/VO 7

THE EFFECTS OF AEROBICS CONDITIONING EXERCISES ON

SELECTED PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF

SEVENTH- AND EIGHTH-GRADE GIRLS

DISSERTATION

Presented to the Graduate Council of the

North Texas State University in Partial

Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

By

Frances Moss Mayo, B.A., M.A.

Denton, Texas

May, 1974

Mayo, Frances Moss, The Effects of Aerobics Conditioning

Exercises on Selected Personality Characteristics of Seventh-

and Eighth-Grade Girls. Doctor of Philosophy (Counseling and

Personnel Administration), May, 1974, 142 pp., 19 tables,

bibliography, 66 titles.

This study is a description of selected personality

characteristics of seventh- and eighth-grade girls and the

changes that occur before and after a program of either

aerobics (running) or anaerobics (calisthenics) condition-

ing exercises during the fall semester, 1973.

The first chapter includes the introduction, statement

of the problem, purposes of the study, statement of the hy-

potheses, background and significance, definition of terms,

limitations, basic assumptions, and procedures for collect-

ing data.

The second chapter is a review of studies pertaining

to the relationship of personality characteristics to physi-

cal fitness or physical activities.

The third chapter describes the population being stud-

ied, the instruments used to measure the personality char-

acteristics, self concept, and physical fitness of the

girls, and procedures for treatment of the data.

The fourth chapter presents an analysis of the data

gathered for the study, and a discussion of the findings.

2

The fifth and final chapter presents a summary of the

background, purpose, methods and procedures, a review of

findings, conclusions, recommendations, and non-statistical

data.

The subjects in this study were seventh- and eighth-

grade students in an independent (private) girls school in

Dallas, Texas, assigned at random to a Treatment Group and

a Comparison Group. Fifty-eight girls comprised the Treat-

ment Group, which ran a pre-determined number of yards before

the regular physical education activity. Fifty-six students

comprised the Comparison Group, which took calisthenics exer-

cises before the regular physical education activity.

The distance run in twelve minutes was measured as a

determination of physical fitness; the Cattell Jr.-Sr. High

School Personality Questionnaire and the Personal Concept

Scale were administered to both groups at the beginning and

conclusion of the 1973 fall semester. Analysis of variance,

analysis of covariance, and chi-square technique were used

to analyze the data statistically.

The twenty girls who ran the farthest distance in twelve

minutes (upper one-third of the scores) and the twenty girls

who ran the least distance (lower one-third of the scores)

were designated "high-fitness" and "low-fitness" students for

both the Treatment and the Comparison Groups. No statistic-

ally significant differences were found between the "low fit-

ness" and "high fitness" students in either the Treatment or

3

Comparison Group at the beginning or at the conclusion of the

fall semester on the factors measured by the Jr.-Sr. High

School Personality Questionnaire or the Personal Concept

Scale. A minority exception of significant differences

was noted on four of fourteen factors on the Jr.-Sr. HSPQ

between the "high-fitness" and "low-fitness" students in

the Treatment Group at the beginning of the study.

The Treatment Group gained more yards and made fewer

infirmary visits than the Comparison Group, but these dif-

ferences did not reach significance. Significantly, more

Treatment Group members were absent than Comparison Group

members.

The following recommendations are made:

(1) Similar studies should be undertaken for a period

of one school year, with voluntary subjects, of

different ages and sex.

(2) Different personality measurements should be

used, with greater sensitivity to changes that

occur within a person or are observable by others.

Some non-statistical data include the possibility of a

strong emphasis on physical activity and some pre-selection

practices at this school which may have diminished differ-

ences between the students. The need for greater acceptance

and encouragement of physical fitness for women in American

culture is suggested.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1% PageLIST OF TABLES0.............. . .... .........Pa

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . 1

Statement of the ProblemPurposes of the StudyHypothesesBackground and SignificanceDefinition of TermsBasic AssumptionsProcedures for Collecting DataProcedures for Analysis of Data

II. RELATED LITERATURE........... .............. 18

The Measurement of Physical FitnessPersonality Pattern and Physical FitnessPersonality Change in Relationship to

Physical Fitness ChangeContraindicatory ResearchConclusions

III. PROCEDURES OF THE STUDY........ . .......... 46

Description of the PopulationDescription of the InstrumentsProcedures for Collecting DataProcedures for Treatment of DataSummary

IV. PRESENTATION OF THE DATA. . ...... ... 61

Analysis of DataDiscussion of Data

V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS . . . 92

Summary of the Background and PurposeSummary of Methods and Procedures

iii

Review of Findings PageConclusionsRecommendationsNon-Statistical Data

APPENDIX...... . . . . .0.*.. . ..........0......105

BIBLIOGRAPHY....................... ............. 137

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Table

I. Pretest Mean Scores for Twenty "Low-Fitness"and Twenty "High-Fitness" Students inTreatment and Comparison Groups on theJr.-Sr. HSPQ..... . . . ..... ...

II. Analysis of Variance Data for Pretest MeanScores for Twenty "Low-Fitness" andTwenty "High-Fitness" Students in theTreatment Group on the Jr.-Sr. HSPQ

III. Analysis of Variance Data for Pretest MeanScores for Twenty "Low-Fitness" andTwenty "High-Fitness" Students in theComparison Group on the Jr.-Sr. HSPQ

IV. Pretest, Posttest, and Adjusted Mean Scoresof Twenty "Low-Fitness" and Twenty"High-Fitness" Students in the Treat-ment Group on the Jr.-Sr. HSPQ . . .

V. Analysis of Covariance Data for Mean Scoresfor the Treatment Group on theJr.-Sr. HSPQ.......... .... *......

VI. Pretest, Posttest, and Adjusted Mean Scoresfor Twenty "Low-Fitness and Twenty"High-Fitness" Students in the Compar-ison Group on the Jr.-Sr. HSPQ . .

VII. Analysis of Covariance Data for Mean Scoresfor the Comparison Group on theJr.-Sr. HSPQ. . ..........

VIII. Pretest Mean Scores for Twenty "Low-Fitness"and Twenty "High-Fitness" Students inTreatment and Comparison Groups on thePersonal Concept Scale ....... .....

IX. Analysis of Variance Data for Mean PretestScores for Twenty "Low-Fitness" andTwenty "High-Fitness" Students in theTreatment Group on the Personal ConceptScale .............................80

V

Page

62

64

68

70

72

75

77

79

. .

. .

. .

. .

X. Analysis of Variance Data for Mean PretestScores for Twenty "Low-Fitness" andTwenty "High-Fitness" Students in theComparison Group on the PersonalConcept Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81

XI. Pretest, Posttest, and Adjusted Mean Scoresfor Twenty "Low-Fitness" and Twenty"High-Fitness" Students in the Treat-ment Group on the Personal ConceptScale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

XII. Analysis of Covariance Data for Mean Scoresfor the Treatment Group on the PersonalConcept Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

XIII. Pretest, Posttest, and Adjusted Mean Scoresfor Twenty "Low-Fitness" and Twenty"High-Fitness" Students in the Compari-son Group on the Personal Concept Scale. . 83

XIV. Analysis of Covariance Data for Mean Scoresfor the Comparison Group on thePersonal Concept Scale . . . . . . . . . . 84

XV. Pretest, Posttest, and Adjusted Mean Scoresfor Distance Run in Yards in TwelveMinutes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

XVI. Analysis of Covariance Data for DistanceRun in Yards in Twelve Minutes . . . . . . 85

XVII. Chi-Square Test Data for Infirmary VisitFrequency for the Treatment andComparison Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

XVIII. Chi-Square Test Data for Absence Frequencyfor the Treatment and Comparison Groups. . 87

XIX. Chi-Square Test Data for Student CouncilRepresentation for "High-Fitness,""Low-Fitness," and "In Between"Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

vi

Tabl e Page

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Sound minds in sound bodies has been a goal of education

since the time of the ancient Greeks. The association of a

healthy mind with a healthy body has been an assumption, not

a fact solidly supported by research.

Traditionally, counselors have concerned themselves pri-

marily with the intellectual and emotional realms of their

clients. Adding the physical dimension may be the needed

link for the fully-functioning counselor who is dedicated

to helping the "whole person" (1, p. 3).

Studies have shown that physical illness is more likely

to occur after a number of major life changes, such as chang-

ing schools, jobs, houses, or spouses. Such experiences as

losing someone or something close to a person, undergoing

strong or prolonged grief, or sustaining an extensive period

of feeling helpless or hopeless seem to increase the possi-

bility of a physical breakdown (15). The reverse may also

be true--emotional strength and intellectual clarity may

accompany physical fitness.

Aerobics exercises are designed to improve physical fit-

ness. The term aerobics refers to exercises that stimulate

heart and lung activity for a sufficiently long period of

time to produce beneficial changes in the body (7, p. 15).

1

2

Running, swimming, cycling, jogging, and walking are typical

aerobics exercises. Aerobics enthusiasts claim to be more

alert and productive, and to experience less depression than

before starting on an aerobics program (7, p. 13). Men have

reported feeling less anxious, more relaxed, more confident,

and more extraversive after entering an aerobics program

(6, p. 5). Women have credited aerobics with helping them

gain better figures and decrease nervous tension (8, p. 124).

These changes are values that counselors seek for their

clients. In a school, all students do not seek the counselor.

Pro-active counselors are finding they must go to the stu-

dents. Since physical education is required for elementary

and secondary school students in Texas (24, pp. 3-4), coun-

selors will find students in a gymnasium.

Aerobics conditioning exercises, specifically walking

or running, may be undertaken by a person at any age, alone

or with other persons. These exercises appear to improve

physical health and may affect personality development.

The personality patterns of middle-aged men, as measured

by personality tests, changed after the men voluntarily

entered an aerobics training program (12). When the vol-

untary aspect is removed, will the personality patterns

change in teen-age girls? If so, the counselor has another

area in which to increase his effectiveness and accounta-

bil ity.

3

Statement of the Problem

The problem under investigation is a study of the

self concepts and selected personality characteristics

and the changes that may occur within the profiles of

these personality characteristics and self concepts as

a result of aerobics conditioning exercises in seventh-

grade and eighth-grade girls.

Purposes of the Study

The purposes of this study were (1) to determine the

differences between the personality profiles of "high-

fitness" girls (upper one-third of the scores) and the

personality profiles of the "low fitness" girls (lower

one-third of the scores) of the Treatment and Comparison

Groups, and (2) to determine the extent to which aerobics

conditioning exercises influence the personality profiles

of "low-fitness" girls and "high-fitness" girls of the

Treatment and Comparison Groups.

Hypotheses

To carry out the purposes of this research project, the

following hypotheses were formulated:

I. At the beginning of the study, the personality pro-

files of the "low-fitness" students will be significantly

different from the personality profiles of the "high-fitness"

students, on the factors measured by the Cattell Jr.-Sr. High

4

School Personality Questionnaire for (a) the Treatment Group

and (b) the Comparison Group.

II. At the conclusion of the study, the personality

profiles of the "low-fitness" students will not differ sig-

nificantly from the personality profiles of the "high-fit-

ness" students, on the factors measured by the Cattell

Jr.-Sr. High School Perso Questionnaire for the

Treatment Group.

III. At the conclusion of the study, the personality

profiles of the "low fitness" students will differ signifi-

cantly from the personality profiles of the "high fitness"

students on the factors measured by the Cattell Jr.-Sr.

High School Personality Questionnaire for the Comparison

G r o up.

IV. At the beginning of the study, the Personal Con-

cept Scale discrepancy scores (difference between self

concept and ideal self concept) made by the "low-fitness"

students will differ significantly from the discrepancy

scores made by the "high-fitness" students for (a) the

Treatment Group and (b) the Comparison Group.

V. At the conclusion of the study, the Personal Con-

cept Scale discrepancy scores (difference between self

concept and ideal self concept) made by the "low-fitness"

students will not differ significantly from the discrepancy

scores made by the "high-fitness" students for the Treatment

Group.

5

VI. At the conclusion of the study, the Personal Con-

cept Scale discrepancy scores (difference between self con-

cept and ideal self concept) made by the "low-fitness" stu-

dents will differ significantly from the discrepancy scores

made by the "high-fitness" students for the Comparison Group.

VII. At the conclusion of the study, the distance-run

scores of the Treatment Group will differ significantly from

the distance-run scores of the Comparison Group.

Background and Significance

Behavior change in a client is the desired outcome of

counseling. This change has been difficult to effect and

to measure. With the increased emphasis on a counselor's

accountability, more avenues for helping a client are needed,

and more accurate means of measuring this help are essential,

as Krumboltz emphasized to Texas counselors (14).

Most counseling methods have emphasized either the

affective or the rational approach. Debates between the

intrinsic motivation, non-directive, personal growth coun-

selors and the extrinsic motivation, directive behaviorists

have not resolved the issue. The possibility of combining

some elements of both inner-directed and outer-directed

theorists has seemed a helpful outlook for helping the

"whole" client. The physical domain of the human person-

ality, however, has been overlooked frequently in counsel-

ing research.

6

Carkhuff (3), Berne (2), and Berg (1) have emphasized

the necessity of a strong physical base for the effective

counselor. Carkhuff (3, pp. 31-32) based his counseling

philosophy on a three-fold thrust, dependent upon the coun-

selor's strengths in the intellectual, emotional, and physi-

cal fields. The counselor must be committed to his own

physical development, as well as to his own emotional and

intellectual growth, in order to help his client find ful-

fillment in any or all of these areas of functioning.

Berne reminded counselors that the body "is the only

known vessel for the human psyche" (2, p. 61). He suggested

that

the first requisite for this fresh frame of mindis a physiological one which takes literally theword "fresh." The group therapist, like any phy-sician, owes it to his patients to keep in goodhealth, to get sufficient sleep during the workweek, and not to arrive in his treatment room underthe influence of medication, alcohol, fatigue, ora hangover. . . . Regular outdoor exercise willgive him more respect for the benefits of physicalvitality and for the health of his body. . . . (2,p. 61).

Berg (1, p. 4) pointed out the reliance of the fully

integrated person on his physical capacity--his high energy

levels and his ability to tolerate and endure hardships--

as well as upon his intellectual and emotional strengths.

When the physical strength of the counselor is considered

a significant element in the successful outcome of coun-

seling, a consideration of the client's physical fitness

seems relevant.

7

Kreitler and Kreitler (13) proposed that bodily activity

represents an outlet for "accumulated unconsumed energy," and

that physical activity reduces "free floating tension" (13,

p. 305) and channels inhibited agression. Cattell, Wells,

Cureton and Heusner, Breen, and Betz (6) and Powell and

Pohndorf (19) have studied the relationship of physical

fitness to specific personality traits. Ismail and

Trachtman (17) studied groups of professional men who

voluntarily entered and remained in a program of physical

conditioning exercises. Those men from the low fitness

group who progressed the most in their physical fitness

scores also became more emotionally stable (Factor C on

the 16 PF), more self-assured (Factor 0), and more self-

sufficient (Factor Q 2 )-

Theologians have been concerned with the relationship

between body and spirit, or between physical and mental or

emotional health. Mandus stated that "an awful lot of

physical disease is the direct or indirect result of stress,

strain, broken relationships, worries and tensions" (17,

p. 18) and that "a disturbed mind will produce a disturbed

body, to a large extent, depending upon the intensity of

the emotional disturbance (17, p. 23). In a trialogue

between a minister, a counselor, and a psychiatrist,

Lewis (18) discussed the intuition of the interrelation-

ship of spirit and body. He stated that

8

whenever I'm tired, I feel depressed. But, whenI'm depressed, I feel tired. Or, more positively,whenever I'm rested and energetic, I feel happyand excitable; and, vice versa, excitement andjoy make me feel energetic, ready to take ontough tasks (18, p. 182).

Selye researched the effects and defenses of stress

from a medical and physiological viewpoint, and also from

a humanistic vein (22, 23). He showed the development of

the "General-Adaptation-Syndrome" (G-A-S) (22, p. 774)

from many causes and displaying many symptoms. Such differ-

ing causes as rest and exercise can cause losses in physical

health. He pointed out "the existence of physical and men-

tal strain, the manifold interactions between somatic and

psychic reactions (which have been) clearly recognized

since time immemorial" (23, p. 263). He considered that

the pituitary was a better judge of stress than the intel-

lect, giving credit to the wisdom of the body. His pre-

scription for stress was variety, or deviation from usual

activities. "If you use the same parts of your body or

mind over and over again, the only means nature has to

force you out of the groove is stress" (23, p. 271). This

change of activity, from desk work to running, may be part

of the physical basis for increased feelings of well-being

among professional men.

Since both the physical fitness enthusiasts have

claimed greater mental or emotional health for their dis-

ciples, and the emotional healers have claimed greater

physical health for their students, this study will

9

consider quantifying the "intuition" of both sides. Will

students change in their personality characteristics and

self concepts when they participate, involuntarily, in a

program that has been shown to induce greater physiological

fitness and endurance? These are the issues under consider-

ation in this research project.

Definition of Terms

An aerobe is an animal that needs air to survive. All

human beings are aerobes.

Aerobics "refers to a variety of exercises that stimu-

late heart and lung activity for a time period sufficiently

long to produce beneficial changes in the body. Running,

swimming, cycling, and jogging are typical aerobic exercises"

(7, p. 15). Aerobics refers to cardiovascular-respiratory

and skeletal muscle endurance, demanding oxygen.

Aerobic capacity is the index of over-all physical fit-

ness, dependent upon (1) efficient lungs to breath rapidly

large amounts of air, (2) a powerful heart to deliver force-

fully large volumes of blood, and (3) a good vascular system

to deliver oxygen effectively to all parts of the body (7,

p. 16).

Aerobics exercises in this study refer to running, jog-

ging, or walking as briskly as possible.

Anaerobics (calisthenics) is a system of exercises which

increases skeletal muscle strength or power, but not oxygen

consumption.

10

Physical fitness is used to mean cardiovascular endur-

ance. Both measurements are determined by the amount of

oxygen consumed when taking aerobics exercises.

Measurement of physical fitness or cardiovascular

endurance or oxygen consumption is the distance run in

twelve minutes. A "good" level of physical fitness is

considered to be the ability to run 1.5 miles for male

adults, but 1.2 or 1.25 miles for junior high school

girls (25).

High-fitness group is composed of those girls who

run the farthest distance in twelve minutes. One-third

of the group will comprise the high-fitness group.

Low-fitness group means those girls who run the least

distance in twelve minutes. One-third of the group will

comprise the low-fitness group.

The Treatment Group includes approximately one-half

of the girls in the seventh and eighth grades, chosen at

random to take aerobics exercises at the beginning of

their physical education period during the first semes-

ter.

The Comparison Group includes the other half of the

girls in the seventh and eighth grades, chosen at random

to take anaerobic exercises, or calisthenics, at the be-

ginning of their physical education period during the

first semester.

11

Fall semester is the time from the end of August when

school opens until Christmas vacation in the middle of

December.

Limitations of the Study

This study was limited by time factors. The actual

time available during the fall semester was twelve weeks,

after orientation occurred at the beginning of school and

before Christmas programs occurred at the end. While physi-

cal changes could be expected to occur in this time period

or less ( 9), the question of personality change and the

capability of measuring any such personality change remain

open.

Another limitation was the lack of information on

maturation expected with seventh and eighth grade girls,

as related to aerobic capacity. Friedman ( 9) is continu-

ing his research with girls currently, but does not yet

have data available. George (11) is conducting research

with fourth , fifth , and sixth grade students to determine

the validity of the 12-minute run/walk test for physical

fitness with elementary school students. She is a member

of a research team for the Texas Education Agency. The

results of this study will be made available for seventh

and eighth grade norms for girls.

12

Basic Assumptions

The following basic assumptions were made:

1. The students ran as strenuously as they could to

cover as much distance as possible during the 12-minute

run/walk test.

2. The students responded honestly to the instruments

utilized to determine personality characteristics and self

concept.

3. The responses of the students were from their own

knowledge about themselves and not related to ideal responses

or teacher expectations.

4. The instruments used were sufficiently valid and

reliable for this study.

Procedures for Collecting Data

The subjects were the seventh (N = 64) and eighth

(N = 55) grade classes which comprised the Middle School

of a private girls school in Dallas, Texas. Permission

to conduct the study was obtained from the Headmaster in

writing, and from the Principal of the Middle School and

the Director of Health Education verbally. Each of these

persons supported the project cooperatively.

At the beginning of the fall semester and before

Christmas vacation, the seventh and eighth grade girls

were given the twelve-minute run/walk test, and the dis-

tance run was recorded. They ran on a hockey field, with

13

markings at ten-yard intervals. The girls were divided into

teams with partners, with each girl recording on a 3 1/2 x 5 1/2

card the distance of her partner's run. (See Appendix C.)

From these data, the scores were inspected, and those

girls scoring in the upper third at the beginning of school

were called the "high-fitness" group, and those with scores

in the lower third were called the "low-fitness" group.

The students were divided by use of a table of random

numbers into the aerobics conditioning group (hereafter

called Treatment Group) and the anaerobics conditioning

group (hereafter referred to as Comparison Group).

The Treatment Group took aerobic conditioning exercises

(a thirty-second warm-up and then running) according to the

schedule developed by Purdy (20, Appendix A) at the beginning

of each physical education period.

The Comparison Group took anaerobics exercises (calis-

thenics) before their physical education period, as they had

done in previous years. These anaerobics exercises included

banana stretches (arms over head), head turns, shoulder turns,

trunk twists, trunk bobs, half knee bends, front lunges, bent

knee sit-ups, and push-ups.

All the girls in the seventh and eighth grades were

administered the Cattell Jr.-Sr. High School Personality

Questionnaire and the Personal Concept Scale at the begin-

ning and at the end of the fall semester, forming pretest

and posttest data.

14

In preparing the data for statistical analysis, locker

numbers were changed into computer numbers as the only form

of personal identification in order to insure confidentiality.

Procedures for Analysis of Data

The data obtained from the test administrations were

compiled and separated into low-and high-fitness groups of

the Treatment Group and Comparison Group as a result of the

distance run on the 12-minute run/walk at the beginning of

the first semester. The raw data from the personality char-

acteristics and self-concept instruments were scored.

The data were entered on IBM cards, and statistical

computations were made at the Data Processing Center at

North Texas State University. Each research hypothesis

was restated in the null form for statistical testing.

The significance level of .05 was required for rejection

of the null hypothesis.

Hypotheses I and IV were tested by means of analysis

of variance, and the remaining hypotheses were tested by

means of the analysis of covariance. The number of days

absent and the number of times a girl checked into the

infirmary as related to her membership in the Treatment or

Comparison Group were tested by means of the chi-square

technique. Representation on the Student Council as related

to a girl's ranking in the high-or low-fitness groups was

also tested by means of the chi-square technique.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Berg, Robert C., Inter-Personal Skills Development,An Introduction, Denton, Texas, Communication/iTfm1n Relations Institute, 1973.

2. Berne, Eric, Principles of Group Treatment, New York,Grove Press, Inc., 1966.

3. Carkhuff, R. R., Helpinq and Human Relations: APrimer for Lay andProfssional Helpers, Vol.~I,SelectiTn and Taining, New York, Holt, Rinehart andWinston, 1969.

4. Cattell, Raymond B., "Some Psychological Correlates ofPhysical Fitness and Physique," Exercise and Fitness,Urbana, Illinois, University of Illinois,~T59.

5. Cattell, Raymond B. and Mary D. L. Cattell, Handbookfor the Jr.-Sr. Hi h School Personality QuTsTion-nalre,IRSPQ~~"~ Champain,1 linoisT, Instiute forPersonality and Ability Testing, 1969.

6. Cooper, Kenneth H., Aerobics, New York, Bantam Book,1968.

7- ,lThe New Aerobics, New York,Bantam Book, 1972.

8. Cooper, Mildred and Kenneth H. Cooper, Aerobics forWomen, New York, Bantam Book, 1972.

9. Friedman, Art, personal conversation, Fort Worth,Texas School District, Fort Worth, Texas, March 23,1973.

10. Friedman, Art and others, "An Aerobics ConditioningProgram for the Fort Worth, Texas School District,"Dallas, Texas, The Institute for Aerobics Research,1972.

11. George, Colleen 0., Associate Professor of Health,Physical Education, and Recreation, North TexasState University, personal conversation, Denton,Texas, May 7, 1973.

15

16

12. Ismail, A. H. and L. E. Trachtman, "Jogging theImagination," Psychology Today, 6 (1973), 78-82.

13. Kreitler, H. and Sh. Kreitler, "Movement and Aging:A Psychological Approach," Medicine and Sport 4Physical Activity and Aging, 1970, p.302-306.

14. Krumboltz, John, "Effective Counseling: How Can YouTell?" unpublished paper read at the Texas Personneland Guidance Association, Houston, Texas, October 12,1973.

15. Lewis, Jerry M. and others, "Family Interaction andPhysical Illness," address presented at the South-western regional meeting, American OrthopsychiatricAssociation, Dallas, Texas, November, 1972.

16. Lewis, Jerry M. and Thomas A. Lombardo, "Jogging: AQuest for Easy Virtue," Report No. 27, Dallas, Texas,Timberlawn Foundation, 1969.

17. Lingerman, H. A., Jr., "An Interview with BrotherMandus: Reflections on Healing," Unity: A Way ofLife, 153 (1973), 18-23.

18. Mathison, J. T., B. F. Lewis and E. S. Howland, "Heal-ing and Wholeness," Journal of Relign and Health11 (1972), 181-191. ~adl-

19. Powell, Richard R. and Richard H. Pohndorf, "Comparisonof Adult Exercisers and Nonexercisers on Fluid Intel-ligence and Selected Physiological Variables," TheResearch Quarterly, 42 (1971), 70-77.

20. Purdy, J. Gerry, "Daily Aerobics Training Program forGirls, Winter, 1972," unpublished conditioningschedule, Fort Worth Independent Schools, Depart-ment of Education, 1972, attached to this study asAppendix A.

21. Schieffer, Larry and Arlene Koeppen, "Personal ConceptScale," unpublished manuscript, North Texas StateUniversity, Denton, Texas, 1970.

22. Selye, Hans, The Physiology and Pathology of Exposureto Stress, A Treatise Based on the Concepts of theGeneral da-ptation Syndrome and~~tie Diseases~of~Adaptation, Montreal, Canada,Acta, Inc., MedicalPublishers, 1950.

17

23. , The Stress of Life, New York, McGraw-HillBook Company, Inc., 1956.

24. Texas Education Agency, Physical Education in theElementary Schools: Guidelines for Grades~~lT~Bulletin 685, Austin, Texas , TexasEducation Agency,1969.

25. Thornton, Melvin L., "A Critical Look at Physical Edu-cation, Texas Medicine, 69 (1973) , 53-58.

CHAPTER II

RELATED LITERATURE

Since President Eisenhower convened the President's

Council on Youth Fitness in 1956, educators have become

increasingly concerned about the physical fitness of our

youth. The relationship of physical fitness to personality

characteristics and/or self concept has been considered by

some researchers. Only recently has this relationship been

considered with specific attention to teen-age girls. The

result of a changed personality pattern after a physical

fitness program has recently come to the attention of pro-

fessional observers, with more speculation than research.

This review of literature is concerned with two facets

of research: the measurement of physical fitness, with con-

sideration of physiological factors, and the relationship ofpersonality characteristics and self concept to physical fit-

ness.

The Measurement of Physical Fitness

In 1952, a landmark research work on the differences in

physical working capacity in relation to sex and age was pub-lished by Astrand (3). Charts presented then remain the

basis of much current research. After considering oxygen

consumption, heart rate, lactic acid concentration, Astrand

18

19

explained the complexity of an expression of physical con-

dition. He defined working capacity as the "synthesis of

aerobic and anaerobic capacity, mechanical efficiency and

physical condition," whereas physical condition is a state-

ment of "how the circulation, respiration, muscles, etc.,

are fit to hard work of a long duration. The heaviness of

the work must be related to the individual's working capac-

ity. Thus working capacity refers to quantity, physical

condition to quality" (3, p. 140). He concluded that

it is impossible to judge a person's physicalcondition from the slope and mean of a curveshowing the heart rate in relation to oxygenintake or working intensity, if not his aerobicor working capacity is taken into consideration(3, p. 140).

Agreeing with other researchers that oxygen intake and

ventilation were almost similar for males and females

for submaximal work on the treadmill, he found that the

heart rate and lactic acid concentration were higher for

females. He stated his only permissible conclusion was

that women have a lower working capacity (3, pp. 141-41).

Beyond this basic difference between the sexes, Astrand

pointed out the differences which occur at puberty. The

total quantity of hemoglobin increased in men up to twenty-

two years of age, but the increase became considerably less

after twelve to thirteen years, reaching a constant level

after twenty years (3, p. 107). The blood volume and total

quantity of hemoglobin are related to aerobic capacity

20

because the oxygen is transported via the blood and itshemoglobin. The difference in oxygen consumption for afifteen-year-old boy and a fifteen-year-old girl was 4.47and 3.31 litres, respectively (3, p. 107). For girls hefound a decrease of aerobic capacity per kg of body weightfrom the age of about ten. There were higher average valuesfor the maximal lactic acid concentration for the girls thanfor boys, aged twelve to eighteen. Astrand concluded therewas no question of "laziness" for the girls! One possibleexplanation was the relatively large increase of the fattytissue in women at puberty, making a better comparison be-tween the sexes the maximal oxygen intake per kg of musculartissue. Whatever the reason, the result was that women, inrelation to body weight, had fifteen to twenty per cent lessmuscular tissue, explaining their lower aerobic capacity.In one running experiment, boys of fourteen to eighteen ranat the rate of almost seventeen km, while girls reached onlyfourteen km per hour. There seemed to be a significantchange in running time for girls at puberty, with somegirls, aged seven to nine, running as fast as the oldestgirls. Although girls of twelve to thirteen had almostthe same maximal speed as boys of the same age, they hada lower aerobic capacity, with boys 56 ml per minute andper kg, the girls 50 ml. Some explanations were that theanaerobic processes must play a more important role andthe girls' lactic acid values were higher (3, pp. 107-133).

21

The differences between girls' and boys' averages at puberty

were noticeable on almost all research reported. The purpose

for the inclusion of this background research was to show the

inadvisability of comparing the scores of girls with that of

boys, particularly at puberty. The need for more research

on teen-age girls was indicated.

Cureton has described physical fitness in different

ways--"the condition of your circulatory system, resistance

to fatigue, ability to withstand disease, general state of

mind, etc." (12, p. 15). He considered physical deteriora-

tion as the onset of a state of fatigue. He listed three

major types of fatigue:

neuromuscular, which is related to poor endur-ance in muscular performance; organic, which isrelated to the autonomic, or involuntary nervoussystem and the viscera; and finally, mentalfatigue, which often manifests itself as bore-dom and which leads to a lowering of morale(12, p. 7).

His recommendation was exercise, to combat the diseases

which develop from lack of exercise, specifically heart

diseases. "The heart only functions well if demands are

made on it. A soft, flabby heart will tire more easily

than a strong one; it is less efficient and much more

susceptible to disease" (12, p. 33). Cureton suggested

anaerobic exercises for "Phase One" of conditioning, but

for "Phase Two," he suggested aerobic exercises, such as

walking, rowing, riding a bicycle, playing handball, squash,

or tennis, as long as they require continual movement (12,

p. 43).

22

Cooper cited heart disease as a national disaster, with

nearly a million Americans dying from heart and blood vessel

diseases. The death rate from heart disease in this country

is higher than in any other country, and the disease is

appearing in younger people. A particular concern is that

"heart disease in young American women is also the highest

of any country in the world" (11, p. 11), with the longevity

of American men ranking 17th and American women as 10th among

the major nations of the world.

Cooper's original research was with pilots who were

grounded for medical problems. Some of the results of those

who undertook his aerobics program were that

most of the diabetics were able to reduce oreliminate medication. The stomach ulcers becameless symptomatic. The lung ailments improved.In at least one case, the symptoms of arthritisdisappeared, and nearly all of the cardio-vascularcases consistently showed improvement.

The physical rehabilitation, however, wassecondary to the personality rehabilitation. Thischange in their personalities was manifested bythe loss of anxiety and the acquisition of confi-dence in themselves. Introverts became extroverts(10, p. 5).

A special group who were helped were the depressed.

Cooper's measurement of endurance was oxygen consump-

tion. He stated that "the amount that the body can bring

in and deliver--your maximum oxygen consumption--is the

best measure of your fitness" (10, p. 12). Cooper credited

the forcing of more oxygen through the body with aerobic

exercises the basis for the following results:

23

The training effect helps your lungs oper-ate more efficiently.

It enlarges your blood vessels, makes themmore pliable and reduces the resistance to bloodflow.

It increases your blood supply, especiallythe red-blood cells and hemoglobin.

It makes healthier body tissue, . .It does wonders for your heart, condition-

ing it as a strong, healthy muscle, relaxed andslow at rest, yet capable of accelerating tomuch higher work-loads without undue fatigueor strain.

It helps you eat better, digest better,and eliminate wastes better.

It helps you sleep better.It may even make you feel better, mentally

and emotionally (10, pp. 108-109).

Accepting the first conclusions is in the realm of

physicians or physical education directors. Determining

the validity of the final point is an appropriate research

direction for the counselor.

Personality Pattern and Physical Fitness

Statements related to personality pattern and jogging

have been made by physicians and psychologists, although,

Lewis admits,with "little clear scientific validation" (25).

Lewis stated that physical training programs, in addition to

improving physical fitness also result in "improvement in

well being, enhancement of self image and increase in fre-

quency and quality of sexual activity" (25). He presented

three possible reasons. They were as follows:

gamesmanship . . . narcissistic . . . a delightfulway to start a day [by impressing one's colleagues]

man's need to feel that he has something to sayabout his own destiny . . . man's perpetual search

24

for eternal life and to defend against the painassociated with the recognition of the brevityof terrestial viability.

how luxuriantly virtuous one feels after eachmorning's jogging . . . the universality ofthe need to feel good about one's self. . .Another aspect of the feeling of virtuousnessis that such justifies many minor vices (25).

Lewis cited different manners of jogging, such as either by

becoming mindless or by getting something out of your system.

Whatever the motivation, he concluded that jogging is "not

simply a matter of common sense regarding one's physical

health. It may become a complex psychological event which

serves many diverse needs" (25).

Samples (28) reported that runners (as differentiated

from joggers by running five to ten miles a day instead of

one or two) started running to improve their physical health

and found unexpected psychic benefits. They reported emo-

tional benefits far more rewarding than the physical gains.

Ogilvie and Tutko (27), Beausay (18), and Heusner (6)

studied the personality characteristics of professional

athletes. Ogilvie and Tutko (27) developed and administered

the Athletic Motivation Inventory (AMI) to approximately

15,000 athletes. They found that some general sports per-

sonalities do exist. They established the existence of

most of the following traits in those who survived the high

attrition rate:

great need for achievement, tending to set highbut realistic goals for themselves and others.

. . . highly organized, orderly, respectful ofauthority and dominant. . . . large capacity for

25

trust, great psychological endurance, self-control, low-resting levels of anxiety andslightly greater ability to express aggres-sion. . . . low interest in receiving supportand concern from others, and low need foraffiliation (27, p. 61).

One noticeable characteristic of these athletes was a need

to achieve victory over others.

Beausay (18), executive director of the Academy of thePsychology of Sports International, reported this last trait

as the distinguishing difference between the average player

and the superstar. The superstars had an outstanding deter-

mination to be Number One, to be a champion, even when the

game or play went against them. This characteristic amounted

to a killer instinct. Beausay outlined a personality pattern

for superstars, involving ultra-aggressiveness, supreme self-

confidence, spiralling achievement, total concentration, and

constant self-improvement.

Heusner, under Cureton (6, p. 146), found that on

Cattell's 16 PF, champion British and American Olympicathletes had significantly greater (p = .01) ego strength

or freedom from general neurotic tendencies (Factor C), weremore outgoing or less easily inhibited (Factor H), were more

dominant or assertive (Factor E), and showed less guilt

proneness or liability to worry (Factor 0) than the stand-ardized norms for "American normals." Cattell (6, p. 147)found the same four characteristics to be functioning inpilots and firemen, but not in male clerks. He offered theexplanation that pilots and firemen are decisive, calm, and

effective before and during emergencies. He raised thequestion of whether a high level of physical fitness reducedanxiety and neuroticism and favored aggressive and extraverted

adjustment. These changes were found in the Ismail-Trachtman

study (21), and were sought in this study.

Ogilvie and Tutko (27) found individual differences inathletes. Some seemed to survive constant tension, anxietyand self-doubt only because of their magnificent physical

gifts. One athlete quit after outstanding success, withthe possible explanation that he had grave personal doubtsabout his worth as a person, to such an extent that he wasunable to support the burden of success. Some players withgood physical skills and strong character strengths did notstay with sports. Some seemed to be functioning so wellemotionally that they did not have a neurotic tie to sports;they turned to other more challenging fields voluntarily.

Wells (6 ) found a significant relationship (p = .01)between anxiety and physical performance on four tests.

There was a tendency for diastolic blood pressure to runhigher with anxiety as a trait. A significant tendency,

although slight, was found for anxiety to be higher in menof small physical size and deficient musculature. He alsofound that dynamic strength, as measured by the number of"dips" in his chart, correlated with more friends, moreadventurousness, more maturity, less anxiety, and less

tension (19, p. 766).

26

The relationship of personality characteristics of womenathletes was studied by Ogilvie and Tutko (27), and the cul-

tural impact by Hart (20). Ogilvie and Tutko (27) found

that women athletes who were outstanding in their fields

showed a greater tendency toward introversion, had greater

autonomy needs, expressed more creativity, were more re-

served and cool , more experimental , and more independent

than their male counterparts. They showed less need forsensitive and understanding involvement with others. Women

athletes showed less trait variation from one sport toanother than men athletes. This consistency was attributed

to the cultural repression of women who had to be able tostand up to those in charge to succeed in any field.

Hart (20) discussed the cultural handicaps women mustovercome in the United States to become successful athletesand remain in a womanly role. She found the roles werealmost incompatible, crediting games of physical skill asbeing associated with achievement and aggressiveness, whichwere considered within the exclusive province of males. Asearly as elementary school age, girls were expected to selectsome games and avoid others. By the time a girl was elevenor twelve, she may have had to make a choice between being alady or an athlete. She was taught to lose to a boy, in ordernot to lose the boy. Hart found that in the black communitya woman can be strong and competent in sports and remainwomanly, even winning respect and status.

27

28

Hart (20) urged society to allow women to compete within

their own physical category, citing the example of a feather-

weight champion who may gain as much reward and admiration as

a heavyweight one.

At the college level, Behrman (5) found that swimmers

were more sociable and outgoing than nonswimmers. Appleton

and Kobes (1), in a direct comparison between cadets at

West Point who scored low on their physical performance

test when they entered as freshmen and those with high

ratings, found that the low-scoring men had twice as high

an attrition rate, failed to adjust emotionally to their

school environment, and showed lower leadership potential.

Werner (35) found that a group of 270 West Point cadetswho earned letters in college football were more sociable,dominant, enthusiastic, adventurous, conventional and

group-dependent than the control group on Cattell's 16 PF.

Schendel (29) studied the psychological differences,

as measured by the California Psychological Inventory, of

334 male ninth-grade, twelfth-grade, and college team

sport athletes and nonparticipants in athletics. Ninth-

grade athletes showed more leadership and social initiative,

expressed more qualities which lead to status, were more

sociable, possessed a greater sense of personal worth, hadless self doubt and made fewer complaints, had more socialmaturity, were more conventional in their responses to socialsituations, and possessed greater intellectual efficiency

(p = .05) than the nonparticipants. Differences were alsofound between athletes and nonparticipants at the twelfth

grade and during college. These differences were more de-

sirable at the twelfth-grade level for the participants,

including being more sociable, possessing a greater senseof personal worth, being more conventional in social situa-

tions, and more capable of achievement where conformity was

necessary. At the college level, however, the senior non-

participants were possessors of more desirable personal-

social characteristics than college athletes in junior or

senior years. The nonparticipants showed more qualities

which lead to status, were more conscientious and responsible,

more tolerant, more capable of independent achievement, hadgreater intellectual efficiency, were more interested in thepsychological needs of others, were more adaptable in their

thinking and social behavior, and had more feminine interests

than the college athletes, who were more conventional in

responding to social situations.

At the high school and adolescent age level , Fletcher

and Dowell (17), Kroll (24), Flanagan (15), Fletcher (16),Slusher (31), and Wilson (36) have tied certain athletic

participation to personality characteristics.

Fletcher and Dowell (17) showed a relationship betweenmale high school athletes and higher scores on the Dominanceand Aggression scales of the Edwards Personal Preference

Schedule, while the nonathletes scored higher than the

29

30

athletes on Order. Kroll (24) found, similarly, that male

football players were more socially aggressive and outgoing

than nonparticipants. Flanagan (15) reported similar find-

ings--that the highly active high school participants were

less self-conscious, and the less active students experienced

some difficulty in social adjustment. Fletcher (16) reported

that those male students who participated in more athletic

activities in high school made significantly higher scores on

the Dominance and Heterosexuality scales of the Edwards Per-

sonal Preference Schedule than the nonparticipants, who

scored higher on Achievement, Deference, and Endurance.

Slusher (31) compared junior and senior male high school

lettermen in baseball, basketball, football, swimming, and

wrestling with nonathletes for differences in personality

scales on the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

and intelligent quotients on the Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence

test. The differences which were significant (p = .01) were

as follows:

The Mf scale (femininity) was lower for all athletic

groups than for the nonathletic group.

Intelligence was lower for all athletic groups than

for the nonathletic group.

The Hs scale (hypochondriasis) was higher for allathletic groups, with the exception of the swimmers, than

for the nonathletes.

Some specific differences showed up between the groups,but were not statistically significant. The baseball group

31

showed the highest Ma (hypomania) score, indicating rela-

tively high risk-taking, emotional excitement, and extreme

enthusiasm. The basketball group showed an over-concern

with physical symptoms and relative lack of repression.

The football group showed the use of physical symptoms,

under stress, as a means of solving difficult conflicts

(hysteria), related to their high score on the Hs scale

(hypochondriasis). Only the swimmers did not display a

significantly high Hs scale (hypochondriasis). The wres-

tlers showed a significantly higher Pt scale (Psychasthenia)

than the nonathletes, indicating a tendency toward abnormal

fears, worry, and difficulties in concentration (obsessive-

compulsive syndrome).

Wilson (36) compared the relationship between motor

achievement, as measured by the McCloy General Motor Ability

and Motor Capacity tests with nine scales (E, I, C, A, Q2,

H, G, F, and 0 of Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Question-

naire and seven scales (A, 0, E, S, R, G, and M) of the

Guilford-Zimmerman Temperament Survey for 154 boys who were

juniors and seniors in high school. The only significant

correlation (p = .05) was between scale Q2 of the 16 PF,

which measured Independence vs. Dependence. (Pearson

product-moment technique correlation = -.17.) It was

theorized that the high number of participants in team

activities as opposed to individual activities was re-

lated to the importance of group functions as opposed to

32

independent functioning. He also found that the level ofmotor achievement was predictable with the use of grouped

measured personality characteristics (p = .05). This di-rection was the reverse of that expected in the present

study. In his prediction he considered the scores of theupper and lower 25 per cent of the students on the combined

personality scale scores.

Ward (33) indicated that physically fit junior highschool boys were accepted significantly more often by

their peers than the unfit, as determined by their scoreson the American Association for Health, Physical Educationand Recreation Youth Fitness Test. The physically fit boys

held more leadership positions and showed higher intelli-gence, greater social efficiency and acceptance, had fewerabsences, and were less overweight than their unfit class-

mates.

The relationship between physical fitness and selfconcept has been studied by Armstrong and Armstrong (2).Armstrong and Armstrong (2) found that a significant posi-tive correlation (p < .005) existed between body-image-

barrier scores and a physical fitness score, for girlsbut not for boys in a "muscular" approach to the world.The body image score was determined by group-administered

Rorschach cards. Physical fitness was established byscores on the New York State Physical Fitness Test, com-posed of four items: push ups, treadmill for thirty

33

seconds, sit-ups for one minute, and an agility test. One

explanation was that a cultural goal (in the United States)

is muscle-building activities for all boys, whereas girls

are more free to engage in such activities or not, depend-

ing on their genuine interests.

At the elementary school level , Seymour (30) found

that Little League baseball players showed a higher level

of social acceptance earlier than nonparticipants. Kratcho-

vil, Carkhuff, and Berenson (22) reported that fifth-grade

pupils who functioned at relatively high levels physically

tended to function at relatively high levels intellectually

and interpersonally, and vice versa. The implications of

this study seemed relevant to the possibility of establish-

ing relatively high levels of physical functioning as a

possible pathway toward relatively high levels of intel-

lectual and interpersonal functioning.

Personality Change in Relationship toPhysical Fitness Change

An effort both to induce and to measure the change inpersonality characteristics when physical dimensions change

has been made by researchers at the adult level. Ismail andTrachtman (21) found that professional men who engaged in aphysical fitness program of one and a half hours three timesa week for four months not only improved their physical con-ditionins but changed certain aspects of their personalities.Those men who started in the low-fitness group became more

emotionally stable (Factor C on 16 PF), more self-assured

(Factor 0), and more self-sufficient (Factor Q2). Theirresearch indicated the possibility of the pliability ofthe human personality at any time, even fairly late inlife, and through the unexpected area of physical develop-

ment. An unknown variable in this research was the voluntaryaspect, which may be related to the determination required tocommence and maintain a program of self improvement.

Qualitative reports were made on adult personality

change by Neal (26) and Pogue (14). Neal (26) reported

that between 500 and 1,000 business men exercised daily atthe Dallas Downtown YMCA. Even though some of the men whooriginally went to the YMCA reported they "didn't want todo so" mentally, about 75 per cent stayed with the programbecause they said they felt better and slept more. Pogue(14) found that the men in his business organization whoran were sharper, more alert, and looked better. He citedthat those who ran even in the rain showed more self

discipline in business matters.

Collingwood (8) provided physical training for an ex-perimental group of twenty-five male rehabilitation clientsbetween the ages of eighteen and twenty-six, one hour everyday, five days a week, for four weeks. This training in-cluded jogging, calisthenics, and agility drills. Thecontrol group had no physical training, but was given thesame vocational training as the experimental group. The

34

35

experimental group scores were significantly different from

the control group scores on the Body Attitude scale, a

semantic differential scale, on the evaluative dimension

(p = .001), potency dimension (p = .001), and activity

dimension (p = .05). The experimental group demonstrated

greater positive changes on the Bills Index of Adjustment

and Values on the self-concept scale (p = .05) and the

self-acceptance scale (p = .05). The F tests for the other

two scales were nonsignificant. Both the rehabilitation

counselors and the vocational instructors rated the experi-

mental group higher than the control group on increased

physical functioning, intellectual functioning, and emotional-

interpersonal functioning. This study supported the potential

of physical training as a facilitative mode for improved

physical fitness and self attitudes.

At the adolescent age level, Collingwood and Willett

( 9), Tillman (32), and Clifford and Clifford (7) found

positive changes in personality patterns in relationship

to physical fitness programs. All of these studies were

exclusively with boys.

Collingwood and Willett ( 9 ) studied the effects of

physical training on self-attitude changes on five obese maleteenagers between the ages of thirteen and sixteen. They

spent one hour each day in a gymnasium and one hour each dayin a pool for a total of thirty hours in a three-week period.They also received three hours of group counseling-discussion.

36

Changes on the Body Attitude Scale showed a significant in-crease on the Evaluative (p = .01) and Potency dimensions

(p = .05), and a nonsignificant increase on the Activitydimension. On the Bills Index of Adjustment and Values,the subjects demonstrated a significant increase on the SelfConcept dimension (I) (p = .05), a significant increase onthe Self Acceptance dimension (II) (p = .05), and a non-significant increase on the Ideal Self dimension (III). Thediscrepancy ratings between dimensions I and III showed asignificant decrease (p = .05). The results suggested thatphysical training provided a concrete growth and success ex-perience, resulting in improved self-attitudes, the goal ofall therapeutic processes.

Clifford and Clifford (7) studied thirty-six adolescentboys at a summer camp, over a one-month period. The aims ofthe camp were to build physical stamina and to push each boyto his limit. On a self-concept measure and a semantic dif-ferential scale, changes in the self concept occurred in theappropriate direction, and discrepancies between the selfand the ideal self were reduced. The changes were generalrather than specific and were related to the initial levelof self evaluation.

Tillman (32) studied 386 junior and senior high schoolboys. On the basis of scores on pull-ups and the 600-yardrun from the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test, the upper 15 percent and the lower 15 per cent were compared on three

37

personality tests to determine the difference between the

highly physically fit group and the low physically fit

group. On Snyder's A-S Reaction Stud, the high-fitness

group had a significantly higher ascendance rating (p = .02)

than the lower group. The high-fitness group showed signif-

icantly higher scores on the following scales of Cattell 's

16 PF: F (Enthusiastic, Surgency) (p = .02); Q (Group

Dependency, Social Dependency) (p = .001) and Q (Composed,

not Tense) (p = .01). The high-fitness group showed signifi-

cant differences (higher) on the Kuder Preference Record--

Form C (p = .01) on the following scales: Musical and

Clerical, and (p = .05) on the following scales: Outdoor,

Mechanical, Computational, Scientific, and Social Service.

As a second phase of his research, Tillman (32) divided

the fifty boys who were in the lower 15 per cent of the phys-

ical fitness group into an experimental group of twenty-six

boys who participated in a strenuous physical fitness program,

while the other twenty-four remained in their regular physical

education class. After nine months, the experimental group

changed significantly on only one out of twenty-eight per-

sonality trait measurements and reached only the forty-

fourth percentile on physical fitness, whereas the upper

group was at the ninety-second percentile at the beginning

of the study.

With elementary school children, DelForge (13) found

that either instructors in physical education or self-

38

contained classroom teachers who made a conscious effort

to help students with poor attitudes toward school were

influential in helping students develop a more positive

attitude toward school and an improved self esteem. The

difference stemmed from a special effort on the part of

the physical education teacher of the fourth and fifth

grades to use explanations of good leaders, sociodrama,

and commendation for improvement.

At the other extreme end of the age scale, Kreitler

and Kreitler (23) proposed that bodily activity represents

an outlet for "accumulated unconsumed energy," and that

physical activity reduces "free floating tension" (23,

p. 305) and channels inhibited aggression. They hypothesized

that because persons over fifty become interested in the ex-

ploration of the emotional or intellectual sphere, they do

not expend discharges of energy to a degree comparable to

those accompanying bodily movements. Children enjoy moving

for the sake of moving, and participate in play, sports,

and dancing. When the elderly become habitually sedentary,

there occurs an increase in internal tension, with less fre-

quent opportunities for physical exercise. A distortion ofthe body image as broader and heavier than is actual estab-

lishes a faulty feedback between movement and body image,

and a greater clumsiness and increased fear of physical

activity develops. In older people, introversion, intellec-

tualization, social status, and other factors render "acting

it out" or other expression of aggressive trends more difficult,

39

so that at least part of such trends remain without outlet

and may be turned on the self. Although this situation may

occur at any age where physical activity is limited and

aggressive tendencies must be restrained, the opportunities

for physical activity are lessened with age. Kreitler and

Kreitler (23) recommended regular bodily exercise for the

aging to break the vicious circle caused by distortions in

body image due to prolonged inactivity, to re-establish a

feeling of security, to prevent internalization of aggres-

sive tendencies, and to release kinesthetic stimuli which

provide profound emotional satisfaction.

Contraindicatory Research

Young (37) tested 114 eleventh grade girls to determine

whether there were any significant differences between socio-

economic groups with reference to personal-social adjustment,

attitude toward physical education, and physical fitness. Acomposite physical fitness score was based on standard scoresfor each item on the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test. Personal-

social adjustment was measured by the California Test ofPersonality--Secondary Form AA. A significant relationship

(p = .05) was found for personal-social adjustment and phys-ical fitness, and for personal adjustment and physical fit-ness for the middle socioeconomic group, but not for the

high-or low-socioeconomic groups.

40

Weber (34) did not find a significant relationship be-

tween personality as measured by the Minnesota Multiphasic

Personality Inventory and total physical fitness as measured

by the Iowa Physical Efficiency Profile for college students.

Werner and Gottheil (35) found that although athletes

and nonathletes entered West Point with different personality

characteristics, as measured by the 16 PF, there was no sig-

nificant difference between the participant group and non-

participants during their stay at the United States Military

Academy.

Tillman's (32) experimental group of junior and senior

high school boys which received strenuous physical fitness

training for a school year changed on only one personality

trait, out of a possible twenty-eight measured. This trait

was Clerical interest on the Kuder Preference Record--Form C.One explanation was that the lower physical fitness group

tended to like accuracy and precision and might thus be lessable to adjust to social situations, with the ingredients

for a tense personality trait.

Betz (6) found that such personality factors as ego

strength (Factor C on the 16 PF), dominance (Factor E), andshrewdness (Factor N) were negatively correlated with the

length of treadmill run.

41

Conclusions

In a review of the literature, Hammett (19) consideredthe correlation between psychological changes with physicalfitness training and concluded that many studies show arelationship between many psychological factors and physicalfitness. He raised the question of pre-selection, suggestingthe possibility that persons with certain psychological char-acteristics may gravitate to physical fitness programs. Healso indicated that tests such as Draw-a-Person and theRorschach are indirect means of measuring body image, andthat such measures are qualitative but not quantitativemethods.

Although some research indicates no significant rela-tionship between personality change and improved physicalfitness, the majority is in the direction of a positiverelationship. As Collingwood and Willett admitted, "Thesources of gain from physical training may not be the ulti-mate solution for all individuals to be able to live success-ful lives; however, it may be a substantive first step formany" ( 9, p. 412) and as such is worthy for counselor con-sideration and direction.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

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2. Armstrong, Hubert F., Jr. and Della D. Armstrong, "Rela-tion of Physical Fitness to a Dimension of Body Image,"Perceptual and Motor Skills, 26 (1968), 1173-1174.

3. Astrand, P. 0., Experimental Studies of Physical WorkingCapacity in Relation to Sex and Age~,Copenhagen,MunkWgaar,1952.

4. , "Human Physical Fitness with SpecialReference to Sex and Age," Physiological Reviews,36 (1956), 307-335.

5. Behrman, R. M., "A Study of Personality DifferencesBetween Nonswimmers and Swimmers," Research Quarterly,38 (1967), 163-166.

6. Cattell, Raymond B., "Some Psychological Correlates ofPhysical Fitness and Physique," Exercise and Fitness:A Collection of Papers Presented at the CiiTioquium onExercise and Fitness, Urbana, Illinois, University fIl1i nos ,~1i959 , 138-151.

7. Clifford, Edward and Miriam Clifford, "Self-ConceptsBefore and After Survival Training," British Journalof Social and Clinical Psychology, 6 (1967), 241-248.

8. Collingwood, Thomas R., "The Effects of Physical Train-ing upon Behavior and Self Attitudes," Journal ofClinical Psychology, 28 (1972), 583-585.

9. Collingwood, Thomas R. and Leonard Willett, "The Effectsof Physical Training upon Self-Concept and Body Atti-tude," Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27 (1971), 411-412.

10. Cooper, Kenneth H., Aerobics, New York, Bantam Book,1968.

42

43

11. , The New Aerobics, New York, BantamBook, 1968.

12. Cureton, Thomas K., Jr., Physical Fitness and DynamiHealth (abridged), New York, Dell Purse Book, 1965.

13. DelForge, C. J., "The Relationship of Physical Educationto the Personal-Social Growth of Elementary SchoolChildren," unpublished doctoral dissertation, NorthTexas State University, Denton, Texas, 1970.

14. "Executives on an Exercise Kick," Business Week,(June 3, 1972), pp. 44-46.

15. Flanagan, L., "A Study of Some Personality Traits ofDifferent Physical Active Groups," Research Quarterly,22 (1951), 312-323.

16. Fletcher, Raymond, "Differences in Selected Psycholog-ical Characteristics of Participants and Nonpartici-pants in Activity," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 32(1971), 301-302.

17. Fletcher, R. and I. Dowel , "Selected Personality Char-acteristics of High School Athletes and Non-athletes,"The Journal of Psychology, 77 (1971), 39-41.

18. Haas, Alan D., "Those Superjocks--Are They Born orMade?" Southwest Scene, The Dallas Morning NewsSunday Magazine, Aug. 26,19773, 19-22.

19. Hammett, V. B. 0., "Psychological Changes with PhysicalFitness Training," Canadian Medical AssociationJournal, 96 (1967) ,764-769.

20. Hart, Marie, "Women Sit in the Back of the Bus," Psychol-ogy Today, 5 (1971)1, 64-66.

21. Ismail, A. H. and L. E. Trachtman, "Jogging the Imagina-tion, Psychology Today, 6 (1973), 78-82.

22. Kratchovil, K. D., R. R. Carkhuff and B. G. Berenson,"The Cumulative Effects of Parent and Teacher-offeredLevels of Facilitative Conditions upon Indexes of Stu-dent Physical, Emotional and Intellectual Functioning,"Journal of Educational Research, 63 (1969), 161-164.

23. Kreitler, H. and Sh. Kreitler, "Movement and Aging: APsychological Approach," Medicine and Sport, 4, Phys-ical Activity and Aging, 1970, pp. 302-306.

44

24. Kroll, W. and K. H. Peterson, "Personality FactorProfiles of Collegiate Football Teams," ResearchQuarterly, 36 (1965), 441-447.

25. Lewis, Jerry M. and Thomas A. Lombardo, "Jogging: AQuest for Easy Virtue," Report No. 27, Dallas, Texas,Timberlawn Foundation, 1969.

26. McGraw, Preston, "Dallas Heart Research," Dallas, 51(1972), 20-26.

27. Ogilvie, Bruce C. and Thomas A. Tutko, "If You Wantto Build Character, Try Something Else," PsychologyToday, 5 (1971), 60-63.

28. Samples, Doris Ann, "The Runners," Southwest Scene,The Dallas Morning News sunday Magazine, August 26,T973, 19-22.

29. Schendel, Jack, "Psychological Differences BetweenAthletes and Nonparticipants in Athletics at ThreeEducational Levels," Research Quarterly, 36 (1965),52-67.

30. Seymour, E. W., "Comparative Study of Certain BehaviorCharacteristics of Participant and Non-ParticipantBoys in Little League Baseball," Research Quarterly,27 (1957), 338-346.

31. Slusher, Howard S., "Personality and Intelligence Char-acteristics of Selected High School Athletes and Non-athletes," Research Quarterly, 35 (1964), 539-545.

32. Tillman, K., "Relationship Between Physical Fitness andSelected Personality Traits," Research Quarterly, 36(1965), 483-489.

33. Ward, James E., "The Relationship Between Physical Fit-ness and Certain Psychological, Sociological, andPhysiological Factors in Junior High School Boys,Dissertation Abstracts, 22 (1965), 4261-4262.

34. Weber, Robert J., "Relation of Physical Fitness toSuccess in College and Personality," Research Quar-terly, 24 (1953), 155-165.

35. Werner, Alfred C. and Edward Gottheil, "PersonalityDevelopment and Participation in College Athletics,"Research Quarterly, 37 (1965) , 126-131.

45

36. Wilson, P. I., "Relationship Between Motor Achievementand Selected Personality Factors of Junior and SeniorHigh School Boys," Research Quarter 40 (1969),841-844.

37. Young, Mary L., "Personal-Social Adjustment, PhysicalFitness, Attitude Toward Physical Education of HighSchool Girls by Socioeconomic Level," ResearchQuarterly, 41 (1970), 593-599.

CHAPTER III

PROCEDURES OF THE STUDY

Description of the Population

The population utilized in this study consisted of the

seventh-grade and eighth-grade students in an independent

(private) girls school in Dallas, Texas. At the beginning

of the fall semester the students were assigned at random

to either the Treatment (Aerobics Exercises) or Comparison

(Anaerobics Exercises) Group. There were thirty-two stu-

dents in each group in the seventh grade. In the eighth

grade, one girl left school; one was unable to take part in

any physical activities because of a previous injury; and

one was given permission to take ice skating for her phys-

ical education requirement. One girl was unable to take the

final twelve-minute running test. The number of students

who completed the program in the eighth grade were twenty-

six in the Treatment (Aerobics Exercises) and twenty-four

in the Comparison (Anaerobics Exercises) Group, making a

total of fifty-eight students in the Treatment Group and

fifty-six students in the Comparison Group.

Description of the Instruments

The following instruments were utilized in this study:

1. The distance run in twelve minutes (the 12-minute

46

47

run/walk), 2. Cattell and Cattell's Jr.-Sr. High School

Person y Questionnaire (HkP) (3), and 3. Schieffer and

Koeppen's Personal Concept Scale (PCS) (17).

Jr.-Sr. High School Personality Questionnaire"

The HSPQ was designed to give the "maximum information

in the shortest time about the greatest number of dimensions

of personality" (3, p. 4). It purports to include all of

the more adequately research-demonstrated dimensions of per-

sonality. Its use was intended for clinical, educational,

and counseling practice. The complete profile of the four-

teen scores was designed to provide the basis for an annual

or semiannual record of a student's personality development.

The Jr.-Sr. HSPQ was developed by Cattell as an appropriate

scale for adolescents, measuring fourteen of the sixteen

personality factors measured by the 16 PF for adults.

The meanings of the fourteen personality characteristics

are given by Cattell and Cattell (3, p. 7) as follows, with

Cattell's professional terms in parentheses:

A. (Sizothymia) reserved, detached, critical,aloof, stiff vs.(Affectothymia) warmhearted, outgoing, easygo-ing, participating.

B. (Low intelligence) dull vs.(High intelligence) bright.

C. (Lower ego strength) affected by feelings,emotionally less stable, easily upset,changeable vs.(Higher ego strength) emotionally stable,mature, faces reality, calm.

48

D. (Phlegmatic temperament) undemonstrative,deliberate, inactive, stodgy vs.(Excitability) impatient, demanding, over-active, unrestrained.

E. (Submissiveness) obedient, mild, easily led,docile, accommodating vs.(Dominance) assertive, aggressive, competi-tive, stubborn.

F. (Desurgency) sober, taciturn, serious vs.(Surgency) enthusiastic, heedless, happy-go-lucky.

G. (Weaker superego strength) disregards rules,expedient vs.(Stronger superego strength) conscientious,persistent, moralistic, staid.

H. (Threctia) shy, timid, threat-sensitive vs.(Parmia) adventurous, "thick-skinned,"socially boTd.

I. (Harria) tough-minded, rejects illusions vs.(Premsia) tender-minded, sensitive, dependent,overprotected.

J. (Zeppia) zestful, liking group action vs.(Coasthenia) circumspect individualism,reflective, internally restrained.

0. (Untroubled adequacy) self-assured, placid,secure, complacent, serene vs.(Guilt proneness) apprehensive, self-reproaching, insecure, worrying, troubled.

Q2. (Group dependency) sociably group dependent,a "joiner" and sound follower vs.(Self-sufficiency) resourceful, prefers owndecisions.

Q3. (Low self-sentiment integration) uncontrolled,lax, follows own urges, careless of socialrules vs.(High strength of self-sentiment) controlledexacting will power, socially precise, com-pulsive, following self-image.

49

Q4. (Low ergic tension) relaxed, tranquil, torpid,unfrustrated, composed vs.(high ergic tension) tense, driven, over-wrought, fretful.

Cattell and Cattell (3, pp. 9-10) reported dependability

coefficients for each personality factor for administration

of both single-form and two-form scales with either immediate

retest or retest after one day. The ranges for administra-

tion of one form only with immediate retest were from .74 for

G to .91 for Q4 ; for administration of two forms the ranges

were from .86 for J to .95 for Q4. When the retest occurred

after one day, the dependability coefficients ranged from

.72 for G to .85 for A for one form and from .83 for 0 to

.93 for I when two forms were administered. Stability co-

efficients were reported under the same conditions. With

six-month intervals, the stability coefficients for one

form ranged from .53 for F to .69 for H and from .68 for

both factors F and 0 to .79 for D when two forms were ad-

ministered. When there was a one-year interval, the sta-

bility coefficients ranged from .38 for B to .69 for I for

one form and from .50 for B to .80 for I for two forms.

Homogeneity coefficients (the average extent to which

items correlate with one another) ranged from .20 for one

form and .31 for two forms on factor J to .43 for one form

and .50 for two forms for factor I (3, p. 10). Equivalence

coefficients (the correlation between forms A and B), when

corrected to two-form length, ranged from .43 for factor J

50

to .63 for factor B, and A with B from .27 for factor J to

.50 for factor H (3, pp. 10-11). Cattell listed validities

in many forms. He reported direct validities on the basis

of multiple correlation and from equivalences. He reported

circumstantial or indirect factor scale validities, and

validities when computer synthesis is used for forms A and

B. Jackson (11, p. 210) criticized Cattell's validity cal-

culations as "inappropriate statistical procedures."

Despite its statistical shortcomings, the HSPQ was

chosen for this study because of some of its attributes,

which are as follows:

1. It was designed to require only the normal reading

vocabulary of an average child of eleven, and could

be completed within a 45-minute class period, with

group administration.

2. It covers a range of personality characteristics.

It is not offensive to parents or school adminis-

trators.

3. It is related to the 16 PF, Cattell's earlier in-

strument, which was used for similar research

projects involving personality characteristics

and physical fitness. Some of these studies were

made by Ismail and Trachtman (10), Breen (1), and

Betz (1) with adult males; by Heusner and Cureton

(1) with British and American Olympic athletes;

by Werner and Gottheil (23) with West Point

51

cadets; and by both Tillman (21) and Wilson (24)

with junior and senior high school boys.

4. It was recommended for "purely research applica-

tions" (11, p. 98).

Personal Concept Scale

The Personal Concept Scale (PGS) was developed by

Schieffer and Koeppen and reported in an unpublished manu-

script in 1970 (17). It was designed to measure a person's

perception of himself and of his ideal self. It uses the

semantic differential technique originated by Osgood (13).

Schieffer reported a change in self concept and ideal

self concept to be significant at the .001 level on the

Personal Concept Scale (16). This instrument was used to

measure the difference between one's self concept and one's

ideal self concept, and the degree of change that occurs.

The test-retest reliability coefficient was .79 for the

original scale over a two-week period, involving ninety-

four undergraduate psychology students at North Texas State

University. For the final revision, thirty-six rehabilita-

tion subjects participated, establishing a test-retest re-

liability coefficient of .70 (17).

Truax, Schuldt, and Wargo (22) found a positive relation-

ship between increases in self-ideal self congruence and

positive therapeutic outcome, and a negative relationship

between self-ideal self concept congruence and measures of

anxiety or maladjustment.

52

It was considered that the Personal Concept Scale, which

measures the congruency between self concept and ideal self

concept, may detect finer discriminations in self rating

than the more structured HSPQ.

The Twelve-Minute Run/Walk Test

The Twelve-Minute Run/Walk Test (12-minute run/walk)

was devised by Cooper (4) as a measure of aerobic capacity.

The ability to run 1.5 miles in twelve minutes for

persons under thirty was the norm established for "good"

physical condition. The 1.5 miles covered in twelve min-

utes was found to be equivalent to the consumption of 42.1

ml's of oxygen per minute (4, p. 36).

Thornton (20) found that the ability to run 1.25 miles

in twelve minutes is considered "good" for fifteen-and

sixteen-year old girls. Friedman (7) set 1.2 miles as the

goal for "good" condition for junior and senior high school

girls to run in twelve minutes. Final norms have not been

established, and the results of this study will be offered

for research on junior high school girls.

Thornton (20) did not find the high correlation for

teen-age girls between distance run in twelve minutes and

oxygen consumption that had been found with adults or

young males. His correlations ranged from .53 to .74 with

control and experimental groups. He suggested that less

motivation, less competitive spirit, and the calculations

53

of oxygen consumption on kilogram/body weight rather than

lean mass are different for girls as compared with boys.

The 12-minute run/walk has been accepted by the Texas

Education Agency as an appropriate test for determining

physical fitness for students thirteen years of age or

older (19).

The other fitness test accepted by the Texas Education

Agency is the Texas Physical Fitness-Motor Ability Test (14,

p. 4). This test includes a measure of arm strength, ab-

dominal strength, and athletic or motor skills. These

measures of physical fitness were not selected for this

study because the exercises are anaerobic, or calisthenic.

Thornton (20) criticized the AAHPER test for emphasiz-

ing motor skills and not endurance training, especially

when motor skills are developed at the expense of endur-

ance training. He urged promoting cardio-pulmonary fitness

for youth, not skilled athletes.

Cooper (5) showed that the distance run in twelve

minutes correlated accurately with treadmill measurements

of oxygen consumption and aerobic capacity.

Roskamm and Reindell (15) reported research which

showed that heart rate must increase during treadmill

running to increase oxygen intake. When the heart rate

was increased, there was a significant difference in work-

ing performance. Heart rate was increased by an increase

in the speed of the treadmill running.

54

Cureton (6) found that the mile run had a correlation

of .708 for predicting physical fitness when measured by a

battery of twenty-eight items.

Maksud and Coutts (12) found that the correlation coef-

ficient between aerobic capacity and run/walk performance

was .65, which was statistically significant at the .01 level

for boys eleven through fourteen years of age. The eleven-

and twelve-year-old boys covered a mean distance of 2,308

yards, and the thirteen-and fourteen-year-old boys ran a

mean distance of 2,507 yards.

Friedman and others (8) tested 1,215 male senior high

school students in the ninth through twelfth grades with

the 12-minute run/walk test at the beginning and end of an

eighteen-week semester. Of the 778 students in the experi-

mental group who participated in the aerobics conditioning

program, almost half achieved the 1.5 miles in the posttest,

showing a 17.5 per cent gain. This gain was statistically

significant at the .005 level of confidence.

Friedman (8, pp. 17-20) extended the program for sixth-,

seventh-, and eighth-grade boys in 1972-73, and for girls

in the middle schools during this same period. Friedman (7)

reported changes were found in ten to eleven weeks, and ex-

pressed the belief that a program of aerobics training would

show a difference in a shorter time period than the eleven

weeks of actual training in his research.

55

Procedures for Collecting Data

The students were divided into teams, with partners,

to take the twelve-minute run/walk test during their phys-

ical education period. They ran on a hockey field, with

markings at ten-yard intervals. The partner recorded on

a card the number of lengths and additional yards her run-

ning mate ran. The tests were given Monday, September 10,

and Friday, November 30, 1973. Students who were absent

on these days were tested when they returned to school.

The girls also ran for twelve minutes and recorded their

distances in October and November so that each student

could know her progress. These intermediary recordings

were not included in this study.

During the week following the twelve-minute run/walk

test, the Cattell Jr.-Sr. H School Personality Question-

naire was administered one day, and the Personal Concept

Scale was administered another day, during the physical

education period. The tests were scored, and those adminis-

tered in September were designated as the pretest data, and

those administered in November were designated as the post-

test data.

Procedures for Treatment of Data

The data obtained from the test administrations were

compiled, and the twenty students who ran the farthest dis-

tance in the Treatment Group (upper one-third of the scores)

56

and the twenty students who ran the farthest distance in the

Comparison Group (upper one-third of the scores) in twelve

minutes were designated the "high-fitness" students. The

twenty girls who ran the least distance in the Treatment

Group (lower one-third of the scores) and the twenty girls

who ran the least distance in the Comparison Group (lower

one-third of the scores) in twelve minutes were designated

the "low-fitness" students.

The Jr.-Sr. High School Personaliy Questionnaire and

the Personal Concept Scale were scored, and these data were

used to test the hypotheses. Hypotheses I and IV were tested

by means of the analysis of variance. Hypotheses II, III, V,

VI, and VII were tested by means of the analysis of covari-

ance. The .05 level was set to test the hypotheses.

The frequency of infirmary visits, of absences, and of

representation on the Student Council in relationship to

membership in the Treatment or Comparison Group and to high-

or low-"fitness" was tested by means of the chi-square tech-

nique. A significance level of .05 was required for accept-

ance of the hypothesis of independence.

Summary

This study was conducted at the Middle School of an

independent (private) girls school in Dallas, Texas. From

a total of 118 students in the seventh and eighth grades,

114 participated in this research. They were divided at

57

random, with 58 students in the Treatment Group and 56 stu-

dents in the Comparison Group. All the students participated

in the twelve minute run/walk and took the J r.-SrHigh

School Personaliy Questionnaire and Personal Concept Scale

in both pretest and posttest settings at the beginning and

conclusion of the fall semester, 1973. The students in the

Treatment Group ran a specified number of yards, and the

students in the Comparison Group participated in calisthenics

exercises at the beginning of each physical education period

for eleven weeks. Personality characteristics and self con-

cept were described at the beginning and conclusion of the

fall semester for each group.

Procedures for collecting and treating the data have been

described. Analysis of variance and analysis of covariance

were used to test the hypotheses. The technique of chi-

square was utilized to test the independence of the groups

for observed and expected frequencies.

CHAPTER BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Cattell, Raymond B., "Some Psychological Correlates ofPhysical Fitness and Physique," Exercise and Fitness,Urbana, Illinois, University of Illinois, 1959, 138-151.

2. Cattell, Raymond B., K. Barton, and T. E. Dielman,"Prediction of School Achievement from Motivation,Personality, and Ability Measures," PsychologicalReports, 30 (1972), 35-43.

3. Cattell, Raymond B. and Mary D. L. Cattell, Handbookfor the Jr.-Sr. High School Personality Question-naire,"HSPQ " Champaign, Illinois, Institute forPersonality and Ability Testing, 1969.

4. Cooper, Kenneth H., Aerobics, New York, Bantam Book,M. Evans and Co., 1968.

5 , "A Means of Assessing MaximalOxygen Intake--Correlation Between Field and Tread-mill Testing," Journal of the American MedicalAssociation, 203(1968),~201.

6. Cureton, T. K. and others, Endurance of Youn Men,Washington, D.C., National Research~Council,~Societyfor Research in Child Development, 1945.

7. Friedman, Art, Fort Worth Independent Schools, personalconversation, Fort Worth, Texas, March 23, 1973.

8. Friedman, Art and others, "An Aerobics ConditioningProgram for the Fort Worth, Texas School District,"Dallas, Texas, The Institute for Aerobics Research,1972.

9. Hogan, Robert, "Jr.-Sr. High School Personality Ques-tionnaire," The Seventh Mental Measurements Yearbook,Vol. I, edit d'by 0. K. Buros, Highland Park, NewJersey, The Gryphon Press, 1972, 97-98.

10. Ismail, A. H. and L. E. Trachtman, "Jogging the Imag-ination," Psychology Today, 6 (1973), 78-82.

58

59

11. Jackson, Douglas N., "Jr.-Sr. High School PersonalityQuestionnaire," The Seventh Mental MeasurementsYearbook, Vol. I, edited by 0. K. Buros, HighlandPark, New Jersey, The Gryphon Press, 1972, 97-98.

12. Maksud, Michael G. and Kenneth D. Coutts, "Applicationof the Cooper Twelve-Minute Run-Walk Test to YoungMales," Research Quarterly, 42 (1971), 54-59.

13. Osgood, C. E., G. J. Suci, and P. H. Tannenbaum, TheMeasurement of Meaning, Urbana, Illinois, Universityof Illinois Press, 1967.

14. President's Council on Physical Fitness, AAHPER YouthFitness Test Manual, Washington, D.C., NationalEducation Agency Publication, 1967. [Supplementedby The Governor's Commission on Physical Fitness,Austin, Texas, n.d.]

15. Roskamm, H. and H. Reindell, "Optimum Patterns ofExercise for Healthy Adults," Medicine and Sport,Vol. 4: Physical Activity and_ Aing, 1~ T 19-27.

16. Schieffer, Larry, "A Correlational Analysis of ClientChange in Sheltered Workshops with Selected Char-acteristics of the Client, Vocational RehabilitationCounselor and Workshop Supervisor," unpublished doc-toral dissertation, North Texas State University,Denton, Texas, 1970.

17. Schieffer, Larry and Arlene Koeppen, "Personal Con-cept Scale," unpublished manuscript, North TexasState University, Denton, Texas, 1970.

18. Texas Education Agency, Physical Education in theElementary Schools: Guidelines for Grades 1-6Bulletin685, Austin, Texas, Texas~EducationiAgency, 1969.

19. Texas Education Agency, Suggestions for Planning theSecondary School Physical Education Program, Bul-letin 685, Austin, Texas, Texas Education Agency,1963.

20. Thornton, Melvin L., "A Critical Look at PhysicalEducation," Texas Medicine, 69 (1973), 53-58.

21. Tillman, K., "Relationship Between Physical Fitnessand Selected Personality Traits," Research Quar-terly, 36 (1965), 483-489.

60

22. Truax, Charles B., W. John Schuldt, and Donald G. Wargo,"Self-Ideal Concept Congruence and Improvement inGroup Psychotherapy," Journal of Consulting andClinical Psychology, 32 (1968)747-53.

23. Werner, Alfred C. and Edward Gottheil, "PersonalityDevelopment and Participation in College Athletics,"Research Quarterly, 37 (1965), 126-131.

24. Wilson, P. I., "Relationship Between Motor Achievementand Selected Personality Factors of Junior andSenior High School Boys," Research Quarterly, 40(1969), 841-844.

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION OF THE DATA

The purpose of this chapter is to present and analyze

the statistical findings of this study. The data were

analyzed by the analysis of variance, the analysis of

covariance, and the chi-square technique. A significance

level of .05 was required for acceptance of the hypotheses.

Analysis of Data

In Hypothesis I, it was predicted that the personality

profiles of the "low-fitness" students would be significantly

different from the personality profiles of the "high-fitness"

students on selected factors measured by the Cattell Jr.-Sr.

High School Personality Questionnaire for (a) the Treatment

Group and (b) the Comparison Group at the beginning of the

study.

The technique used to test this hypothesis for accept-

ance or rejection was analysis of variance, using pretest

means for the two groups. The pretest mean scores that

were used to test this hypothesis for the "low-fitness"

and the "high-fitness" students of the Treatment and Com-

parison Groups for each factor on the Jr.-Sr. High School

Personality Questionnaire are presented in Table I.

61

62

TABLE I

PRETEST MEAN SCORES FOR TWENTY "LOW-FITNESS" AND TWENTY"HIGH-FITNESS" STUDENTS IN TREATMENT ANDCOMPARISON GROUPS ON THE JR.-SR. HSPQ

Factor Fitness Treatment Group Comparison GroupRating Pretest Mean Pretest Mean

Low 11.90000 12.55000A

High 12.20000 12.10000

Low 7.75000 7.40000B

High 7.60000 7.50000

Low 10.10000 9.25000C

High 11.30000 10.35000

Low 10.00000 9.85000D

High 8.05000 9.30000

Low 7.70000 8.85000E

High 7.95000 8.45000

Low 8.80000 9.95000F

High 10.25000 11.50000

Low 12.50000 12.55000G

High 13.20000 12.30000

Low 10.15000 10.75000H

High 12.50000 10.80000

Low 14.30000 12.20000I

H___ Hih 11 .70000 12.45000

3Low

High

6. 15000

6.25000

7.65000

7.70000

63

TABLE I--Continued

Factor Fitness Treatment Group Comparison GroupRating Pretest Mean Pretest Mean

0 Low 7.80000 7.75000

High 7.10000 7.00000

Low 8.15000 7.85000

High 8.10000 7.75000

Low 11.60000 10.75000

High 12.35000 11.20000

Low 10.25000 11.05000

High 8.30000 9.35000

The additional data used to test Hypothesis Ia with re-

spect to the Treatment Group are presented in Table II.

These data include the sum of squares, degrees of freedom,

variance estimate, F-ratio, and level of significance.

Comparable data used to test Hypothesis Ib with respect

to the Comparison Group are presented in Table III.

Each of the fourteen factors on the Cattell Jr.-Sr.

High School Personality Questionnaire--A, B, C, D, E, F,

G, H, I, J, 0, Q2 , Q3, and Q4 --is considered separately.

Four factor means were found to be significantly different

for the Treatment Group. These were the mean score factors

D, H, I, and Q4 .

64

TABLE II

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE DATA FOR PRETEST MEAN SCORES FORTWENTY "LOW-FITNESS" AND TWENTY "HIGH-FITNESS"

STUDENTS IN THE TREATMENT GROUP ONTHE JR.-SR. HSPQ

Factor Source of Sum of DF Variance F-PVariance Squares Estimate Ratio

Between 0.9000 1 0.90000.0991 0.7546

A Within 345.0000 38 9.0789

Total 345.9000 39

Between 0.2250 1 0.22500.0886 0.7676

B Within 96.5500 38 2.5408

Total 96.7750 39

Between 14.4000 1 14.40001.3959 0.2447

C Within 392.0000 38 10.3158

Total 406.4000 39

Between 38.0250 1 38.02504.3926* 0.0428

D Within 328.9500 38 8.6566

Total 366.9750 39

Between 0.6250 1 0.62500.0827 0.7752

E Within 287.1500 38 7.5566

Total 287.7750 39

Between 21.0250 1 21.02501.2743 0.2660

F Within 626.9500 38 16.4987

Total 647.9750 39

Between

Within

Total

4.9000

436.2000

441.1000

1

38

39

4.9000

11.47890.4269 0.5175

G

65

TABLE II--Continued

Factor Source of Sum of DF Variance F-Variance Squares Estimate Ratio

Between 55.2250 1 55.22508.2119* 0.0067

H Within 255.5500 38 6.7250

Total 310.7750 39

Between 67.6000 1 67.60004.6503* 0.0374

I Within 552.4000 38 14.5368

Total 620.0000 39

Between 0.1000 1 0.10000.90143 0.9055

J Within 266.3000 38 7.0079

Total 266.4000 39

Between 4.9000 1 4.90000.4261 0.5178

0 Within 437.0000 38 11.5000

Total 441.9000 39

Between 0.0250 1 0.02500.00O17 0.9673

Q2 Within 558.3500 38 14.6934

Total 558.3750 39

Between 5.6250 1 5.62500.4100 0.5258

Q3 Within 521.3500 38 13.7197

Total 526.9750 39

Between

Within

Total

38.0250

275.9500

313.9750

1

38

39

38.0250

7.26185.2363*

-- _ _ _ 1_1. -- J-_ _ _ _ _

*Significant at the .05 level.

0.0278Q4

66

Inspection of Table II indicates that the F-ratio

reached the required level of significance on four factors--

D, H, I, and Q4 on the Jr.-Sr. High School Personality Ques-

tionnaire for the Treatment Group.

The "low-fitness" students had a significantly higher

mean score than the "high-fitness" students in the Treat-

ment Group on Factor D at the beginning of the study. This

finding indicates tendencies for the "low-fitness" students

to be excitable, impatient, demanding, and overactive, and

for the "high-fitness" students to be undemonstrative, de-

liberate, inactive, and stodgy.

The "low-fitness" students had a significantly lower

mean score than the "high-fitness" students in the Treat-

ment Group on Factor H at the beginning of the study. This

result indicates tendencies for the "low-fitness" students

to be shy, timid, and threat-sensitive, and for the "high-

fitness" students to be adventurous, "thick-skinned," and

socially bold.

The "low-fitness" students made a significantly higher

mean score than the "high-fitness" students in the Treat-

ment Group on Factor I at the beginning of the study. This

finding indicates tendencies for the "low-fitness" students

to be tender-minded, sensitive, clinging, and overprotected,

and for the "high-fitness" students to be tough-minded and

to reject illusions.

67

The "low-fitness" students made a significantly higher

mean score than the "high-fitness" students in the Treat-

ment Group on Factor Q4 at the beginning of the study. This

result indicates tendencies for the "low-fitness" students

to be tense, driven, overwrought, and fretful, and for the

"high-fitness" students to be relaxed, tranquil, torpid,

unfrustrated, and composed.

Although the scores of the "low-fitness" students are

significantly different from the scores of the "high-fitness"

students on the four factors of D, H, I, and Q4 of the Jr.-

Sr. High School Personality Questionnaire, the scores are

not significantly different on the remaining ten factors.

Hypothesis Ia, which predicted that the personality profiles

of the "low-fitness" students would be significantly differ-

ent from the personality profiles of the "high-fitness" stu-

dents at the beginning of the study, is therefore rejected.

In Hypothesis Ib, it was predicted that the personality

profiles of the "low-fitness" students would be significantly

different from the personality profiles of the "high-fitness"

students on selected factors measured by the Jr.-Sr. High

School Personality Questionnaire for the Comparison Group

at the beginning of the study.

The data for the sum of squares, degrees of freedom,

variance estimate, F-ratio, and level of significance used

to test this hypothesis are presented in Table III for the

Comparison Group.

68

TABLE III

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE DATA FOR PRETEST MEAN SCORES FOR TWENTY"LOW-FITNESS" AND TWENTY "HIGH-FITNESS" STUDENTS IN

THE COMPARISON GROUP ON THE JR.-SR. HSPQ

Factor Source of Sum of DF Variance F- PVariance Squares Estimate Ratio

Between 2.0250 1 2.02500.2206 0.6412

A Within 348.7500 38 9.1776

Total 350.7750 39

Between 0.1000 1 0.10000.0366 0.8493

B Within 103.8000 38 2.7316

Total 103.9000 39

Between 12.1000 1 12.10000.7978 0.3774

C Within 576.3000 38 15.1658

Total 588.4000 39

Between 3.0250 1 3.02500.2694 0.6068

D Within 426.7500 38 11.2303

Total 429.7750 39

Between 1.6000 1 1.60000.1879 0.6671

E Within 323.5000 38 8.5132

Total 325.1000 39

Between 24.0250 1 24.02501.8261 0.1846

F Within 499.9500 38 13.1566

Total 523.9750 39

Between

Within

Total

0.6250

339.1500

339.7750

1

38

39

0.6250

8. 92500.0700 0.7927

G

69

TABLE III--Continued

Factor Source of Sum of DF Variance F- pVariance Squares Estimate Ratio

Between 0.0250 1 0.02500.0017 0.9676

H Within 568.9500 38 14.9724

Total 568.9750 39

Between 0.6250 1 0.62500.0381 0.8464

I Within 624.1500 38 16.4250

Total 624.7750 39

Between 0.0250 1 0.02500.0028 0.9579

J Within 336.7500 38 8.8618

Total 336.7750 39

Between 5.6250 1 5.62500.3990 0.5314

0 Within 535.7500 38 14.0987

Total 541.3750 39

Between 0.1000 1 0.10000.0083 0.9278

Q2 Within 456.3000 38 12.0079

Total 456.4000 39

Between 2.0250 1 2.02500.2168 0.6442

Q3 Within 354.9500 38 9.3408

Total 356.9750 39

Between 28.9000 1 28.90001.8566 0.1810

Q Within 591.5000 38 15.5658

Total 620.4000 39

70

Inspection of Table III indicates that none of the F-

ratios reached the required level of significance. There-

fore, Hypothesis Ib is rejected with respect to the Com-

parison Group. The analysis indicates that there was not

a significant difference between the personality profiles

of the "low-fitness" students and the personality profiles

of the "high-fitness" students on the factors measured by

the Cattell Jr.-Sr. High School Personality Questionnaire,

for the Comparison Group, at the beginning of the study.

In Hypothesis II, it was predicted that the personality

profiles of the "low-fitness" students would not differ sig-

nificantly from the personality profiles of the "high-fitness"

students on the factors measured by the Cattell Jr.-Sr. High

School Personality Questionnaire, for the Treatment Group,

at the conclusion of the study. The pretest, posttest, and

adjusted mean scores used to test this hypothesis are pre-

sented in Table IV.

TABLE IV

PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND ADJUSTED MEAN SCORES OF TWENTY"LOW-FITNESS" AND TWENTY "HIGH-FITNESS" STUDENTS IN

THE TREATMENT GROUP ON THE JR.-SR. HSPQ

Factor Fitness Pretest Posttest Adjusted___ Rating Mean Mean Mean

Low 11.9000 12.4000 12.4772A

High 12.2000 13.0500 12.9728

Low 7.7500 7.3500 7.2992B

High 7.6000 7.7000 7.7508

71

TABLE IV--Continued

Factor Fitness Pretest Posttest AdjustedRating Mean Mean Mean

Low 10.1000 10.8000 11.1543C

High 11.3000 11.1500 10.7957

Low 10.0000 9.3500 8.7243D

High 8.0500 8.9000 9.5257

Low 7.7000 8.7500 8.8123E

High 7.9500 7.6500 7.5877

Low 8.8000 9.9500 10.5687F

High 10.2500 11.7500 11.1313

Low 12.5000 12.5000 12.2088G

High 13.2000 12.4500 12.2412

Low 10.1500 10.9000 11.6692H

High 12.5000 12.1000 11.3308

Low 14.3000 12.9500 11.7653I

High 11.7000 9.8500 11.0347

Low 6.1500 7.2000 7.2194J

High 6.2500 6.6000 6.5806

Low 7.8000 8.9500 8.76750

High 7.1000 7.4500 7.6325

Low 8.1500 6.9000 6.8870Q2

High 8.1000 8.2000 8.2130

Q3Low

High

11.6000

12.3500

10.9000

11 .4500

1

1

1.0957

1.2543

72

TABLE IV--Continued

Factor Fitness Pretest Posttest AdjustedRating Mean Mean Mean

Low 10.2500 10.3500 9.9764

Q4__ High 8.3000 9.2500 9.6236

The data for the sum of squares, mean square, degrees

of freedom, F-ratio, and level of significance used to test

Hypothesis II are presented in Table V. The technique used

to test Hypothesis II for acceptance or rejection was the

analysis of covariance, using the pretest mean scores as the

covariates and the posttest mean scores as the criteria.

TABLE V

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE DATA FOR MEAN SCORES FORTHE TREATMENT GROUP ON THE JR.-SR. HSPQ

Factor Source of Sum of Mean F-Variance Squares Square DF Ratio

Between 2.4494 2.4494 10.4971 0.4852

A Within 182.3246 4.9277 37

Total 184.7741 38

Between 2.0340 2.0340 10.9120 0.3458

B Within 82.5178 2.2302 37

Total 84.5518 38

Between

Within

Total

1.2409

223.0351

224.2760

1.2409

6.0280

1

37

38

0.2059 0.6527C

73

TABLE V--Continued

Factor Source of Sum of Mean F-Variance Squares Square DF Ratio

Between 5.7568 5.7568 10.7373 0.3960

D Within 288.8789 7.8075 37

Total 294.6357 38

Between 14.9645 14.9645 12.1890 0.1475

E Within 252.9369 6.8361 37

Total 267.9014 38

Between 3.0618 3.0618 10.3653 0.5492

F Within 310.0791 8.3805 37

Total 313.1409 38

Between 0.0104 0.0104 10.0020 0,,9647

G Within 193.7367 5.2361 37

Total 293.7471 38

Between 0.9419 0.9419 10.1193 0,7317

H Within 292.0742 7.8939 37

Total 293.0161 38

Between 4.7561 4.7561 10.4746 0.4951

I Within 370.7537 10.0204 37

Total 375.5098 38

Between

Wi thin

Total

4.0795

203.8515

207.9309

4.0795

5.5095

1

37

38

0.7404 0.3950J

74

TABLE V--Continued

Factor Source of Sum of Mean DF F-Variance Squares Square D Ratio

Between 12.7381 12.7381 1

0 Within 243.0478 6.5689 37

Total 255.7859 38

Between 17.5808 17.5808 12.5362 0.1198

Q2 Within 256.4814 6.9319 37

._.. _ Total 274.0623 38

Between 0.2488 0.2488 10.0328 0.8573

Q3 Within 280.7893 7.5889 37

Total 281.0381 38

Between 1.0935 1.0935 1

Q Within 349.7742 9.4534 37

Total 350.8677 38

Inspection of Table V

ratios reached the required

of the factors measured by

Personality Questionnaire.

indicates that none of the F-

level of significance on any

the Cattell Jr.-Sr. High School

Therefore, Hypothesis II, pre-

dicting no difference, is accepted. The analysis indicates

that the personality profiles of the "low-fitness" students

did not differ significantly from the personality profiles

of the "high-fitness" students on the factors measured by

the Cattell dr.-Sr. High School Personality Questionnaire,

for the Treatment Group, at the conclusion of the study.

75

In Hypothesis III, it was predicted that the person-

ality profiles of the "low-fitness" students would differ

significantly from the personality profiles of the "high-

fitness" students on the factors measured by the Cattell

Jr.-Sr. High School Personality Questionnaire, for the

Comparison Group, at the conclusion of the study. The

technique used to test this hypothesis for acceptance or

rejection was analysis of covariance, using pretest mean

scores as covariates and posttest mean scores as criteria.

The pretest, posttest, and adjusted mean scores used to

test this hypothesis are presented in Table VI.

TABLE VI

PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND ADJUSTED MEAN SCORES FOR TWENTY"LOW-FITNESS" AND TWENTY "HIGH-FITNESS" STUDENTS IN

THE COMPARISON GROUP ON THE JR.-SR. HSPQ

Factor Fitness Pretest Posttest AdjustedRating Mean Mean Mean

Low 12.5500 12.4000 12.2345A

High 12.1000 12.0000 12.1655

Low 7.4000 7.7500 7.7755

High 7.5000 7.6000 7.5745

Low 9.2500 10.0000 10.4109

High 10.3500 10.3500 9.9391

Low 9.8500 10.5500 10.3546

High 9.3000 10.2500 10.4454

E Low 8.8500 9.1500 9.0871

High 8.4500 8.7500 8.8129

i

76

TABLE VI--Continued

FactorIFitness Pretest Posttest AdjustedRating Mean Mean Mean

Low 9.9500 10.6500 11.2021F

High 11.5000 11.5500 10.9979

Low 12.5500 12.4500 12.3472G

High 12.3000 12.3500 12.4528

Low 10.7500 10.6500 10.6674H

High 10.8000 10.9000 10.8826

Low 12.2000 11.7500 11.8600

High 12.4500 12.5500 12.4400

Low 7.6500 8.3500 8.3561

High 7.7000 7.5000 7.4939

Low 7.7500 7.3500 7.15630

High 7.0000 8.4000 8.5937

Low 7.8500 7.7000 7.6636Q 2 High 7.7500 8.2500 8.2864

Low 10.7500 10.8000 10.9999Q 3

H i gh 11 .2000 10.1500 9.9501

Low 11.0500 10.0500 9.5042Q 4

H i gh 9.3500 9.4500 9.9958

The data for the sum of squares, mean square,

degrees of freedom, F-ratio, and level of significance used

to test Hypothesis III are presented in Table VII.

77

TABLE VII

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE DATA FOR MEAN SCORES FORTHE COMPARISON GROUP ON THE JR.-SR. HSPQ

Factor Source of Sum of Mean DF F-Variance Squares Square Ratio

Between 0.0471 0.0471 10.0045 0.9468

A Within 386.0012 10.4325 37

Total 386.0483 38

Between 0.4039 0.4039 10.2090 0.6502

B Within 71.4883 1.9321 37

Total 71.8922 38

Between 2.1801 2.1801 10.4316 0.5153

C Within 186.8891 5.0511 37

Total 189.0692 38

Between 0.0817 0.0817 10.0124 0.9119

D Within 243.3516 6.5771 37

Total 243.4333 38

Between 0.7484 0.7484 10.1192 0.7319

E Within 232.3282 6.2791 37

Total 233.0766 38

Between 0.3979 0.3979 10.0515 0.8217

F Within 285.7888 7.7240 37

Total 286.1868 38

Between

Within

Total

0.1114

242.0643

242.1757

0.1114

6.5423

1

37

38

0.0170 0.8969G

78

TABLE VII--Continued

Factor Source of Sum of Mean DF F- PVariance Squares Square Ratio

Between 0.4631 0.4631 10.0459 0.8314

H Within 372.9353 10.0793 37

Total 373.3984 38

Between 3.3613 3.3613 10.3772 0.5429

I Within 329.7139 8.9112 37

Total 333.0752 38

Between 7.4341 7.4341 10.7965 0.3779

3 Within 345.3628 9.3341 37

Total 352.7969 38

Between 20.4473 20.4473 11.3452 0.2535

0 Within 562.3904 15.1997 37

Total 582.8376 38

Between 3.8784 3.8784 10.3700 0.5467

Q2 Within 387.8799 10.4832 37

Total 391.7583 38

Between 10.9594 10.9594 11.7367 0.1957

Q3 Within 233.4934 6.3106 37

Total 244.4528 38

Between 2.3037 2.3037 10.2841 0.5972

Q4 Within 300.0317 8.1090 37

Total 302.3354 38

Inspection of Table VII indicates that none of the F-

ratios reached the required level of significance. Therefore,

79

Hypothesis III is rejected. The analysis indicates that the

personality profiles of the "low-fitness" students did not

differ significantly from the personality profiles of the

"high-fitness" students in the Comparison Group on the

factors measured by the Jr.-Sr. High School Personality

Questionnaire at the conclusion of the study.

In Hypothesis IV, it was predicted that the Personal

Concept Scale discrepancy scores (difference between self

concept and ideal self concept) made by the "low-fitness"

students would differ significantly from the discrepancy

scores made by the "high-fitness" students for (a) the

Treatment Group and (b) the Comparison Group at the begin-

ning of the study. The pretest mean scores used to test

this hypothesis are presented in Table VIII.

TABLE VIII

PRETEST MEAN SCORES FOR TWENTY "LOW-FITNESS" AND TWENTY"HIGH-FITNESS" STUDENTS IN TREATMENT AND COMPARISON

GROUPS ON THE PERSONAL CONCEPT SCALE

Fitness Pretest Mean Pretest MeanRating Treatment Group Comparison Group

Low 24.85000 23.00000

High 18.70000 23.35000

The data for the sum of squares, mean square, degrees

of freedom, F-ratio, and level of significance used to

test Hypothesis IVa for the Treatment Group are presented

in Table IX.

80

TABLE IX

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE DATA FOR MEAN PRETEST SCORES FORTWENTY "LOW-FITNESS" AND TWENTY "HIGH-FITNESS"

STUDENTS IN THE TREATMENT GROUP ON THEPERSONAL CONCEPT SCALE

Source of Sum of DF Variance F- PVariance Squares Estimate Ratio

Between 378.2250 1 378.22503.2321 0.0802

Within 4446.7500 38 117.0197

Total 4824.9750 39

Inspection of Table IX indicates that the F-ratio did

not reach the required level of significance. Therefore,

Hypothesis IVa is rejected for the Treatment Group. The

F-ratio approached the level of significance, however, and

might indicate the possibility of a difference between the

discrepancy scores of the "low-fitness" students and the

"high-fitness" students in the Treatment Group on the Per-

sonal Concept Scale at the beginning of the study.

The data for the sum of squares, mean square, degrees

of freedom, F-ratio, and level of significance to test

Hypothesis IVb for the Comparison Group are presented in

Table X.

81

TABLE X

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE DATA FOR MEAN PRETEST SCORES FORTWENTY "LOW-FITNESS" AND TWENTY "HIGH-FITNESS"

STUDENTS IN THE COMPARISON GROUP ON THEPERSONAL CONCEPT SCALE

Source of Sum of DF Variance F- PVariance Squares Estimate Ratio

Between 1.2250 1 1.22500.0112 0.9161

Within 4138.5500 38 108.9092

Total 4139.7750 39

Inspection of Table X indicates that the F-ratio did

not reach the required level of significance. Therefore,

Hypothesis IVb is rejected for the Comparison Group. The

analysis indicates that the Personal Concept Scale discrep-

ancy scores made by the "low-fitness" students did not

differ significantly from the scores made by the "high-

fitness" students in the Comparison Group at the beginning

of the study.

In Hypothesis V it was predicted that the Personal

Concept Scale discrepancy scores (difference between self

concept and ideal self concept) made by the "low-fitness"

students would not differ significantly from the scores

made by the "high-fitness" students in the Treatment Group

at the conclusion of the study. The pretest, posttest, and

adjusted mean scores used to test this hypothesis are pre-

sented in Table XI.

82

TABLE XI

PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND ADJUSTED MEAN SCORES FOR TWENTY"LOW-FITNESS" AND TWENTY "HIGH-FITNESS" STUDENTS INTHE TREATMENT GROUP ON THE PERSONAL CONCEPT SCALE

Fitness Pretest Posttest AdjustedRating Mean Mean Mean

Low 24.8500 25.9000 24.4537

High 18.7000 19.3000 20.7463

The data for the sum of squares, mean square, degrees

of freedom, F-ratio, and level of significance used to test

Hypothesis V are presented in Table XII.

TABLE XII

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE DATA FOR MEAN SCORES FOR THETREATMENT GROUP ON THE PERSONAL CONCEPT SCALE

Source of Sum of Mean F-Variance Squares Square DF Ratio

Between 126.6729 126.6729 11.6821 0.2027

Within 2786.2766 75.3048 37

Total 2912.9495 38

Inspection of Table XII indicates that the F-ratio did

not reach the required level of significance. Therefore,

Hypothesis V is accepted. The analysis indicates that the

Personal Concept Scale discrepancy scores of the "low-

fitness" students did not differ significantly from the

discrepancy scores of the "high-fitness" students in the

Treatment Group at the conclusion of the study.

83

In Hypothesis VI, it was predicted that the Personal

Concept Scale discrepancy scores (difference between self

concept and ideal self concept) made by the "low-fitness"

students would differ significantly from the discrepancy

scores made by the "high-fitness" students in the Compari-

son Group at the conclusion of the study. The pretest,

posttest, and adjusted mean scores used to test this

hypothesis are presented in Table XIII.

TABLE XIII

PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND ADJUSTED MEAN SCORES FOR TWENTY"LOW-FITNESS" AND TWENTY "HIGH-FITNESS" STUDENTS IN

THE COMPARISON GROUP ON THE PERSONAL CONCEPT SCALE

Fitness Pretest Posttest AdjustedRating Mean Mean Mean

Low 23.0000 21.5500 21.6882

High 23.3500 23.4500 23.3117

The data for the sum of squares, mean square, degrees

of freedom, F-ratio, and level of significance used to test

Hypothesis VI are presented in Table XIV. The analysis of

covariance technique was used to test this hypothesis for

acceptance or rejection, using the pretest mean scores as

covariates and the posttest mean scores as criteria.

84

TABLE XIV

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE DATA FOR MEAN SCORES FOR THECOMPARISON GROUP ON THE PERSONAL CONCEPT SCALE

Source of Sum of Mean F-Variance Squares Square DF Rat io

Between 26.3489 26.3489 10.4348 0.5137

Within 2242.4060 60.6056 37

Total 2268.7549 38

Inspection of Table XIV indicates that the F-ratio did

not reach the required level of significance. Therefore,

Hypothesis VI is rejected. The analysis indicates that the

discrepancy scores for the "low-fitness" students were not

significantly different from the discrepancy scores made

by the "high-fitness" students in the Comparison Group

on the Personal Co Scale at the conclusion of the

study.

In Hypothesis VII, it was predicted that the distance-

run scores of the Treatment Group would differ signifi-

cantly from the distance-run scores of the Comparison

Group at the conclusion of the study. The pretest, post-

test, and adjusted mean scores used to test Hypothesis VII

are presented in Table XV.

85

TABLE XV

PRETEST, POSTTEST, AND ADJUSTED MEAN SCORES FORDISTANCE RUN IN YARDS IN TWELVE MINUTES

Group N Pretest Posttest AdjustedMean Mean Mean

Treatment 58 1804.5437 2095.3157 2063.3550

Comparison 56 1681.3333 1959.9824 1991 .9429

The data for the sum of squares, mean square, degrees

of freedom, F-ratio, and level of significance used to test

Hypothesis VII are presented in Table XVI.

TABLE XVI

ANALYSIS OF COVARIANCE DATA FOR DISTANCE RUNIN YARDS IN TWELVE MINUTES

Source of Sum of Mean F-Variance Squares Square DF Ratio

Between 139287.0000 139287.0000 12.7107 0.1025

Within 5703724.0000 51384.8984 111

Total 5843011.0000 112

Inspection of Table XVI indicates that the F-ratio did

not reach the required level of significance, and therefore

Hypothesis VII is rejected. Both the Treatment and the

Comparison Groups made sizable gains with respect to dis-

tance run. The mean distance gained for the Treatment

Group was 290.7720 yards, and 278.6491 yards for the Com-

parison Group, but this difference was not significant.

86

While hypotheses were formed only for the data generated

by the scores from the Cattell Jr.-Sr. High School Personal-

ity Questionnaire, the Personal Concept Scale, and the dis-

tance run, information was also gained in three areas of

school participation. These three areas were the number

of times a student checked into the infirmary, the number

of days absent, and representation on the Student Council.

These data were treated statistically by means of the chi-

square test of independence technique.

The number of times the students of the two groups went

to the infirmary and the chance expectancies are presented

in Table XVII. The total number who went to the infirmary

was 95.

TABLE XVII

CHI-SQUARE TEST DATA FOR INFIRMARY VISIT FREQUENCYFOR THE TREATMENT AND COMPARISON GROUPS

Treatment Comparison Total Chi-Group Group f Square

Observed f 38.0 57.0 953.421Expected f 47.5 47.5 95

With one degree of freedom at the required .05 level

of significance, the chi-square value of 3.421 approaches

the tabled value of 3.841 but does not reach it. The hy-

pothesis of independence is therefore rejected. The sta-

tistical test indicates that no significant relationship

87

between the Treatment Group and the Comparison Group and the

number of visits to the infirmary was found, although there

is an indication that fewer members of the Treatment Group

checked into the infirmary than members of the Comparison

Group.

The number of times the students were absent and the

expected chance frequencies are presented in Table XVIII.

Out of a total of 157 absences, 91 were in the Treatment

Group, and 66 were in the Comparison Group.

TABLE XVIII

CHI-SQUARE TEST DATA FOR ABSENCE FREQUENCY FORTHE TREATMENT AND COMPARISON GROUPS

Treatment Comparison Total Chi-Group Group f Square

Observed f 91 66 1573.981Expected f 78.5 78.5 157

With one degree of freedom at the required .05 level of

significance, the chi-square value of 3.981 exceeds the tabled

value of 3.841. The hypothesis of independence is therefore

accepted. Thus, the Treatment Group members were absent a

significantly greater number of times than the Comparison

Group members.

Table XVIX shows the number of representatives to the

Student Council in the "high-fitness," "low-fitness," and

remaining students.

88

TABLE XVIX

CHI-SQUARE TEST DATA FOR STUDENT COUNCIL REPRESENTATION FOR"HIGH-FITNESS," "LOW-FITNESS," AND "IN BETWEEN" STUDENTS

"High- "Low- "InFitness" Fitness" Between" Total Chi

___Between' Square

Observed f 7 5 6 18.3333

Expected f 6 6 6 18

Inspection of Table XVIX indicates that with two degrees

of freedom at the required .05 level of significance, the

chi-square value of .3333 did not reach the required level

of significance for the tabled value of 5.991. Therefore,

the hypothesis of independence is rejected. This statis-

tical test indicates that no significant relationship exists

between "fitness" and representation on the Student Council.

Discussion of Data

The first three hypotheses involved factors on the

Cattell Jr.-Sr. High School Personality Questionnaire.

The next three hypotheses involved discrepancy scores on

the Personal Concept Scale. The seventh hypothesis was

related to the distances run by the Treatment and Com-

parison Groups.

Hypothesis I predicted that at the beginning of the

study, the personality profiles of the "low-fitness" stu-

dents would be significantly different from the personality

profiles of the "high-fitness" students on selected factors

89

measured by Cattell's Jr.-Sr. High School Personality Ques-

tionnaire for (a) the Treatment Group and (b) the Comparison

Group. Significant differences were found on only four of

the factors (D, H, I, and Q4) for the Treatment Group, and

no significant differences were found on any of the fourteen

factors for the Comparison Group. Hypothesis Ia was rejected

because there was no significant difference on a majority

(ten) of the factors, and Hypothesis Ib was rejected because

there was no significant difference on any of the factors.

The significant differences on the four factors in the Treat-

ment Group may have indicated a slight difference between the

"low-fitness" and the "high-fitness" students' personality

profiles at the beginning of the study. If such a differ-

ence existed, it would have been related to elements in

existence prior to this study. Since the Treatment and

Comparison Groups were chosen at random, there should have

been similar differences in the Comparison Group, and there

were not. These statistical analyses indicate that basic-

ally there were no significant differences between the

personality profiles of the "low-fitness" and the "high-

fitness" students in the Treatment and Comparison Groups

at the beginning of the study, on the factors measured by

the Jr.-Sr. Hgp.

Hypothesis II stated that at the conclusion of the

study the personality profiles of the "low-fitness" stu-

dents would not be different from the personality profiles

90

of the "high-fitness" students in the Treatment Group, and

Hypothesis III stated that the personality profiles of the

"low-fitness" students would be different from the person-

ality profiles of the "high-fitness" students in the Com-

parison Group, on the factors measured by the Jr.-Sr. HSPQ.

There were no significant differences on these personality

factors in either the Treatment or Comparison Group.

Hypothesis II was therefore accepted, and Hypothesis III

was rejected.

Hypothesis IV predicted that at the beginning of the

study the discrepancy scores for the "low-fitness" students

would differ significantly from the discrepancy scores of

the "high-fitness" students in (a) the Treatment Group and

(b) the Comparison Group on the Personal Concept Scale.

There were no significant differences for either group, and

Hypothesis IV was therefore rejected.

Hypothesis V predicted no difference between the dis-

crepancy scores on the Personal Con Scale for the "low-

fitness" and the "high-fitness" students in the Treatment

Group at the conclusion of the study. Hypothesis VI pre-

dicted a significant difference between the discrepancy

scores on the Personal Concept Scale between the "low-

fitness" and the "high-fitness" students in the Comparison

Group at the conclusion of the study. Since no significant

differences were found between the "low-fitness" and the

"high-fitness" students in either the Treatment or the

91

Comparison Group on the Personal Concept Scale, Hypothesis V

was acceptedand Hypothesis VI was rejected.

Hypothesis VII predicted that the distance-run scores

of the Treatment Group would differ significantly from those

of the Comparison Group at the conclusion of the study. The

Treatment Group mean gain was 290 yards, and the Comparison

Group mean gain was 278 yards. These gains were in the

expected direction, and the difference approached but did

not reach the required level of significance. Hypothesis VII

was therefore rejected.

Other information gained that had not been included in

the hypotheses related to the observed and expected frequen-

cies of (1) infirmary visits for the Treatment Group and

Comparison Group, (2) absences for the Treatment Group and

Comparison Group, and (3) the relationship of Student Council

representation to "fitness." The chi-square technique was

the statistical test applied to these relationships.

Although the Treatment Group members made fewer visits

to the infirmary than the Comparison Group, the difference

did not reach statistical significance. The Treatment Group

members were absent a significantly greater number of days

than the Comparison Group members. There were no statistic-

ally significant differences among the three "fitness" groups

with respect to representation on the Student Council.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Physical fitness is not only one of the most importantkeys to a healthy body; it is the basis of dynamic and crea-tive intellectual activity. The relationship between thesoundness of the body and the activities of the mind issubtle and complex. Much is not yet understood. But wedo know what the Greeks knew: that intelligence and skillcan only function at the peak of their capacity when thebody is healthy and strong; that hardy spirits and toughminds usually inhabit sound bodies.

--John F. Kennedy

This study involved a description of self concept and

selected personality characteristics of seventh-grade and

eighth-grade girls in pretest and posttest settings at the

beginning and at the conclusion of the 1973 fall semester,

and the changes that might occur within these personality

profiles as a result of aerobics conditioning exercises.

A Treatment Group and a Comparison Group were chosen by a

random selection procedure. The Comparison Group partici-

pated in anaerobics, or calisthenics, exercises.

Summary of the Background and Purpose

This study was based on the assumption that healthy

minds and emotions exist within healthy bodies. Claims

have been made that aerobics exercises contribute to im-

proved alertness, productivity, relaxation, self-image,

confidence, and extraversive tendencies and to decreased

feelings of depression, anxiety, and nervous tension.

92

93

Considerable research has pointed toward the relation-

ship of certain personality characteristics to participants

in different sports programs. There has been much less re-

search relative to a change in personality characteristics

as a result of involuntary physical exercise. (Students are

required to take physical education in Texas.)

The purposes of this study were as follows:

1. To determine the differences between the personality

profiles of girls who rank in the "high-fitness" students

(upper one-third of the scores) of the Treatment and Compari-

son Groups and the personality profiles of the girls who rank

in the "low-fitness" students (lower one-third of the scores)

of the Treatment and Comparison Groups.

2. To determine the extent to which aerobics condition-

ing exercises influence the personality profiles of girls in

the "low-fitness" students of the Treatment Group and the

personality profiles of the "low-fitness" students of the

Comparison Group who receive anaerobics conditioning exer-

ci ses.

Summary of Methods and Procedures

This study was conducted at a Middle School of an

independent (private) girls school in Dallas, Texas. At

the beginning of the fall semester all the girls in the

seventh and eighth grades were assigned at random to a

Treatment (Aerobics Exercises) or Comparison (Anaerobics

94

Exercises) Group. Fifty-eight students comprised the Treat-

ment Group and fifty-six students comprised the Comparison

Group.

At the beginning of the semester all the students ran

for twelve minutes, and the yards run were recorded on a

card by a partner. The Cattell Jr.-Sr. High School Per-

sonaliy Questionnaire (Jr.-Sr. HSPq) and the Personal

Concept Scale (PCS) were administered to measure person-

ality characteristics and self concepts. These instruments

were again administered at the conclusion of the fall semes-

ter as posttests. The twenty girls (upper one-third of the

scores) in the Treatment Group and the twenty girls (upper

one-third of the scores) in the Comparison Group who ran

the farthest distance in twelve minutes at the beginning

of the fall semester were designated "high-fitness" stu-

dents. The twenty girls (lower one-third of the scores)

in the Treatment Group and the twenty girls (lower one-

third of the scores) in the Comparison Group who ran the

least distance in twelve minutes were designated "low-

fitness" students.

Hypotheses I and IV were tested by means of analysis

of variance. Hypotheses II, III, V, VI, and VII were tested

by means of analysis of covariance. Chi-square tests of in-

dependence were made to compare expected with observed fre-

quencies for the factors of infirmary visits, absences, and

Student Council representation.

95

To test the hypotheses, the F-ratios were required to

reach the .05 level of significance. The chi-square values

also were tested at the .05 level.

Review of Findings

In Chapter IV, where the hypotheses are considered

separately, tables are presented for the analysis of variance

for Hypotheses I and IV and for analysis of covariance for

Hypotheses II, III, V, VI, and VII. If the F-ratios reached

the .05 level of significance, the hypotheses were retained.

If the F-ratios were not significant at the .05 level , the

hypotheses were not accepted.

Results of the statistical analyses are summarized in

the following findings:

1. At the beginning of the study, the F-ratios were

not sufficient to support the hypothesis that the person-

ality profiles of the "low-fitness" students would be dif-

ferent from the personality profiles of the "high-fitness"

students in the Treatment and Comparison Groups on the fac-

tors measured by the Jr.-Sr. HSPQ.

In the Treatment Group the F-ratios did not reach sig-

nificance on the majority (ten) of the factors. The F-ratios

reached significance on four factors--D, H, I, and Q4-- in

the Treatment Group. According to the D factor scores on

the Jr.-Sr. HSPQ, the "low-fitness" students showed tenden-

cies toward being excitable, impatient, demanding, and

96

overactive, and the "high-fitness" students showed tendencies

to be undemonstrative, deliberate, inactive, and stodgy.

These characteristics appear to be the opposite of those

expected.

For the "low-fitness" students, the H factor scores

indicate tendencies to be shy, timid, and threat-sensitive;

the I factor scores indicate tender-minded, sensitive,

clinging, and overprotective tendencies; and the Q4 factor

indicates the "low-fitness" students would tend to be tense,

driven, overwrought, and fretful. For the "high-fitness"

students, the H factor scores indicate tendencies to be

adventurous, "thick-skinned" and socially bold; the I

factor scores point toward being tough-minded and rejecting

illusions; and the Q4 factor indicates that the "high-

fitness" students would tend to be relaxed, tranquil,

torpic, unfrustrated, and composed. The H, I, and Q4

factors seem to form a cluster of positive characteristics

for the "high-fitness" students in the Treatment Group.

With only four of the fourteen characteristics on the

Jr.-Sr. HSPQ showing a significant difference between the

personality profiles of the "low-fitness" and "high-fitness"

students in the Treatment Group, and with no significant

differences shown in the Comparison Group, Hypothesis I

was rejected.

2. The F-ratios did not reach the required level of

significance on any of the factors measured by the Jr.-Sr.

97

HSPQ at the conclusion of the study. The analysis indicates

that the personality profiles of the "low-fitness" students

did not differ significantly from the personality profiles

of the "high-fitness" students of the Treatment or the Com-

parison Group on the factors measured by the Jr..-Sr. HSPQ

at the conclusion of the study.

3. The F-ratios did not reach the required level of

significance for either the Treatment or the Comparison

Group on the Personal Concept Scale discrepancy scores.

This analysis indicates that the discrepancy scores made

by the "low-fitness" students did not differ from the

discrepancy scores made by the "high-fitness" students

in either the Treatment or the Comparison Group at the

beginning or at the conclusion of the study.

4. The F-ratio was not sufficient to support the

hypothesis that the distance run scores of the Treatment

Group would differ significantly from the distance run

scores of the Comparison Group at the conclusion of the

study. The Treatment Group gained a mean distance of

290.7720 yards to the 278.6491 yards mean gain of the

Comparison Group, but this difference was not signifi-

cant at the .05 level.

5. The chi-square value did not reach the required

level of significance to support the hypothesis of inde-pendence for frequency of infirmary visits for the Treat-

ment and Comparison Groups. There was no significant

98

difference between the number of visits to the infirmary

made by the Treatment Group members and the number of visits

made by the Comparison Group members. The Treatment Group

members did make fewer infirmary visits than the Comparison

Group members, however.

6. The chi-square value reached the required level of

significance to support the hypothesis of independence for

absences for the Treatment and Comparison Groups. This

analysis indicates that the Treatment Group members were

absent a significantly greater number of times than the

Comparison Group members. The reasons for the absences

are not known.

7. The chi-square value did not reach the required

level of significance to support the hypothesis of inde-

pendence between the number of representatives to the Stu-

dent Council and level of physical fitness, indicating no

significant relationship between "fitness" and representa-

tion on the Student Council.

Conclusions

The following conclusions are based upon, and limited

to, the findings of this study:

1. With respect to the personality factors measured

by the Jr.-Sr. HSPQ, the "low-fitness" students do not

appear to be different from the "high-fitness" students

either before or after a program of aerobics conditioning

exercises or anaerobics (calisthenics) conditioning exercises.

99

2. With respect to self concept as measured by the

Personal Concept Scale, the "low-fitness" students do not

appear to be different from the "high-fitness" students

either before or after a program of aerobics conditioning

exercises or anaerobics (calisthenics) conditioning exer-

ci ses.

3. A program of aerobics conditioning exercises

appears to be inferior to a program of anaerobics condi-

tioning exercises with respect to reducing the number of

absences from school.

4. Representation on the Student Council does not

appear to be related to physical fitness.

Recommendations

On the basis of the results of this study, the follow-

ing recommendations are made:

1. This study should be replicated for a longer

period, possibly a school year rather than one semester,

to determine whether the same results occur and whether

those variables which approached a statistical level of

significance would be significantly changed in another

study.

2. The variable of voluntary subjects should be

added to another study.

3. A larger, more heterogeneous group of subjects

should be utilized.

100

4. Different measurements should be used to test the

changes that may occur, possibly some unstructured personality

instruments and a semantic differential technique for meas-

uring changes in attitude.

5. A control group, which participates in no physical

activity, should be utilized.

Non-Statistical Data

A possibility for the lack of differences between the

"low-fitness" students and the "high-fitness" students with

respect to personality profiles and between the Treatment

and Comparison Groups with respect to distances run may be

the philosophy and practice of physical fitness in this

school.

Throughout the school there is an interest in and

emphasis on physical fitness. The Headmaster is a former

tennis coach. Many of the teachers participate in physical

activities. There is a faculty-parent tennis club. The

indoor swimming pool is open for parents during the school

year, and the outdoor pool is open for faculty and their

families during the summer.

The second all-school Valentine's Day "Run for Your

Heart" event occurred this spring. A course was measured to

designate a mile on the campus. Each person who completed

the mile run was given a red Valentine heart sticker, with

additional miles marked on the sticker. During the physical

101

education periods, the students in the first through eighth

grades were allowed to run the mile instead of participating

in their regular activity. Many girls did not stop with one

mile, but continued for two or more miles. The high school

students and faculty were encouraged to run (or walk) the

mile course during their free period or lunch period.

There is a twenty-five minute break at 10:00 a.m. and

about twenty-five minutes after lunch each day for the

elementary students (grades four through eight). The stu-

dents are required to be outside during these times. There

is a covered area available during rainy weather. Almost

all of the students play kickball or jump rope during these

periods.

The Chairman of the Department of Health Education

emphasizes that the purpose of the activities during the

physical education period is to help the students develop

greater physical fitness and cardio-vascular endurance

rather than specific motor skills. Beginning with the

first grade, each girl is involved in a physical educa-

tion program. All students are required to run for five

minutes prior to the regular physical education activity.

At the fourth-grade level, basketball, Newcombe, swimming,

dancing, and games leading to soccer are introduced. For

the fifth, sixth, and seventh grades, track is an activity

for one nine-week period. There were only twenty-five girls

in the seventh and eighth grades who were in this school for

102

the first time in the 1973 fall semester. The majority of

the students (eighty-nine), therefore, had the background

of physical activity for a minimum of one year, and many

had six or seven years of active physical education.

During the semester when this research was done, the

activities for all the seventh- and eighth-grade students

were running sports--hockey, basketball, and speedball.

The Comparison Groups participated in these sports, although

they had calisthenics rather than aerobics conditioning exer-

cises before the sports began.

Within the seventh and eighth grades, there seemed to

be considerable competition between the Treatment and Com-

parison Groups. The teacher sensed a "feeling" from the

Comparison Groups that running was superior to calisthenics.

She felt the Comparison Groups may have tried harder to run

faster on the twelve-minute run tests than the Treatment

Group members.

Some pre-selection factors may diminish the differ-

ences between students. Admission to this private school

is based on achievement tests, interviews, and recommenda-

tions from former teachers. Girls with a history of chronic

illness or absenteeism would not be likely to be accepted.

Other factors may be related to economic and educational

family backgrounds, with the possibility of superiod nu-

tritional and medical emphases.

103

The most dramatic change in the distance run was for a

girl in the Treatment Group. Her pretest distance run was

686 yards; her posttest distance run was 1528 yards. Her

gain of 842 yards meant that she more than doubled her pre-

test distance run in twleve minutes. The physical education

teacher reported an impressive change in her attitude in

c 1 a s s.

The instruments used in this study may not have been

sufficiently sensitive to record personality changes that

occurred. Measurement techniques related to one's inter-

nalized feelings and to the observations of others are dif-

ficult to create, administer, and be accepted by educational

institutions.

Because of the emphases and honors related to partici-

pation in physical activities and sports, it is possible

that the physical fitness of the students in this study is

more homogeneous and is consistently greater than would be

the case in a public coeducational school. In the high

school, varsity teams compete with teams from other private

girls schools in several states. Each high school class has

two teams in which any of the students may participate, re-

gardless of ability, in intramural sports.

A cultural heritage for American women in general has

been "win the game; lose the boy." This concept has been

caught by girls before the seventh grade. Efforts should

be made to encourage high physical fitness for women as a

socially acceptable and desirable feminine characteristic.

104

Education emphasizing the benefits of physical activity for

girls and the inclusion of girls on varsity teams, such as

track teams, where competition can occur between girls,

should be initiated. The emphasis should be redirected

from high ability at motor skills for a few to strong phys-

ical fitness for all, The physical health of future genera-

tions of women, with the possibility of emotional and mental

health to match, may be related to the acceptance of physical

fitness as a high value by our society.

APPENDIX A

DAILY AEROBICS TRAINING PROGRAM FOR GIRLS (Grades 6-9)

FT. WORTH INDEPENDENT SCHOOL DISTRICT

Department of Physical EducationWinter, 1972

AerobicSuggested Maximum P o i n t s 2Week Day Distance Time Time' Weekly

Daily Total

Monday Approx. 12-Min. 12:00 5 51.2 Miles Test #1

Tuesday 440 yds. 1:45 2:45 1 6

Wednesday 660 yds. 2:49 3:45 2 8

Thursday 440 yds. 1:45 2:45 1 9

Friday 660 yds. 2:49 3:45 2 11

Monday 440 yds. 1:45 2:45 1 12 Tuesday 660 yds. 2:49 3:45 2 3

Wednesday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 2 1/2 5 1/2

Thursday 660 yds. 2:49 3:45 2 71/2

Friday 440 yds. 1:45 2:45 1 81/2

Monday 660 yds. 2:49 3:45 2 2

Tuesday 440 yds. 1:45 2:45 1 3

Wednesday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 21/2 51/2

Thursday 660 yds. 2:49 3:45 2 71/2

Friday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 21/2110

Stop everyone afterdistance is covered.

2 Aerobic point valuetime,

this time whether or not suggested

based on distance and suggested

106

107

AerobicSuggested Maximum Po i n t s 2Week Day Distance Tieim 1 oaTime Time' Daily ekly

Tota1

Monday 440 yds. 1:45 2:45 1 1

Tuesday 1100 yds. 4:41 6:15 31/4 41/4

Wednesday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 21/2 63/4

Thursday 660 yds. 2:49 3:45 2 8 3/4

Friday 1.2 miles 12-Min. 12:00 5 13 3/4Test #2

Monday 660 yds. 2:49 3:45 2 2

Tuesday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 21/2 41/2

Wednesday 1100 yds. 4:41 6:15 3 1/4 7 3/4

Thursday 1320 yds. 5:37 7:30 3 3/4 111/2

Friday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 2 12 14

0 Monday 1100 yds. 4:41 6:15 3 1/4 31/4T Tuesday 660 yds. 2:49 3:45 2 51/4

0 Wednesday 1320 yds. 5:37 7:30 3 3/4 9NA Thursday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 2 1/2 111/2L Friday 1100 yds. 4:41 6:15 3 1/4 143/4

Monday 1320 yds. 5:37 7:30 3 3/4 33/4

-Tuesday 660 yds. 2:49 3:45 2 53/4

Wednesday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 2 1/2 81/4

Thursday 1100 yds. 4:41 6:15 3 1/4 111/2

Friday 1320 yds. 5:37 7:30 3 3/4 151/4'Stop everyone after

distance is covered.

2 Aerobic point valuetime.

this time whether or not suggested

based on distance and suggested

108

AerobicWeek Day Distance Sugested Maximum Points 2

Time Time1 Weekly_Daily Total

Monday 1100 yds. 4:41 6:15 31/4 31/4g Tuesday 1 mile 8:00 11:00 4 71/4

Wednesday 1320 yds. 5:37 7:30 33/4 11

Thursday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 2 1/2 131/2

Friday 1.2 miles 12-Min. 12:00 5 181/2Test_#3

Monday 1100 yds. 4:41 6:15 3 1/4 31/4

Tuesday 1320 yds. 5:37 7:30 3 3/4 7

Wednesday 1 mile 8:00 11:00 4 11

Thursday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 21/2 131/2

Friday 1100 yds. 4: 41 6:15 3 1/4 163/4

Monday 1100 yds. 4:41 6:15 3 1/4 31/4IO Tuesday 1 1 /4 mi. 10:000 13 : 45 5 1/2 83/410 Wednesday 1 mile 8:00 11:00 4 123/4

Thursday 1320 yds. 5:37 7:30 3 3/4 161/2

Friday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 2 1/2 19

Monday 1100 yds. 4:41 6:15 31/4 31/4I Tuesday 1 1/4 mi. 10:00 13:45 5 1/2 83/4

Wednesday 1 mile 8:00 11:00 4 123/4

Thursday 1320 yds. 5:37 7:30 3 3/4 161/2

Friday 1100 yds. 3:45 5:00 2 1/2 19

'Stop everyone after this time whetherdistance is covered.

2 Aerobic point value based on distancet ime .

or not suggested

and suggested

109

AerobicWeek D Suggested Maximum Po i n t s2Week Day Distance Tm ie ek

_Time Time Daily WT--TkaY

Monday 1100 yds. 4:41 6:15 3 1/2 31/4I Tuesday 1 mile 8:00 11:00 4 71/4

Wednesday 1320 yds. 5:37 7:30 3 3/4 11

Thursday 880 yds. 3:45 5:00 21/2 131/2

Friday 1.2+ mi. 12-Min. 12:00 5 181/2Test_#4

'Stop everyone afterdistance is covered.

2Aerobic point valuet ime .

this time whether or not suggested

based on distance and suggested

APPENDIX B

SCHEDULE FOR AEROBICS CONDITIONING EXERCISE

WEEK

1

(

(

(

(

(

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

(

(

(

(

(

9-10-73)

9-11-73)

9-12-73)

9-13-73)

9-14-73)

9-17-73)

9-18-73)

9-19-73)

9-20-73)

9-21-73)

9-24-73)

9-25-73)

9-26-73)

9-27-73)

9-28-73)

WEEK

2

wE

K

3

K

4

Distance Run in Yards

12-Min. Test #1

440

660

440

660

440

660

880

660

440

660

440

880

660

880

440

1100

880

111

(

(

(

(

(

(10-01-73)

(10-02-73)

(10-03-73)

(10-04-73)

(10-05-73)

112

Distance Run in Yards

WEEK

5

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Fri day

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

660

12-Min. Test #2

660

(10-08-73)

(10-09-73)

(10-10-73)

(10-11-73)

(10-12-73)

(10-15-73)

(10-16-73)

(10-17-73)

(10-18-73)

(10-19-73)

(10-22-73)

(10-23-73)

(10-24-73)

(10-25-73)

(10-26-73)

(10-29-73)

(10-30-73)

(10-31-73)

(11-01-73)

(11-02-73)

880

1100

1320

880

1100

660

1320

880

1100

1100

1320

660

880

1100

WEEK

6

wEEK

7

8

113

WEEK

9

WEEK

10

Distance Run in Yards

(11-05-73) 1320

(11-06-73) 1100

(11-07-73) 1760

(11-08-73) 1320

(11-09-73) 880

(11-12-73) 1100

(11-13-73) 1320

(11-14-73) 12-Min. Test #3

(11-15-73) 1760

(11-16-73) 880

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

Monday

Tuesday

Wednesday

Thursday

Friday

1100

1100

2200

1760

1320

880

12-Min. Test #4

(11-19-73)

(11-20-73)

(11-21-73)

(11-22-73)

(11-23-73)

(11-26-73)

(11-27-73)

(11-28-73)

(11-29-73)

(11-30-73)

EdIEIEK

11

WE

K

12

APPENDIX C

RECORD OF DISTANCE RUN IN 12-MINUTES

DATE

WT. HT. WT.

Test 1

Date

Rest P

Act. P

Rec. P

Test 2

Date

Test

Date

3 Test 4

Date

115

NAME

HT.

APPENDIX D

Jr.-Sr. HIGH SCHOOL PERSONALITY QUESTIONNAIRE

The HSPQ for Ages Twelve through Eighteen

By

Raymond B. Cattell and Mary D. L. Cattell

Institute for Personality and Ability Testing, 1969

1602-04 Coronado Drive, Champaign, Illinois, U.S.A.

copyrighted material

117-132

APPENDIX F

PERSONAL CONCEPT SCALE

INSTRUCTIONS

The purpose of this scale is to identify the meaning

that various concepts have for you by having you rate them

against a series of descriptive scales. Place an "x" on

each line according to what the concept means to you. For

example:

If you consider yourself very talkative, you wouldplace your "x" as follows:

talkative_ ___: quiet

If you feel you are mostly quiet, you would mark asfollows:

talkative : : : ::x: ___qu i e t

If you think you are equally talkative and quiet,mark this way:

talkative__ : _ : : _ : : _ : quiet

Be sure you mark every scale. Do not skip any. Never

put more than one "x" on a single line. Make each item a

separate and independent judgment. Place your marks in the

middle of the space.THIS NOT THIS

talkative___: x ::::x.: ___quiet

Your first impressions are generally the most accurate;

so work quickly, but do not be careless.

134

135

I AM

pl1a in : : : _ : _attractive

feminine masculine

warm : : : : cool

unaware : : : : : : aware

tense relaxed

deep shallow

certain w::uncertain

accepted : : : : : : rejected

cautious : : : : : : adventuresome

tallkativequiet

close :distant

disturbed : Dcontented

active : Nae______ _passive

down : : :Up

powerful : : :weak

following : : :leading

loose : : :tight

early :1 : ate

conservative : : : : : : liberal

clear : -_ : - : - . : -: -: _hazy

number Date

Name

136

I WOULD LIKE TO BE

plain : : : : : : attractive

feminine: : : : :masculine

warm cool

unaware aware

tense relaxed

deep _ : - : - : - : - : - : shallow

certain : : : : : : uncertain

accepted : : : : rejected

cautious adventuresome

tal kati ve :-:-:-:-_:-:_quiet

close : : : : : : distant

disturbed : : : : : : contented

acti ve : - : : - : - : - : _ passive

down :- :- :- :- :- :_u

powerful weak

following _ : :: : 1e ad in g

loose__ : :: _ : : tight

early_:-:-:-:-:-:__late

conservative : : : : : : liberal

clear :-:-:-:-:-_:-hazy

number Date

Name

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Astrand, P. 0., Experimental Studies of Physical WorkingCapacity in Relation to Sex and Age, Copenhagen,Munksgaard, 1952.

Berg, Robert C., Inter-Personal Skills Development, AnIntroduction, Denton, Texas, Communication/HumanRelations Institute, 1973.

Berne, Eric, Principles of Group Treatment, New York,Grove Press, Inc., 1966.

Carkhuff, R. R., Helping and Human Relations: A Primerfor Lay and Professional Hepr, Selection and Train-ing, New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1969.

Cattell, Raymond B. and Mary D. L. Cattell, Handbook forthe Jr.-Sr. High School Personality Questionnaire,"HSPQ," Champaign, Illinois, Institute for Person-ality and Ability Testing, 1969.

Cooper, Kenneth H., Aerobics, New York, Bantam Book, 1968.

, The New Aerobics, New York, Bantam

Book, 1970.

Cooper, Mildred and Kenneth H. Cooper, Aerobics for Women,New York, Bantam Book, 1972.

Cureton, Thomas K., Jr., Physical Fitness and DynamicHealth (abridged), New York, Dell Purse Book, 1965.

Osgood, C. E., G. J. Suci, and P. H. Tannenbaum, TheMeasurement of Meaning, Urbana, Illinois, Universityof Illinois Press, 1967.

Selye, Hans, The Physiology and Pathology of Exposure toStress, A~Treatise Based on the Concepts of the~~General Adaptation Syndrome and the Diseases ofAda tation, Montreal, Canada, Acta, Inc., MedicalPub is her s, 1950.

Selye, Hans, The Stress of Life, New York, McGraw-HillBook Company, Inc.,~T956.

137

138Articles

Appleton, L. and F. J. Kobes, "West Point Studies Concerningthe Predictive Value of Initial Physical PerformanceLevels of Freshmen," unpublished paper read at the 12thAnnual Meeting of the American College of Sports Medi-cine, Dallas, Texas, March 17, 1965, as cited byKenneth H. Cooper, Aerobics, New York, Bantam Book,1968, pp. 107-108.

Armstrong, Hubert F., Jr. and Della D. Armstrong, "Relationof Physical Fitness to a Dimension of Body Image,"Perceptual and Motor Skills, 26 (1968), 1173-1174.

Astrand, P. 0., "Human Physical Fitness with Special Refer-ence to Sex and Age," Physiological Reviews, 36 (1956),307-335.

Behrman, R. M., "A Study of Personality Differences BetweenNonswimmers and Swimmers," Research Quarterly, 38(1967), 163-166.

Cattell, Raymond B., "Some Psychological Correlates ofPhysical Fitness and Physique," Exercise and Fitness:A Collection of Papers Presented at the Colloquium onExercise and Fitness, Urbana, Illnoi~s, University ofTTinoi s,~l959, 138-151.

Cattell, Raymond B., K. Barton, and T. E. Dielman, "Pre-diction of School Achievement from Motivation, Person-ality, and Ability Measures," Psychological Reports,30 (1972), 35-43.

Collingwood, Thomas R., "The Effects of Physical Trainingupon Behavior and Self Attitudes," Journal of ClinicalPsychology , 28 (1972) , 583-585.

Collingwood, Thomas R. and Leonard Willett, "The Effectsof Physical Training upon Self-Concept and BodyAttitude," Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27 (1971)9,411-412.

Cooper, Kenneth H., "A Means of Assessing Maximal OxygenIntake--Correlation Between Field and Treadmill Test-ing," Journal of the American Medical Association,203 (1968),920.

"Executives on an Exercise Kick," Business Week, (June 3,1972), pp. 44-46.

Flanagan, L., "A Study of Some Personality Traits of Dif-ferent Physically Active Groups," Research Quarterly,22 (1951), 312-323.

139

Fletcher, Raymond, "Differences in Selected PsychologicalCharacteristics of Participants and Nonparticipantsin Activity," Perceptual and Motor Skills, 32 (1971),301-302.

Fletcher, R. and I. Dowell, "Selected Personality Character-istics of High School Athletes and Non-Athletes," TheJournal of Psychology, 77 (1971), 39-41.

Haas, Alan D., "Those Superjocks--Are They Born or Made?"Southwest Scene, The Dallas Morning News Sunday Maga-zine, Aug. 26, 1973, 19-22.

Hart, Marie, "Women Sit In the Back of the Bus," PsychologyToday, 5 (1971), 64-66.

Hammett, V. B. 0., "Psychological Changes with PhysicalFitness Training," Canadian Medical Association Journal,96 (1967), 764-769.

Hogan, Robert, "Jr.-Sr. High School Personality Question-naire," The Seventh Mental Measurements Yearbook,Vol. I, edited by 0. K. Buros, Highland Park, NewJersey, The Gryphon Press, 1972, 97-98.

Ismail, A. H. and L. E. Trachtman, "Jogging the Imagination,"Psychology Today, 6 (March, 1973), 78-82.

Jackson, Douglas N., "Jr.-Sr. High School PersonalityQuestionnaire," The Seventh Mental Measurements Year-book, Vol. I, edited by 0. K. Buros, Highland Park,New Jersey, The Gryphon Press, 1972, 97-98.

Kratchovil, K. D., R. R. Carkhuff, and B. G. Berenson, "TheCumulative Effects of Parent and Teacher-Offered Levelsof Facilitative Conditions upon Indexes of StudentPhysical, Emotional and Intellectual Functioning,"Journal of Educational Research, 63 (1969), 161-164.

Kreitler, H. and Sh. Kreitler, "Movement and Aging: APsychological Approach," Medicine and Sport, 4,Physical Activity and_ AgingT1T970)7~302-306.

Kroll, W. and K. H. Peterson, "Personality Factor Pro-files of Collegiate Football Teams," Research Quar-terly, 36 (1965), 441-447.

Lingerman, H. A., Jr., "An Interview with Brother Mandus:Reflections on Healing," Unity: A Way of Life, 153(1973), 18-23.

140

Maksud, Michael G. and Kenneth D. Coutts, "Application ofthe Cooper Twelve-Minute Run-Walk Test to Young Males,"Research Quarterly, 42 (1971), 54-59.

Mathison, B. F. Lewis and F. S. Howland, "Healing andWholeness," Journal of Religion and Health, 11 (1972),181-191.

McGraw, Preston, "Dallas Heart Research," Dallas, 51 (1972),20-26.

Ogilvie, Bruce C. and Thomas A. Tutko, "If You Want toBuild Character, Try Something Else," Psychology Today,5 (1971), 60-63.

Powell, Richard R. and Richard H. Pohndorf, "Comparisonof Adult Exercisers and Nonexercisers on Fluid Intelli-gence and Selected Physiological Variables," ResearchQuarterly, 42 (1971) , 70-77.

Roskamm, H. and H. Reindell, "Optimum Patterns of Exercisefor Healthy Adults," Medicine and Sport, 4: PhysicalActivity and Aging (1970), 19-27.

Samples, Doris Ann, "The Runners," Southwest Scene, TheDallas Morning News Sunday Magazine (August 26,~1973),19-22.

Schendel, Jack, "Psychological Differences Between Athletesand Nonparticipants in Athletics at Three EducationalLevels," Research Quarterly, 36 (1965), 52-67.

Seymour, E. W., "Comparative Study of Certain BehaviorCharacteristics of Participant and NonparticipantBoys in Little League Baseball," Research Quarterly,27 (1957), 338-346.

Slusher, Howard S., "Personality and Intelligence Char-acteristics of Selected High School Athletes andNonathletes," Research Quarterly, 35 (1964), 539-545.

Thornton, Melvin L., "A Critical Look at Physical Educa-tion," Texas Medicine, 69 (1973), 53-58.

Tillman, K., "Relationship Between Physical Fitness andSelected Personality Traits," Research Quarterly, 36(1965), 483-489.

141

Truax, Charles B., W. John Schuldt, and Donald G. Wargo,"Self-Ideal Concept Congruence and Improvement inGroup Psychotherapy," Journal of Consulting and Clin-ical Psychology, 32 (1968), 47-53.

Ward, James E., "The Relationship Between Physical Fitnessand Certain Psychological , Sociological , and Physio-logical Factors in Junior High School Boys," Disserta-tion Abstracts, 22 (1965), 4261-4332.

Weber, Robert J., "Relation of Physical Fitness to Successin College and Personality," Research Quarterly, 24(1953), 155-165.

Werner, Alfred C. and Edward.Cottheil, "Personality Develop-ment and Participation in College Athletics," ResearchQuarterly, 37 (1965), 126-131.

Wilson, P. I., "Relationship Between Motor Achievement andSelected Personality Factors of Junior and Senior HighSchool Boys," Research Quarterly, 40 (1969), 841-844.

Reports

Cureton, T. K. and others, Endurance of Young Men, Washington,D.C., National Research Council,~Society fo~r Researchin Child Development, 1945.

President's Council on Physical Fitness, AAHPER Youth FitnessTest Manual , Washington, D.C., National Education AgencyPublication, 1967. [Supplemented by The Governor'sCommission on Physical Fitness, Austin, Texas, n.d.]

Texas Education Agency, Physical Education in the ElementarySchools: Guidelines for Grades 1-6,BiTlei~n 685,Austin, Texas, Texas Edtcation Agency, 1969.

, Suggestions for Planning the Second-ary School Physical Education Program, Bulle~i62Austin, Texas, Texas Education Agency, 1963.

Unpublished Materials

DelForge, C. J., "The Relationship of Physical Education tothe Personal-Social Growth of Elementary School Children,"unpublished doctoral dissertation, North Texas StateUniversity, Denton, Texas, 1970.

142

Friedman, Art and others, "An Aerobics Conditioning Programfor the Fort Worth, Texas School District," Dallas,Texas, The Institute for Aerobics Research, 1972.

Krumboltz, John, "Effective Counseling: How Can You Tell?"address at the Texas Personnel and Guidance Associa-tion, Houston, Texas, October 12, 1973.

Lewis, Jerry M. and others, "Family Interaction and PhysicalIllness," address presented at the Southwestern regionalmeeting, American Orthopsychiatric Association, Dallas,Texas, November, 1972.

Lewis, Jerry M. and Thomas A. Lombardo, "Jogging: A Questfor Easy Virtue," Report No. 27, Dallas, Texas, Tim-berlawn Foundation, 1969.

Purdy, J. Gerry, "Daily Aerobics Training Program forGirls, Winter, 1972," unpublished conditioningschedule, Fort Worth Independent Schools, Departmentof Education, 1972, attached to this study as Appen-dix A.

Schieffer, Larry, "A Correlational Analysis of ClientChange in Sheltered Workshops with Selected Charac-teristics of the Client, Vocational RehabilitationCounselor and Workshop Supervisor," unpublisheddoctoral dissertation, North Texas State University,Denton, Texas, 1970.

Schieffer, Larry and Arlene Koeppen, "Personal ConceptScale," unpublished manuscript, North Texas StateUniversity, Denton, Texas, 1970.

Conversations

Friedman, Art, Fort Worth Independent Schools, Fort Worth,Texas, personal conversation, March 23, 1973.

George, Colleen 0., Associate Professor of Health, PhysicalEducation, and Recreation, North Texas State University,Denton, Texas, personal conversation, May 7, 1973.