The staff making this report saw no reason why, at the present time at least, the

full-time compulsory high school attendance age should be changed. However, certain

changes in the law concerning high school attendance for those who are sixteen years of

age and over seemed advisable.

The present compulsory part-time continuation law should have been repealed in

favor of a law that would have provided a wider range of educational opportunities for

those who have reached sixteen years of age, and that will serve more adequately the

needs of such young persons. The new law should be in line with the following proposal.

Sixteen-and seventeen-year-old minors who have not completed a secondary high school

education through grade 12, who are not employed, or are employed only part-time, and

who are not attending a full-time day educational institution, should be required to pursue


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such educational experience as the local high school district may determine. As long as

the student was fully employed he should be excused from such a requirement, but he

should not be deprived of any facility, which the high school has to offer if he should

desire to use them. Furthermore, he should have been urged to use the facilities of the

high school. This recommendation does not imply that the student concerned should

necessarily return to formal high school, but that he should be required to pursue such

educational experience as the local community may determine. The locality was to be the

judge of what is required. Each child should pursue the educational experience most

appropriate to him. The experience, for example, might be in the Civilian Conservation

Corps. Brush-up, retraining, or advanced courses in work formerly pursued in the high

school might be open to these children (Splete, 1990).

This report had stressed the responsibility of the high school for the initial

adjustment of students, which implied placement of youths in jobs. But at times there

were no jobs, or only a few, or there are youths who cannot, for one reason or another,

find jobs or become adjusted to work.

With an invariable leaving age, there cannot be a precise or even an approximate

equalization between those who leave high school and the number of opportunities for

work. However, this situation might have partially been overcome by establishing a

variable leaving age. The leaving age would depend upon the ability of youth to find

jobs. Such an arrangement would help to rectify the present tragic situation, in which

hundreds of children in the State are neither employed nor going to High school they are

only creating a future social problem (Stem, 1991).


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The vocational staff of the Regents' Inquiry believed that it is possible to develop

trade tests, which will test vocational knowledge and skill as well as desirable attitudes

and appreciation. Progress has been made in various sections of the country in testing

applicants who wish to become teachers of vocational subjects. Some progress has been

made in measuring achievement in vocational classes. However, most of these

examinations have been paper tests, not tests of practical ability. Sampling the practical

experiences of a student would require at least a day, and perhaps should require more.

An additional half-day is usually considered necessary for a written examination. An

insurmountable obstacle, however, was presented, as indicated above, when a large

number of students need to be tested at one time and there is not sufficient equipment

available for the examination (Hershey, 2000).

If the State Education Department insisted upon requiring Regents' Examinations

in vocational industrial work, as they have in technical education, one can expect to find

as time goes on that the practical part of the examinations will be minimized more and

more, and the technological part of the examination will increase in importance. If this

should take place, the objectives of the various courses would have become distorted, and

the emphasis would be placed mainly on the development of related and technological

information, which can be more readily measured.

Related Benefits to Vocational Education

As previously mentioned, vocational education has been cited as a boon to

outsourcing - - an ominous term to many Americans who have lost their jobs to large


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companies and corporations who have shipped their apparel, appliances, ad infinitum

overseas to such countries as China, India, the Philippines, etc. for, the purposes of

focusing upon the (benefits of) vocational education in the high schools. Some schools

have reported novel improvements and benefits, which have accompanied vocational

education, which has been incorporated into their traditional curriculum. For example, if

a proposed agreement between Chester County Intermediate Unite and the 12 school

districts it serves - - including Octorara Area School District - - is passed this year,

Octorara students will benefit from vocational education closer to home, while taxpayers

can expect to find only a small increase in the bottom line cost. That is the initial

assessment of John Lee, Octoraras Business Manager of the new agreement being

proposed by CCIs two new centers for arts and technology. While Octorara has students

in both Lancaster and Chester counties, the district uses the service of the Exton-based

IU. School Board member Ken Knickerbockers told other board members January 27th

that the IU would like to sell the two vocational schools to the Chester County school

authorities for $1.5 million, giving control of these buildings to the school districts. The

IU was also proposing to move from a capital-charge system to a straight tuition system

and built a vocational school in southern Chester County sometime during the next five

years. Lee said a tuition-based system was a more equitable way of funding. Some of

our students dont attend vocational schools because of the distance in travel time. If we

have a vocational school closer, we may have more students who opt to enroll, Lee said.

Lee said he anticipates the proposed agreement will increase what the district now pays

for the debt service on the two CATs from $82,000 to $101,571 annually. Octorara

presently uses about $1.6 million in special and vocational services from the IU. John


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Baillie, Executive Director for the IU was scheduled to make a presentation about the

proposed agreement to the Octorara Board at the Board meeting. School Board members

throughout the county also heard about and discussed the proposed agreement during the

March 11th Chester County School Director Convention (Wigent, 2003). The feasibility

of students attending vocational school was one of those ancillary issues, which Chester

County Intermediate Unit has addressed. In the view of this author, other schools and

districts likely experience the same as well as similar problems. It was altogether

reasonable, in the view of this author that such extraneous issues/problems may be dealt

with in a more facile manner, especially when schools and districts share ideas as well as

strategies to issues and problems as may arise in relationship to providing the benefits of

vocational schools for students.

Other (Ancillary) Issues as Relates to Vocational Education

As previously indicated, vocational education broadens and enriches the

American education system. However, various regions throughout the country (especially

those in remote areas) have experienced some problems as previously identified, i.e.

commutation. Ainsworth and Roscigno further identify some both interesting and

relevant issues as relates to vocational education which are worthy of addressing, in the

view of this author, given the magnitude of what is in fact a (relatively speaking) very

large country, i.e. USA.

Analysis of high school vocational education demonstrated significant class, race,

and gender disparities in vocational educational placement, even after accounting for

prior achievement and educational expectations. The implications of these patterns were


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striking vocational involvement, increasing the likelihood of dropping out of high school,

and significantly decreasing college attendance. While vocational training does reduce

unemployment spells later on, this is less true for non-whites and women, who tend to be

place in service sector vocational training and consequently, similar jobs. The authors

concluded by demoting, at a more general theoretical level, the need to further explore

how occupational stratification and concentration may be fostered prior to labor market

entry, and by educational institutional processes often assumed to be neutral. High school

vocational education has received considerable attention recently, particularly its

consequences for post-high school employment.

One contention was that vocational involvement can benefit students by offering

skills that could be of value in local labor markets. While certainly plausible, certain

fundamental questions - - questions central to classical theoretical perspectives pertaining

to school-work linkages and that denoted the possibility that dominant stratification

arrangements may have been reproduced - - remain unanswered. Who, for example, was

placed in vocational education? Is the process relatively neutral or are certain sub-groups

more likely to be vocationally steered despite actual achievement and expectation level?

And finally, do these processes play a part in creating labor market inequalities

and concentration patterns we find by race or gender? The authors then proceeded to

provide some historical background as well as school-work transitions: status attainment

and reproduction perspectives. Theories of social inequality in the 1950s through the

1970s placed the issue of school-to-work transition at the forefront of sociological

research. Status Attained & Perspective, for example, systematically considered the

degree to which individuals were rewarded occupationally for their investments in


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As the title of this study concerned itself with vocational education in school, and

its future outlook, it is the belief of this researcher that to ascertain the usefulness of

working towards advancing vocational education, or not, was the question. As high

school improvement attracts ever more attention among states and local school districts,

it was an opportune time to examine the role of vocational education in school reform. In

a climate dominated by raising academic achievement and increasing the number of

students prepared for college, it was easy to lose sight of the second important objective

of high school, which is preparing students for success in the workforce. In preparing

students for lasting success in the world of work, high schools use well-conceived

vocational educational, or career and technical education, as it is now usually called.

High schools not only can directly improve students labor market prospects but

also may help promote deeper understanding of academics. While once considered

primarily a program for students not pursuing a college education, which meant it

focused mainly on preparing students for entry-level occupations, over the past decade or

so vocational education has been undergoing a major transformation. In many high

schools, secretarial and clerical programs have replaced by communications and graphic

design, computer applications, i

Vocational Ed in HS

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