Positive Psychological Interventions. Well-being and intentional activity.

Łukasz Kaczmarek

Summary

Effectively pursuing happiness has become one of the main concerns for lay people, professionals (e.g., therapists, educators, researchers), and governments concerned with happiness among citizens at national levels. Positive psychology coined the term “positive interventions” (a.k.a. happiness interventions) to reactivate, integrate and stimulate research into happiness-increasing methods. These new methods will likely complement the classic forms of psychological help aimed at reducing various forms of suffering. Both types of interventions are essential for the promotion of full mental health conceptualized as the absence of mental disorders (ill-being) and the presence of well-being. The problems presented in this book also correspond with the pioneering works by Polish authors such as Kazimierz Dąbrowski, Kazimierz Obuchowski, Janusz Czapiński, Władysław Tatarkiewicz. Clinical research on positive interventions is important for the development of positive psychology as a scientific field, because recent bibliometric analyses have revealed that research in positive psychology is scattered and has not yet achieved the main aims of the positive psychology movement.

Positive psychological interventions (PPIs) can be defined as: a) initiated by a psychologist or used as part of self-help, b) theoretically and empirically justified activities that c) promote positive emotions, beliefs and actions that lead to increased happiness d) regardless of initial levels of happiness e) in healthy subjects but can also be effective in clinical groups. Adequate use of positive interventions requires the adoption of a specific theory of happiness, determining which intervention effects can be expected. In the philosophical tradition, happiness has been conceptualized as an extraordinarily good event (fortune), an intense positive emotion, eudaimonia (welfare resulting from the possession of moral goods), or satisfaction with life as a whole. Psychological theories regarding the structure of happiness have covered the hedonic approach, eudaimonic, or a combination of both – hedonic-eudaimonic hybrid theories. Each of these theories provides psychometric tools that can be used in research on the effectiveness of positive intervention.

Conducting happiness interventions is likely to succeed only to the extent to which happiness depends on intentional activity. Twins studies have shown that one-third of happiness is determined by genetic influences which provide an individual happiness set-point. Only about 10% is determined by circumstances. However, happiness to a large extent depends on intentional, planned actions. For instance, individuals can intentionally regulate positive emotions or make deliberate efforts to counter hedonic adaptation processes. PPIs’ efficacy depends on the person-activity fit (intervention type, frequency, etc.). Furthermore, behavior change models can be used to increase motivation towards successful initiation and completion of PPIs.

The effects of PPIs result from several psychological processes. PPIs’ active ingredients involve enhancing positive emotions (e.g. personal savoring or sharing a positive event and feeling with other individuals) and facilitating prosocial behaviors (kindness, gratitude, and forgiveness). Each of these elements has been used in interventions tested in efficacy trials. Meta-analytical studies regarding efficacy have revealed that PPIs are successful in enhancing subjective well-being, psychological well-being and alleviating depressive symptoms. Yet, the effect sizes are at best moderate. The efficacy of PPIs depends on intervention duration, format and the occurrence of psychosocial problems in the recipients. Furthermore, PPIs have demonstrated limited effectiveness tested in natural settings and suffer from high levels of participant attrition. PPIs can be administered successfully via personal contact with the psychologist (in individual or group settings) or via online resources.

For practical and ethical reasons, it is imperative to establish justification for promotion of happiness interventions, i.e. why should positive interventions be promoted? It is also essential to scrutinize risks that can be attributed to the promotion of happiness interventions, i.e. what are the cons for happiness promotion? The main argument for PPI promotion is that happiness is valued by most people and happiness also facilitates the pursuit of other valuable goals such as fulfilling social relationships or health (thus happiness promotion can be regarded as a special case of health promotion). As for the cons, happiness promotion can be disturbing for individuals who do not value happiness, overvalue happiness or endorse maximizing decision-making strategies. Furthermore, the highest levels of happiness and too quick increases in happiness can have some negative outcomes, (e.g., the Goldilocks effect).

The penultimate chapter of this book provides a description of a research program aimed at examining personality and situational conditions for self-initiated PPIs. The model used in this project extends the theory of planned behavior to account for phenomena relevant for the PPIs. It proved to be a viable framework that accounts for intentions and behaviors resulting from personality influences (e.g., curiosity), situational factors (e.g., provided informational support) and person-activity fit (e.g., gratitude letters vs gratitude journaling).

Further studies might develop interventions focused on other character strengths (e.g. humility), seek new active ingredients, new combinations of PPIs, or develop interventions that target recipients with specific problems or potentials. Moreover, further studies might address theoretical and methodological problems, i.e. covering more eudaimonic perspectives, provide longer follow-ups, and use state-of-the-art methods for measuring positive experience. Finally, more research is need on the dark side of PPIs that would examine negative consequences of PPIs and contexts when they fail to provide benefits to recipients.

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