VALUES

INTRODUCTION:Value is an enduring belief that a specific mode of conducts or end state of existence is personally and socially preferable to the alternatives modes of conduct or end states of existence. Once it is internalized , it becomes consciously or unconsciously , a standard or criterion for guiding action , for developing and maintaining attitudes toward relevant objects and situations , for justifying one’s own and other’s actions and attitudes for morally judging oneself and others , and for comparing oneself for other’s . Value therefore, is a standard or yardstick to guide actions, attitudes, evaluations and justifications of the self and the others.

Values are tinged with moral flavour , involving an individual’s judgement of what is right , good or desirable . Thus values :

1) Provide standards of competence and morality.2) Are fewer in number than attitudes 3) Transcend specific objects, situations or persons. 4) Are relatively permanent and resistant to change , and5) Are more central to the core of a person.

Individuals learn values as they grow and mature. They may change over the life span of an individual develops a sense of self. Culture, societies and organizations shape values. Values are important to the study of organizational behaviour because they lay the foundations for the understanding of attitudes and motivation and because they influence our perceptions.

FORMATION OF VALUES:Values are learned and acquired primarily through experiences with people and institutions. Parents, for example, will have substantial influence on their children’s value. A parent’s reaction to everyday events demonstrates what is good and bad, acceptable and unacceptable, important and unimportant. Values are also taught and reinforced in schools, religious organizations, and social groups. As we grow and develop, each source of influence contributes to our definition of what is important in life. Cultural mores have influence on the formation of values. Basic convictions of what is good or bad are derived from one’s own culture.

TYPES OF VALUES:(I) Allport and his associates categorized values into six types:-

1) Theoretical2) Economic3) Aesthetic4) Social5) Political6) Religious

1) THEORETICAL : Interested in the discovery of truth through Reasoning and systematic thinking.

2) ECONOMIC : Interest in usefulness and practicality , including the Accumulation of wealth.

3) AESTHETIC: Interest in beauty, form and artistic harmony.

4) SOCIAL: Interest in people and love as a human relationship.

5) POLITICAL: Interest in graining power and influencing people.

6) RELIGIOUS : Interest in unity and understanding the cosmos as a Whole.

(II) Rokeach distinguishes between two types of values:-

1) Instrumental value2) Terminal value

1) INSTRUMENTAL VALUE : It reflects the means to achieving goals ; ie They represent the acceptable behaviour to be used in achieving some end state . Instrumental values identified by Rokeach include:-

a) ambitionb) honestyc) self-sufficiencyd) courageousness.

Thus instrumental value refers to a single belief that takes the form : I believe That such and such a mode of conduct (honesty ,courage etc) is personally and Socially preferable in all situations with respect to all objects . An instrumental value is a tool or means for acquiring a terminal value .

2) TERMINAL VALUE : Terminal value , in contrast , represent the goals to Be achieved , or the end states of existence . Terminal values identified by Rokeach includes :-

a) happinessb) lovec) pleasured) self-respecte) freedom

Terminal value takes a comparable form : I believe that such and such an end State of existence ( salvation or world at peace , etc) is personally and socially Worth striving for .

A Terminal Value is an ultimate goal in a desired status or outcome .

(III) WORK VALUES : Work values are important because they affect how Individuals behave on their jobs in terms of what is right and wrong . The work values most relevant to individuals are :

1) Achievement2) Honesty3) Fairness

1) ACHIEVEMENT : It is a concern for the advancement of one’s career . This is shown in such behaviours as a working hard and seeking opportunities to develop new skills.

2) HONESTY : It is accurately providing information and refusing to mislead others for personal gain.

3) FAIRNESS : It emphasizes impartiality and recognizes different points of view .

CONCLUSION :Although individuals vary in their value systems , when they share similar values at work , the results are positive . This means that organizations recruiting job candidates should pay careful attention to an individual’s values.

ATTITUDE

INTRODUCTION:Attitude is defined as a more or less stable set of predisposition , interest or purpose involving expectancy of a certain kind of experience and readiness with an appropriate response . Attitudes are also known as “ FRAMES OF REFERENCE ” . They provide the background against which facts and events are viewed . It becomes necessary to know the attitudes of members of an organizations because they have to perceive specific aspects like pay , hours of work , promotion ….etc , of their job in the wider context of their generalized attitudes . An attitude is also a cognitive element , it remains inside a person. Everyone’s psychological world is limited and thus everyone has a limited number of attitudes in business organizations , employees have attitudes relating to world environment , job security etc . The individual’s attitudes towards these factors are indicative of his apathy or enthusiasm towards the activites and objectives of the organization .

CHARACTERSTATICS OF ATTITUDES :

1) An attitude is the predisposition of the individual to evaluate some objects in a favourable or an unfavourable manner .

2) The most pervasive phenomenon is “attitude” . People at work place have attitudes about lots of topics related to them . These attitudes are firmly embedded in a complex psychological structure of beliefs .

3) Attitudes are different from values . Values are the ideas , whereas attitudes are narrow , they are our feelings , thoughts , and behavioural tendencies towards a specific objects or situation .

4) Attitude is a predisposition to respond to a certain set of facts .5) Attitudes are evaluative statements – either favourable or unfavourable

concerning the objects , people or events .

An attitude is “ a mental state of readness , organized through experience , exerting a specific influence upon a person’s response to people , objects and situations with which its is related ” .

COMPONENTS OF ATTITUDESThere are 3 components of attitudes . They are :-

1) Cognitive Component2) Affective Component3) Behavioural Component

1) COGNITIVE COMPONENT : This component includes the Beliefs an individual has about a certain person , objects or situation . The belief that “discrimination is wrong” is a value statement .Such an cognitive component of an attitude . Learned beliefs , such as “ you need to work long hours to get ahead in this job”, lead to attitudes that have an impact on behaviour in the work place .The cognition component of an attitude reflects a persons perceptions and beliefs . The cognitive elements are evaluative beliefs and are measured by attitude scales or by asking , about thoughts .The statement “ I believe Japanese workers are industrious ” , reflects the cognitive component of an attitude . The cognitive components sets the stage for the more critical part of attitude – its affective component .

2) AFFECTIVE COMPONENT : The component refers to the Person’s feelings that results from his or her beliefs about a person , objects or situation . A person who believes hard work earns promotions may feel anger or frustration when he /she works hard but is not promoted .The affective component becomes stronger as an individual has more frequent and direct experience with a focal object , person or situation . ‘Affect’ is the emotional component of an attitude . It refers to an individual’s feeling about something or someone . Statements such as “ I like this ” or “ I prefer that ” reflects the affective component of an attitude .

3) BEHAVIOURAL COMPONENT : This component refers to The individual’s behaviour that occurs as a result of his or her feeling about the focal person , object or situation . An individual may complain , request a transfer , or be less productive because he or she feels dissatisfied with work . The behavioural component of an attitude refers to the intention to behave in a certain way towards someone or something . The behavioural component is the intention to behave in a certain way towards an object or person . For Example , our attitudes towards women in management may be inferred from an observation of the way we behave toward a female supervisor .We may be supportive , passive or hostile depending on our attitude . The behavioural component of an attitude is measured by observing behaviour or by asking a person about behaviour or intentions .

ATTITUDE FORMATION :

Attitudes are acquired from parents , teachers and peer group members . We model our attitudes after those we admire , respect or fear . We observe the way family and friends behave and we shape our attitudes and behaviour to align with theirs . People also intimate the attitude of popular individuals and those they admire and respect .

Attitude are learned . Individuals acquire attitudes from several Sources but the point to be stressed is that the attitudes are Acquired but are not inherited . Our responses to people and Issues evolve over time .Two major influence on attitudes are:-

1) Direct Experience2) Social learning

1) DIRECT EXPERIENCE : Attitudes can develop from a personally rewarding or punishing experience with an object . It with an object or person is a powerful influence on attitudes . research has shown that attitudes that are derived from direct experience are stronger are held more by indirect experience . One reason attitudes derived from direct experience are so powerful because of their availability. This means that the attitudes are easily accessed and are active in our cognitive processes .

a) classical conditioningb) operant conditioning

c) vicarious learning

a) CLASSICAL CONDITIONING : One of the basic processes underlying attitude formation can be explained on the basis of learning principles . People develop associations between various objects and the emotional reactions that accompany them . b) OPERANT CONDITIONING : Attitudes that are reinforced , either verbally or non-verbally , tends to be maintained. conversely , a person who states an attitude that elicits ridicule fro others may modify or abandon the attitude .

c) VICARIOUS LEARNING : In which a person learns something through the observance of others can also account

for attitude development , particularly when the individual has no direct experience with the objects about which the attitude is held . It is through vicarious learning processes that children pick up the prejudices of their parents .

3) SOCIAL LEARNING : In social learning , the family Peer groups and culture shape An individual’s attitude in an indirect manner . Substantial Social learning occurs through modeling, in which individuals acquire attitudes by merely observing others . For an individual to learn from observing a model, four processes may take place :-

i) The learner must focus attention on the model .

ii) The learner must retain what was observed from the model .

iii) Behavioural reproduction must occur ; ie , the learner must practice the behaviour .

iv) The learner must be motivated to learn from the model .

Social learning can take place through the following ways :-

a) The familyb) Peer Groups c) Modelling

a) THE FAMILY : A person can learn attitudes through The imitation of parents . If parents have a positive attitude towards an object and the child admires his parents , he is likely to adopt a similar a attitude , even without being told about the object , and even without having direct experience . Children also learn to adopt certain attitudes by the reinforcement they are given by their parents when they display behaviours that reflect an appropriate attitude.

b) PEER GROUPS: Peer pressure moulds attitudes through groups acceptance of individuals who express popular attitudes and through sanctions such as exclusion from the group , placed on individuals who espouse ( promote ) unpopular attitudes .

c) MODELLING : Substantial Social Learning occurs through modeling in which individuals

acquire attitudes by merely observing others .The observer overhears other individuals expressing an opinion or watch them engaging in a behaviour that reflects an attitude , and the observer adopts this attitude .

WORK ATTITUDES AND JOB SATISFACTION

Attitudes at work are important because directly or indirectly , they affect work behaviour. Although many work attitudes are important , two attitudes in particular have been emphasized :-

1) Job satisfaction2) Organizational commitment 1) JOB SATISFACTION : Job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state Resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience The most important factors conductive to job satisfaction are :

1) Mentally challenged work2) Personality – job fit3) Equitable rewards4) Supportive working conditions5) Supportive colleagues6) Whistle blowing7) Social responsibility

1) MENTALLY CHALLENGED WORK : Employees tend to prefer jobs that give them opportunities to use their skills and abilities and offer a variety of tasks, freedom and feedback on how well they are doing. Under conditions of moderate challenge , most employees will experience pleasure and satisfaction .

2) PERSONALITY –JOB FIT : People with personality types congruent with their chosen vacations should find they have the right talents and abilities to meet the demands of their jobs ; and because of this success , have a greater probability of achieving high satisfaction from their work. It is important, therefore to fit personality factors with job profiles .

3) EQUITABLE REWARDS : Employees want pay systems and promotion policies that they perceive as being just , unambiguous , and in line with their expectations . when pay is seen as fair based on job demands, individual skill level and industry pay standards , satisfaction is likely to result . Similarily employees seek fair promotion policies and practices . Promotion provide opportunities for personal growth , more responsibilities and increased social status . Individuals who perceive that promotion decisions are made in a fair and just manner are likely to experience job satisfaction .

4) SUPPORTIVE WORKING CONDITIONS : Employees prefer Physical conditions

that are comfortable and facilitate doing a good job . Temperature , light , noise and other environmental factors should not be extreme and provide personal comfort . Further , employees prefer working relatively close to home in clean and relatively modern facilities and with adequate tools and equipment .

5) SUPPORTIVE COLLEAGUES : Employees have need for social interaction . Therefore having friendly and supportive co-workers and understanding supervisor’s lead to increased job satisfaction . Most employees want their immediate supervisor to be understanding and friendly , those who offer praise for good performance , listen to employees’s opinions and show a personal interest in them .

6) WHISTLE BLOWING : Whistle blowers are employees who inform authorities of wrongdoings of their company and co-workers . Whistle blowing is important because committed organizational members sometimes engage in unethical behaviour in an intense desire to succeed . Organizations can manage whistle blowing by communicating the conditions that are appropriate for the disclosure of wrongdoing. Clearly delineating wrongful behaviour and the appropriate ways to respond are important organizational actions .

7) SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY : Corporate social responsibility is the obligations of an organization to behave in ethical ways in the social environment in which it operates . socially responsible actions are expected of organizations . Current concerns include protecting the environment , promoting worker safety , supporting social issues , investing in the community etc . Managers must encourage both individual ethical behaviour and organizational social responsibility .

MANAGERIAL ETHICS :

Managerial Ethics are standards of conduct or moral judgement used by managers of organizational in carrying out their business .

Archie B Carroll notes that three major levels of moral or ethical judgement characterize managers as :-1) Immoral management2) Moral management3) Amoral management

1) IMMORAL MANAGEMENT : Immoral management not only lacks ethical principles but also

is actively opposed to ethical behaviour . This perspective is characterized by principles or exclusive concern for company gains , undue emphasis on profits , company success at virtually any price , lack of concern about the desires of others to be treated fairly , views of laws as obstacles to be overcome , and a willingness to “ cut corners ” . 2) MORAL MANAGEMENT : Moral management strives to follows ethical principles and percepts . While moral managers also desire to succeed , They seek to do so only within the parameters of ethical standards and the ideals of fairness , justice and due process . As a result , moral managers pursue business objectives that involve simultaneously making a profit and engaging in legal and ethical behaviour .

3) AMORAL MANAGEMENT :The amoral management approach is neither immoral nor moral but , rather , ignores or is oblivious to ethical considerations . There are two types of amoral management :

i) Intentionalii) Unintentional i) INTENTIONAL : Amoral managers do not include ethical concerns in their decision making , or behaviour , because they basically think that general ethical standards are more appropriate to other areas of life than to business .

ii) UNINTENTIONAL: Amoral mangers also do not think about ethical issues in their business dealings , but the reason is different . These mangers are basically inattentive or insensitive to the moral implications of their decision – making , actions and behaviour . Overall , amoral mangers pursue profitability as a goal and may be generally well meaning , but intentionally they pay little attention to the impacts of their behaviours on others .

CHARACTERSTATICS OF MANAGERIAL ETHICS S.NO: ORGANIZATIONAL

CHARACTERSTATICIMMORALMANAGEMENT

AMORAL MANAGEMENT

MORAL MANAGEMENT

1. Ethical Norms Management decisions , actions and behaviour imply a positive and active opposition to what is moral (ethical) . Decisions are discordant with accepted ethical principles . An active negation of what is moral is implied .

Management is neither moral nor immoral , but decisions lie outside the sphere to which moral judgements apply. Management activity is outside or beyond the moral order of a particular code. May imply a lack of ethical perception and moral awareness .

Management activity conforms to a standard of ethical , or right , behaviour . Conforms to accepted professionals standards of conduct . Ethical leadership is commonplace on the par of management .

2. Motives Selfish , management cares only about its or the company’s gain

Well –intentioned but selfish in the sense that impact on others is not considered .

Good. Management wants to succeed but only within the confines of sound ethical precepts (fairness, justice , due process)

3. Goals Profitablility and organizational success at any price

Profitability .Other goals are not considered

Profitability within the confines of legal obedience and ethical standards .

4. Orientation toward law Legal standards are barriers that management must overcome to accomplish what it wants .

Law is the ethical guide , preferably the letter of the law . The central question is what we can do legally .

Obedience toward letter and spirit of the law . Law is a minimal ethical behaviour . prefer to operate well above what law mandates .

5. Strategy Exploit opportunities for corporate gain .Cut corners when it appears useful .

Give managers free rein . Personal ethics may apply but only if managers choose . Respond to legal mandates if caught and required to do so .

Live by sound ethical standards . assume leadership position when ethical dilemmas arise . Enlightened self – interest .

IMPROVING ETHICAL BEHAVIOUR

Unethical behaviour by employees can affect individuals , work teams and Even the organizations . Organizations thus depend on individuals to act Ethically . The ethical issues that individuals face at work are complex . Today’s manager need to create an ethically healthy climate for his/her employees, where they can do their work sincerely , with high productivity and confront a minimal degree of ambiguity regarding what constitutes right and wrong behaviour .

Making ethical decision is part of each manager’s job . It has been suggested by K.R.Andrews that ethical decision – making requires 3 qualities of individuals .

1) The competence to identify ethical issues and evaluate theconsequences of alternative courses of action.

2) The self – confidence to seek out different opinions about theissues and decide what is right in terms of a particular situation.

3) Tough – mindedness –the willingness to make decisions when all that needs to be known cannot be known and when the ethical issue has no established unambiguous solution .

VALUES AND ETHICS Sometimes , some people consider values and ethics synonymous and use them Interchangeably . However the two have different meanings . The major difference Between the two is that VALUES are beliefs that affect an individual’s judgemental Ideas about what is good or bad . The ETHICS is the way the values are acted out . Ethical behaviour is acting in ways consistent with one’s personal values and the Commonly held values of the organization and society .

VALUES AND ATTITUDES

Both values and attitudes are tinged with morals . There are some similarities and some Some dissimilarities between the two : SIMILARITIES : 1) Both are learned or acquired from the same sources – experience with people ,

objects and events .2) Both affect cognitive process and behaviour of people .3) Both are durable , deep rooted and difficult to change .4) Both influence each other and more often than not , are used interchangeably .

DISSIMILARITIES :

S.NO: ATTITUDE VALUE1. Attitude exhibit predisposition to respond Values represent judgemental

ideas in relation to what is right .

2. Attitude refers to several beliefs relating to a specific object or situation .

Values represent single beliefs focused on objects or situation .

3. Attitudes are the offshoot of one’s personal experiences .

Values are derived from social and cultural mores .