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international foundation for development alternatives

fundacion international para alternativas de desarrollo

fondation internationale pour un autre developpement

IFDA DOSSIER 26 . NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1981

CONTENTS Pages

INTRODUCTORY NOTE: CODEV: Communications t o r Development 2

- I s m a i l - S a b r i Abda l la i n j a i l ;

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS / M A T ~ R I A U X . The T h i r d World i n t h e c r i s i s . Arab A l t e r n a t i v e Fu tu res ( Ismai l - S a b r i Abdal l a )

. Nicaragua 1981: I n t e r n a l cha l lenges and e x t e r n a l t h r e a t s (M. Arruda) 17

. A l t e r n a t e development s t r a t e g i e s f o r Koraput (Vinod Vyasu lu j

. Technology, "another educa t ion" and development i n A f r i c a ( R i t a Kashope Dixon F y l e )

MARK I NGS

. Development human r i g h t s and t h e r u l e o f law ( I .C .J . )

INTERACTIONS . La coopera t ion pour I e developpement e t l a p a i x (Ahmed Ben Salah) . Human r i g h t s : t h e s i l e n t v i c t i m s (Asma Ben Hamida) . Black i s t h e c o l o u r o f my TV tube (Claude Robinson) . Fear, a n x i e t y and h a t e we s t i l l keep . The new wave o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Consumer Movement . The p o l i t i c s o f t h e s o l a r age (Hazel Henderson) . Proposal f o r t h e c r e a t i o n i n B r a s i l o f a c e n t r e f o r t h e s tudy and

promot ion of urban and r u r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s (Manfred A. Max-Neef)

MATERIAL RECEIVED

FOOTNOTES / NOTES / NOTAS

INDEX - Dossiers 17-26

Contributions t o the IFDA Dossier are presented under the responsibii.t-ity o f t h e i r authors. They are not covered by any copyright. They may be repro- duced or transmitted i n any f o m or by any means without permission o f the authors or IFDA. I n case of reprint , acknowledgement of source and rece ip t o f a copy would be appreciated. IFDA Dossier i s published bi-monthly.

executive committee ismail-sabn abdailo. ahmed ben soiah, gomani corea, mahbub ui haq, enrique iglesias, )an meijer, marc nsrfin (president, justinicn f rweyemamu, ignacy sachs, juon somavio, maunce f strong, ingo thorsson

co-chairmen 1981-1982. fernando hennque cardoso, ernst michanek

secretariat: 2, place du macche, ch-1260 nyon, Switzerland; telephone 41 (22) 61 8282: telex 28840 ifda ch: cable fipad, genevo

CODEV: COMMUN I CAT1 ONS FOR DEVELOPMENT

There h a s b e e n , f o r some y e a r s , a r a t h e r h e a t e d d e b a t e on what i s now c a l l e d t h e New World I n f o r m a t i o n and Communication O r d e r (NWICO). It i s a d e b a t e among t h e media and t h e m i n i s t r i e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n , t a k i n g p l a c e i n t h e p r e s s and i n Uni ted N a t i o n s c o n f e r e n c e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e o f UNESCO.

The d e b a t e i s o f i n t e r e s t t o everyone b e c a u s e what i s a t s t a k e c r i t i c a l l y a f f e c t s o u r d a i l y l i v e s and s h a p e s o u r f u t u r e s . P a r t i - c i p a t i o n i n t h e d e b a t e s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e b e much w i d e r t h a n it i s t o d a y - i t s h o u l d b e open t o a l l c i t i z e n s .

The t i m e h a s a l s o come t o go beyond t h e exchange o f arguments between commercial and governmenta l a c t o r s . There i s a l e g i t i m a t e and c r u c i a l s p a c e i n communication - a s p a r t o f t h e NWICO - f o r t h e autonomous e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e p e o p l e and t h e t h i r d s y s t e m - i t s a s s o c i a t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s .

The r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h i s need b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r a few s i s t e r o rgan- i z a t i o n s which have been a c t i v e f o r some y e a r s i n implement ing t h e c o n c e p t s o f t h e NWICO, t o j o i n f o r c e s and p o o l t h e i r e n e r g i e s . IFDA, I n t e r P r e s s S e r v i c e T h i r d World News Agency, t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f A f r i c a n Women f o r Research and Development, t h e Dag Hammarskjold Founda t ion , t h e I n s t i t u t e L a t i n o a m e r i c a n o d e e s t u d i o s t r a n s - n a c i o n a l e s (ILET) and t h e T h i r d World Forum have t h u s formed, t h i s summer, CODEV, Communications f o r Development, a non-governmental , n o n - p r o f i t making f o u n d a t i o n w i t h h e a d q u a r t e r s i n Mal ta .

CODEV s e e s communication a s a n e s s e n t i a l p a r t o f t h e development p r o c e s s , a s a s o c i a l f u n c t i o n , n o t a s a commodity o r propaganda. CODEV w i l l work i n t h r e e b r o a d d i r e c t i o n s :

. toward d i r e c t communicat ions between p e o p l e and t h e i r o r g a n i z a - t i o n s w i t h i n t h e T h i r d World a s w e l l a s between South and N o r t h ;

. toward " a n o t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n " which h e l p s p e o p l e and s o c i e t i e s t o know and u n d e r s t a n d e a c h o t h e r b e t t e r and r e f l e c t s t h e i r development p r o c e s s e s ;

. toward p a r t i c i p a t i v e communicat ions among e q u a l s a s opposed t o t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f messages t o p a s s i v e a u d i e n c e s .

The i n i t i a t o r s o f CODEV hope t h a t t h e new Founda t ion w i l l g e t t h e n e c e s s a r y s u p p o r t t o e n a b l e it t o p l a y , i n t h e f i e l d o f a l t e r - n a t i v e communicat ions, t h e r o l e which IFDA p l a y e d t h r o u g h i t s T h i r d System p r o j e c t , t h a t i s , t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e work o f l i k e - minded o r g a n i z a t i o n s .

The members o f i t s E x e c u t i v e Committee (most o f whom a r e w e l l known t o t h e r e a d e r s o f t h e IFDA D o s s i e r ) a r e : Ismayl-Sabri Abdalla. Eygpt, Chairman, Third World Forum; Salah Al-Shaikhly, Irak, Director, Centre

(cont. on page 12(16)).

ISMA IL-SABRI ABDALLA IN JAIL !

Ismail-Sabri Abdalla, our friend, is among the 1536 Egyptians officially arrested in early September (the real figure, it is reported, is closer to 4or even 5,000 persons). Ismail-Sabri Abdalla is a member of the Executive Committee of IFDA, chairman of the Third World Forum, member of the United Nations Committee forDevelopmentPlanning, Co-ordinator of the UNU-sponsored Arab Alternative Futures Project, adviser to UNEP for the Blue Plan to save the Mediterranean and vice-chairman of the Society for International Develop- ment. In Egypt he was Planning Minister (1971-74) and Director General of the Institute of National Planning (1969-71 and 1975-77). He is one of the most respected Arab intellectuals and is widely known the world over as the (partial) list above testifies. His writings, in Arabic, French and English show his commitment to another development and to a genuine international cooperation.

(cont. on page 12(16)).

On the picture above, taken in February 1969, from right to left, Lotfi el-Kholy, HassaneinHeykal (also arrested), Gamal Abdel Nasser, Ismail-Sabri Abdalla and Anouar el-Sadate.

development dialogue A international cooperation published Foundation, I)q journal Hammarskjold of by the development

Uppsala

1981:l

The Automatic Mobilization of Resources for Development

Introduction 1 The Gap in International Resource Transfers to the Third World 5 Automaticity-Why and How 14 An International Disaster Relief Insurance Ernst Michanek 30 The Link between the Creation of Special Drawing Rights (SDRs) and Development Finance Peter Saladin 38 The Financing of Energy Alternatives Beat Alexander Jenny 47

Another Development and the Local Space

Introduction 65 Alternatives for Survivors: Report from the 'Third System' Project 68 The Local Space: A Privileged Instance of Development Atidr(i,\ Biro 103 The Tiradentes Project: Revitalization of Small Cities for Self-reliance Manfred A . Max-Neef 115 Education and Culture for Liberation Patrick van Rensburg 138 The Gotland House: Family Relations through Four Generations in Rural Sweden Berit Larsson 153

(Cop ies may be o b t a i n e d from t h e Dag Hammarskjold Founda t ion , Ovre S l o t t s g a t a n 2 , S 752 20 Uppsa la , Sweden.)

BUILDING BLOCKS

THE THIRD WORLD I N THE CRIS IS by I smaf l -Sabr i Abda l l a Chairman, T h i r d World Forum 39 Dokki S t r e e t P.O. Box 43, Oman C a i r o , Egypt

O r i g i n a l l anguage : French ( E n g l i s h t r a n s l a t i o n by IFDA)

Abstract: Modem capi ta l i sm has entered a long phase o f s lou growth, for which there are no easy remedies. The r e su l t i ng s t ruc tu ra l c r i s i s has a global impact; t he Third World i s especia l ly vulnerable t o i t . While t he Third World seeks t o res truc ture t he in ternat ional economic order, the response from the North i s generally discouraging. The only pos i t i v e react ion i s the proposal for massive resource t rans f e r s t o t he South, seen by some as a remedy for both Southern underdevelopment and Northern s tag f la t i on . But t h i s is :ar from acceptance by Western governments and publ ic opinion.

The way ou t o f the c r i s i s i s through fundamental restructu* o f i n t e rna t ionr l r e la t i ons and concomitant national change. The transnational corvorations must be recognized as an obstacle t o change and the hegemony o f Vestpn" ccr- cepts replaced by cultural- pluralism. The West must seek new, sus ta inable and humanizing pat terns o f development; the South must modernize w i th in i t s owi cul tural framework; t he East must assume i t s r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t o the world community. A genuine North-South dialogue must lead t o global management. World leaders require a h i s t o r i c a l perspective and an awareness o f t k e reeds o f the future; both are sadly lacking i n the North as i n t he Sout I .

(The a r t i c l e i s a t rans la t i on from the French or ig ina l published i n H-Hiptciri- No. 6 , October-December 1980 (Hachette, Par is ) .

LE T I E R S MONDE DANS LA C R I S E

R6sum6: Le capitalisme moderne e s t entrd duns une phase de croissanc,e fxt^r-i - ment l en t e pour laquel le i n n 'y a pas de panacge. La c r i s e s t ruc ture77= i en rgsu l t e a m impact global. l e T i e r s Monde y e s t particull?rement i7 t i'r-. L .

Tandis que l e T i e r s Monde cherche 2 r e s t m o t u r e r l 'ordre &conon-iaiie it tt-P- nat ional , l a r6ponse du Nord e s t gdniralement d&ourageante. La s s h ri"i*La pos i t i v e e s t l e proje t de t r a n s f e r t s massifs de ressources finai r7:rep 1.i W t

Sud, vu par cer ta ins c o m e remiide e t pour Le sous-d6velowemcnt dr P it1 e T * 1- b >

La ' s t a g f l a t i o n ' du Nord. Mais ee proje t e s t l o i n d ' S t r e arcat ~t ' ; or c

gouvernemetns occidentaux e t par l 'opinion.

La s o r t i e de l a c r i s e se trouve dans l a res truc turat ion fondar'ientsl~ :C ., re la t i ons in ternat ionales e t duns l e s changements c.7;tft>T.lc i r"c l^ ' j i t r J I i :

(suite 5 la page lO(14)).

I s m a i l - S a b r i A b d a l l a

THE THIRD WORLD I N THE C R I S I S

Like a n a b s t r a c t sculpture, t h e c r i s i s m a n i f e s t s i t s e l f on s e v e r a l i n t e r c o n n e c t e d l e v e l s , whose t r u e meaning e s c a p e s t h e f l e e t i n g g l a n c e o f t h e uninformed o b s e r v e r . On t h e s u r f a c e , one s e e s t h e c y c l i c a l f l u c t u a t i o n s which a r e i n h e r e n t i n t h e marke t economy. The Keynesian m e d i c i n e , b e f o r e it c e a s e d t o work, mere ly s e r v e d t o smooth o u t t h e i r c u r v e by b r i n g i n g t h e peaks and t r o u g h s c l o s e r t o g e t h e r . C y c l e s o f an a v e r a g e d u r a t i o n o f t e n y e a r s have been f o l l o w e d by t h o s e o f two o r t h r e e y e a r s . The common economic i n d i c a t o r s - r a t e o f growth, l e v e l o f unemployment, b a l - a n c e o f payments , e v o l u t i o n o f t h e money s u p p l y , e t c . - c o n t i n u e , d e s p i t e t h e i r i m p e r f e c t i o n s , t o r e f l e c t t h e s e f l u c t u a t i o n s . These i n d i c a t o r s t h u s remain t h e p r i n c i p a l o b j e c t o f p r o s p e c t i v e s u r v e y s , of t h e p o n d e r i n g s o f d e c i s i o n - t a k e r s and of p o l i t i c a l d e b a t e . The p h a s e s i n t h e c y c l e a r e now s o s h o r t - l i v e d , t h a t " e x p e r t s " and t h o s e i n power can g e t away w i t h t a l k o f mere " r e - a d j u s t m e n t s " , more o r l e s s w e l l synchronized - a s i f t h e c r i s i s c o u l d be e x o r c i s e d by banning t h e mention o f i t s name.

On a s e c o n d l e v e l , t h e p e r s i s t e n c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 7 0 ' s o f two a l l e g e d l y u n r e l a t e d phenomena - l a s t i n g , l a r g e - s c a l e unemployment, and a d i s q u i e t i n g r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n - h a s s p a r k e d o f f a t h e o r e t i c a l q u a r r e l between " m o n e t a r i s t s " , neo-Keynesians, and n e o - c l a s s i c a l e c o n o m i s t s . The s c i e n c e o f economics i s no l o n g e r a b l e t o p r o v i d e p e r p l e x e d d e c i s i o n - t a k e r s w i t h t h e h e l p t h e y s o b a d l y need i n d e a l - i n g w i t h what h a s come t o be c a l l e d " s t a g f l a t i o n " . Wie ld ing t h e axe on p u b l i c s p e n d i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y on w e l f a r e , h a s n o t e n a b l e d M r s . T h a t c h e r , f o r example, t o b r i n g a b o u t any r a d i c a l r e d u c t i o n i n t h e r a t e o f i n f l a t i o n , w h i l e a t t h e same t i m e unemployment h a s c o n t i n u e d t o i n c r e a s e . (1 .9 m i l l i o n were o u t o f work a c c o r d i n g t o t h e most r e c e n t e s t i m a t e s ) ^ / . Taking t h e o p p o s i t e c o u r s e would s t a r t o f f a new round o f i n f l a t i o n , make e x p o r t p r i c e s l e s s com- p e t i t i v e , and i n c r e a s e s o c i a l u n e s t a s a r e s u l t o f f u r t h e r wage c l a i m s .

C o n f r o n t e d by t h i s dilemma, a c e r t a i n number o f w r i t e r s p u t t h e blame on t h e " r i g i d i t i e s " which t h e y s e e a s impeding marke t mecha- n i sms and t h u s a l l o w i n g t h e s i t u a t i o n fewer chances o f b e i n g r i g h t - e d by t h e s p o n t a n e o u s working o f t h e s e mechanisms. By " r i g i d i t e s " t h e y mean, i n e s s e n c e , t h e power o f t h e t r a d e u n i o n s , which , t h r o u g h t h e i n d e x a t i o n o f e a r n i n g s , p r e v e n t s any s u b s t a n t i a l r e d u c t i o n i n r e a l wages, and unemployment b e n e f i t s w h i c h t r a n s f e r t o p u b l i c e x p e n d i t u r e a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f t h e wages o f workers who have l o s t t h e i r j o b s . Under ly ing t h i s a n a l y s i s i s t h e i d e a

Editor's note: This article was published in 1980; the estimates for September 1981 show 3 million unemployed in the U.K.

t h a t a r e d u c t i o n i n r e a l wages would s t i m u l a t e i n v e s t m e n t and i n c r e a s e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f goods a t p r i c e s which would b e compet i - t i v e a b r o a d . I t i s n o t t h e purpose o f t h i s a r t i c l e t o d i s c u s s w h e t h e r t h a t i d e a i s wel l - founded . W e w i l l t h e r e f o r e l i m i t our - s e l v e s h e r e t o p o i n t i n g o u t a n o t h e r r i g i d i t y , a t t r i b u t a b l e t h i s t ime t o businessmen: t h a t i s t h e i r r e f u s a l t o r e d u c e p r i c e s a s a means o f g e n e r a t i n g s a l e s . T h e i r common r e a c t i o n t o a r e c e s s i o n i s t o r e d u c e p r o d u c t i o n and p u t workers o u t o f j o b s .

T h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f r i g i d i t i e s , w h a t e v e r t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e v a l i d i t y , l e a d s us i n t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l a s p e c t s o f t h e c r i s i s . For it i s i n t h e s t r u c t u r e of p r e s e n t - d a y c a p i t a l i s m , and p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e n a t u r e and c o n t e n t o f t h e economic growth w i t n e s s e d between 1945 and 1 9 7 0 , t h a t t h e b a s i s o f t h e phenomena b r i e f l y ment ioned above i s t o b e found . Here i s t h e t h i r d l e v e l o f t h e c r i s i s ; it de- s e r v e s t o b e c o n s i d e r e d somewhat more f u l l y .

The h i s t o r y o f c a p i t a l i s m o v e r t h e two c e n t u r i e s s i n c e t h e Indus- t r i a l R e v o l u t i o n h a s been marked by t h e a l t e r n a t i o n o f l o n g p e r i o d s o f r a p i d growth w i t h o t h e r s o f n o t i c e a b l y s l o w e r rhythms. The d r a m a t i c c h a r a c t e r o f s h o r t - t e r m c y c l i c a l f l u c t u a t i o n s h a s a t t r a c - t e d t h e a t t e n t i o n o f numerous e c o n o m i s t s , and h a s i n s p i r e d a r a t h e r abundant c r o p o f l i t e r a t u r e , r a n g i n g from t h e e m p i r i c a l s t u d i e s o f t h e good Doctor J u g l a r , t o t h e famous "Genera l Theory" and t h e pos t -Keynes ian works. N e v e r t h e l e s s , a n e c o n o m i s t o f c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s renown, t h e Russ ian K o n d r a t i e f , b e l i e v e d t h a t he c o u l d d i s - c e r n major long- te rm c y c l e s ( l a s t i n g 30 t o 50 y e a r s ) , encompassing t h e s h o r t - t e r m f l u c t u a t i o n s w i t h which we a r e more f a m i l i a r . While n o t g o i n g as f a r a s K o n d r a t i e f , c e r t a i n w r i t e r s ( o f whom Kuznets i s undoubted ly t h e b e s t known) h a v e , by e m p i r i c a l means, o b s e r v e d a s u c c e s s i o n o f l o n g p e r i o d s o f i n t e n s e economic a c t i v i t y f o l l o w e d by o n e s o f r e l a t i v e s l u g g i s h n e s s . These w r i t e r s have shown t h a t e a c h o f t h e s e p e r i o d s had i t s own s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Schumpeter , f o r h i s p a r t , s o u g h t t o l i n k t h e s e l o n g p e r i o d s o f r a p i d growth w i t h t h e c o n c e p t o f i n n o v a t i o n .

Beyond t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n a n a l y s i s , t h e f a c t o f t h e phenomenon r e m a i n s . The p e r i o d between 1913 and 1939 a s a whole was undoubt- e d l y one o f a p a t h y , w h i l e t h a t f rom 1945 t o 1970 - i n c o n t r a s t - was a p h a s e o f growth on an u n p r e c e d e n t e d s c a l e . The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s phenomenon may b e b o i l e d down t o two. The f i r s t was t h e re- c o n s t r u c t i o n o f Europe and Japan . The M a r s h a l l P l a n n o t o n l y s e r v e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t h i s e f f o r t o f e x c e p t i o n a l d i m e n s i o n s , b u t a l s o a c t e d a s a powerfu l e n g i n e o f growth f o r American economy. The second r e a s o n was t h e s y m b i o s i s o f t h e w o r l d ' s most advanced marke t economies which p r o g r e s s i v e l y r e p l a c e d t h e c o n f l i c t u a l s i t u - a t i o n s s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e p e r i o d between t h e Wars. T h i s s y m b i o s i s h a s had many and l a s t i n g consequences . For t h e moment we s h a l l f o c u s on one o f t h e s e : t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f t h e American way o f l i f e i n a l l t h e o t h e r c a p a t i l i s t c o u n t r i e s , which was i n - s t r u m e n t a l i n s u s t a i n i n g growth a f t e r t h e p e r i o d o f r e c o n s t r u c t i o n was comple ted .

From b e f o r e t h e Second World War, American companies , a l r e a d y bene- f i t t i n g from an immense d o m e s t i c m a r k e t , expanded t h i s f u r t h e r by

i n t r o d u c i n g consumer d u r a b l e s , i n p a r t i c u l a r c a r s . Fo l lowing c l o s e b e h i n d , Western Europe and l a t e r Japan s e t out on t h e same p a t h , t h u s g i v i n g b i r t h t o what some American w r i t e r s have c h r i s t e n e d t h e "au tomobi le c i v i l i s a t i o n " , i n view o f t h e immense i n v e s t m e n t s which t h e g e n e r a l i s e d u s e o f p r i v a t e c a r s h a s b r o u g h t a b o u t i n d i f f e r e n t economic s e c t o r s , b o t h ups t ream and downstream i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e c i r i n d u s t r y i t s e l f . The s u b s e q u e n t e l e c t r o n i c r e v o l u t i o n markedly r e i n f o r c e d t h i s t r e n d : f i r s t , by i n t r o d u c i n g a whole new r a n g e o f consumer d u r a b l e s ( t e l e v i s i o n , h i - f i ) and a l s o by a c h i e v i n g b r e a t h t a k i n g improvements i n l a b o u r p r o d u c t i v i t y . The l a t t e r made p o s s i b l e s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e s i n t h e r e m u n e r a t i o n o f workers i n a l m o s t a l l c a t e g o r i e s , t h u s c r e a t i n g t h e marke t t h e new p r o d u c t s needed . E n t r e p r e n e u r i a l p r o f i t s were i n no way dimin- i s h e d i n t h e p r o c e s s ; i n d e e d t h e y grew and were u s e d t o f i n a n c e s u b s t a n t i a l i n v e s t m e n t s i n a l l s e c t o r s o f t h e economy.

I n t r o d u c i n g a new t y p e o f consumption would a p p e a r t o c o n s t i t u t e a n " i n n o v a t i o n " , i n S c h u m p e t e r ' s s e n s e o f t h e t e rm. Schumpeter however h o l d s t h a t t h e e f f e c t o f any i n n o v a t i o n i s always tempor- a r y . Once t h e m a j o r i t y o f consumers p o s s e s s t h e new p r o d u c t s , growth i n demand t e n d s t o b e m a r g i n a l , and i s main ly a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e r e p l a c e m e n t o f o u t - d a t e d o r u n u s a b l e goods , and by t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e n e e d s o f t h o s e s o c i a l g r o u p s whose incomes a r e t h e l a s t t o r e a c h t h e t h r e s h o l d beyond which t h e y a r e t r a n s l a t e d i n t o demand. S t a t i s t i c s showing t h e number o f c a r s o r t e l e v i s i o n s e t s p e r i n h a b i t a n t i n t h e Uni ted S t a t e s , J a p a n , o r t h e EEC p r o v e t h a t t h e s e c o u n t r i e s have p r a c t i c a l l y e x h a u s t e d t h e growth po ten- t i a l which r e s u l t e d from t h e d i f f u s i o n o f consumer d u r a b l e s , i n - c l u d i n g t h e " g a d g e t s " o f t h e "conscimer s o c i e t y " . Proof o f t h i s i s t o be found i n t n e growing c o n c e r n f o r t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e , which i s s o u g h t even a t t h e p r i c e o f a r e d u c t i o n i n t h e q u a n t i t y o f t h i n g s " which have become p l e n t i f u l . A l l t h e e v i d e n c e seems t o i n d i c a t e t h a t c a p i t a l i s m i s e n t e r i n g a new phase o f e x t r e m e l y s low growth . I n h i s book, " P o s t - i n d u s t r i a l S o c i e t y " , G a l b r a i t h f o r e s e e s t h i s e v o l l t i o n , and p i n s h i s hopes on t h e development o f t h e t e r t i a r y s e c t o r . B u t , t h e r e a l s o t h e c r i s i s h a s a l r e a d y made i n r o a d s .

What p a r t d o e s t h e T h i r d World p l a y i n a l l t h i s ? I n o r d e r t o answer t h i s q u e s t i o n , one must remember t h a t t h e w e i g h t o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s i n t h e w o r l d economy (80% o f g l o b a l GNP) makes o f them t h e c e n t r e o f t h e w o r l d o r d e r , w h i l e t h e m a j o r i t y o f humanity, l i v i n g i n what a r e i n c o r r e c t l y c a l l e d t h e d e v e l o p i n g c o u n t r i e s , mere ly c o n s t i t u t e t h e p e r i p h e r y . Waves o f p r o s p e r i t y o r d e p r e s s i o n a r e g e n e r a t e d i n t h e c e n t r e and r a d i a t e o u t w a r d s , g a i n i n g i n s t r e n g t h i n t h e c a s e o f d e p r e s s i o n and weakening i n t h e c a s e o f p r o s p e r i t y . T h i s , a t any r a t e , h a s been t h e model u n t i l now. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e T h i r d World i s no l o n g e r q u i t e what it was b e f o r e t h e movement o f n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n was u n l e a s h e d . I t s b e h a v i o u r i s l i k e l y t o have l e s s and less i n common w i t h t h e p a s s i v e a t t i t u d e s o f t h e o l d c o l o n i e s , a s it becomes more aware t h a t r e a l development is n o t h i n g o t h e r t h a n economic and c u l t u r - a l d e c o l o n i s a t i o n .

A l r e a d y , c e r t a i n p e o p l e a r e h o l d i n g t h e OPEC c o u n t r i e s a t l e a s t p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e p r e s e n t c r i s i s . The s l o g a n " I t a l l s t a r t e d when o i l p r i c e s were r a i s e d i n 1973" s e r v e s o n l y t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h e i g n o r a n c e o r t h e demagogy o f t h o s e who b r a n d i s h it. L e t u s r e c a l l c e r t a i n f a c t s t o d i s p r o v e t h i s unfounded s l o g a n which, a s r e l a y e d and b o i l e d down by t h e media, makes t h e Arabs i n g e n e r a l , o r a t any r a t e t h e " s h e i k h s " , r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l t h e woes o f t h e West. F i r s t o f a l l , t h e OPEC c o u n t r i e s p roduce o n l y 2 5 % o f t h e w o r l d ' s p e t r o l e u m . Of i t s t h i r t e e n member s t a t e s , two a r e among t h e w o r l d ' s poor c o u n t r i e s : I n d o n e s i a and N i g e r i a . S i x o t h e r s a r e s o h e a v i l y i n d e b t t h a t t h e y a r e i n f a c t n e t bor rowers on e x t e r n a l account . The f i v e member c o u n t r i e s which do have a c a p i t a l s u r p l u s have a t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f between 10 and 12 m i l l i o n p e o p l e , whence t h e i r dery l i m i t e d " a b s o r p t i v e c a p a c i t y " f o r c a p i t a l . We s h o u l d add t h e o f t e n n e g l e c t e d f a c t t h a t t h e b u l k o f t h e s e s u r p l u s e s i s i n v e s t e d on t h e Western f i n a n c i a l m a r k e t s .

F i n a l l y , l e t us n o t e t h a t o i l p r o d u c i n g c o u n t r i e s o u t s i d e OPEC s e l l t h e i r c r u d e a t p r i c e s w e l l above OPEC l e v e l s : Mexico and t h e Uni ted Kingdom a r e examples o f t h i s .

T h i s b e i n g s a i d , it remains t r u e t h a t t h e a c t i o n t a k e n by OPEC a f f o r d s a s i g n i f i c a n t c l u e t o t h e f u t u r e b e h a v i o u r o f t h e T l - i rd World. I n t h e n e a r f u t u r e , f u r t h e r measures aimed a t i n c r e a s i n g t h e v a l u e o f raw m a t e r i a l s may be e x p e c t e d . For a long t i m e , t h e t e r m s o f t r a d e have worked t o t h e d i s a d v a n t a g e of t h e c o u n t r i e s p r o d u c i n g raw m a t e r i a l s . N a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f " p r o d u c e r s a s s o c i a t i o n s " , and marke t i n t e r v e n t i o n w i l l becom i n c r e a s i n g l y common p r a c t i c e s . Though s u b j e c t t o t h e i n e v i t a b l e f l u c t u a t i o n s , t h e t r e n d f o r t h e p r i c e s o f a l l raw mater - i a l s , n o t o n l y o i l and n a t u r a l g a s , w i l l b e towards a marked r i s e . A s t i l l g r e a t e r c a u s e f o r c o n c e r n i s t h a t t h e r e a r e r e a l r i s k s o f s c a r c i t y . Many T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a r e t r y i n g t o i n d u s t r i a l i z e . O f t e n , t h e s e c o u n t r i e s e m u l a t e t h e i n d u s t r i a l model found a t t h e c e n t r e , w i t h i t s enormous e n e r g y and raw m a t e r i a l r e q u i r e m e n t s . G l o b a l demand f o r t h e s e r e s o u r c e s w i l l t h e r e f o r e i n c r e a s e , and i t can s a f e l y b e s a i d t h a t , i f a number o f h i g h l y p o p u l a t e d c o u n t r i e s s u c c e e d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a n i n d u s t r i a l c a p a c i t y comparable t o t h a t found i n S o u t h e r n Europe , t h e r e w i l l b e a c u t e t e n s i o n i n c e r t a i n raw m a t e r i a l m a r k e t s . To t a k e an ex t reme example: i f t h e whole wor ld were t o have t h e same p e r c a p i t a e n e r g y consumption a s p r e - s e n t l y e x i s t s i n t h e Uni ted S t a t e s , o i l p r o d u c t i o n would have t o i n c r e a s e f i f t e e n - f o l d !

From a n o t h e r p o i n t o f v iew, t h e h i s t o r i c a l r o l e o f o l d c o l o n i a l e m p i r e s a s m a r k e t s f o r t h e goods produced i n m e t r o p o l i t a n c o u n t r i e s i s p r o g r e s s i v e l y d w i n d l i n g . Many T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a r e p ro- t e c t i n g t h e i r f l e d g l i n g i n d u s t r i e s o r a r e s imply r e d u c i n g t h e i r i m p o r t s o f consumer gooods i n o r d e r t o a c q u i r e c a p i t a l goods i n - s t e a d . What i s o f even g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e i s t h e widening gap between t h e s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s and t h a t i n t h e T h i r d World. " S o p h i s t i c a t e d " goods d e s i g n e d t o a t t r a c t consumers i n t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s , and consumer d u r a b l e s i n p a r t i c u l a r , a r e s o l d a t p r i c e s which o n l y a t i n y m i n o r i t y o f

T h i r d World p e o p l e , t h e s o - c a l l e d S l i t e s , c a n a f f o r d . A g l a n c e a t wor ld t r a d e f i g u r e s s u f f i c e s t o show how t h e T h i r d World m a r k e t s have d e c l i n e d . In 1960 t h e s e m a r k e t s took 2 4 . 9 % of t h e goods ex- p o r t e d by t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d c o u n t r i e s . By 1970 t h i s s h a r e had f a l l e n t o 1 8 . 7 % . Even w i t h a l l t h e p u r c h a s e s made by OPEC coun- t r i e s a f t e r t h e q u a d r u p l i n g o f o i l - p r i c e s , it had i n c r e a s <? t o o n l y 23.7% i n 1977 , t h a t i s , s t i l l below t h e 1960 f i g u r e . 2 Gone a r e t h e d a y s when e m p i r e s a b s o r b e d t h e b u l k o f m e t r o p o l i t a n ex- p o r t s . Fur thermore , t h e p r o t e c t i o n i s m w i t h which t h e i n d u s t r i a l - i s e d c o u n t r i e s now c o n f r o n t p r o d u c t s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s , which t h e y had p r e v i o u s l y encouraged t o b u i l d up e x p o r t - o r i e n t e d i n d u s t r i e s , w i l l r e s u l t i n d e c r e a s e d demand f o r t h e c a p i t a l goods t h e s e v e r y i n d u s t r i e s r e q u i r e .

Meanwhile, t h e T h i r d World c a n n o t remain i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e c r i s i s o r t o t h e p r o s p e c t o f i t s deepening . The i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e of n a t i o n - a l economies - i f one s t r i p s t h e t e r m o f a l l r h e t o r i c - i s a n incon- t r o v e r t i b l e f a c t i n t h e p r e s e n t s t a t e o f t h e wor ld . The T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a r e an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f a g l o b a l sys tem which t h e y c a n n o t c o n t r o l ; t h e y s u f f e r t h e consequences o f d e c i s i o n s t a k e n by t h e o l i g a r c h y which r u l e s t h e wor ld economy ( t h e seven i n - d u s t r i a l powers whose l e a d e r s p e r i o d i c a l l y t a k e c o u n s e l t o g e t h e r a t t h e i r summit m e e t i n g s ) . The a c t i o n - and t h e i n a c t i o n - o f t h e l e a d e r s o f t h e c e n t r e c a n n o t f a i l t o have r e p e r c u s s i o n s on t h e p e r i p h e r y .

To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s s t a t e o f a f f a i r s , l e t us suppose f o r a moment t h a t t h e d i s o r d e r now r e i g n i n g i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l monetary s y s - tem were t o r e s u l t i n a c r a s h i n t h e major f i n a n c i a l c e n t r e s . What e f f e c t would t h i s have on t h e T h i r d World? A c o u n t r y which had f u e l l e d i t s r a p i d e x p a n s i o n w i t h a n ' i n f l o w o f c r e d i t from a b r o a d ( a s i s t h e c a s e o f B r a z i l , which h a s a b o u t U S $ 50 b i l l i o n of d e b t o u t s t a n d i n g t o f o r e i g n b a n k s ) would suddenly s e e t h i s s o u r c e o f funds d r y up, t h u s b r i n g i n g i t s growth t o an a b r u p t h a l t . A t t h e o t h e r end o f t h e spec t rum, a c o u n t r y w i t h a l a r g e s u r p l u s o f c a p i t a l ( t h e c a s e o f Saudi A r a b i a ) would s e e i t s s u r p l u s v a n i s h under t h e combined impac t o f t h e c o l l a p s e o f f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y v a l u e s and o f emergency measures , such a s a moratorium o r a more o r l e s s t emporary f r e e z e on a l l payments . Even w i t h o u t t a k i n g s u c h an ex t reme example, it i s c l e a r t h a t c o n t i n u i n g s t a g n a t i o n a t t h e c e n t r e i s i n e v i t a b l y hav ing a n a d v e r s e e f f e c t on t h e q u a n t i t y and p r i c e o f e x p o r t s f rom t h e T h i r d World ( n o t o n l y on raw m a t e r i a l e x p o r t s , b u t on manufac tured goods a s w e l l ) .

To t a k e a n o t h e r a s p e c t o f t h e problem, h i s t o r y h a s t a u g h t us t h a t , i n t h e c e n t r e c o u n t r i e s , r e c e s s i o n s t e n d t o r e i n f o r c e r i g h t - w i n g p o l i t i c a l o p t i o n s , s u c h a s p r o t e c t i o n i s m and i n t e r v e n t i o n i s m i n r e g i o n s where t h e s e c o u n t r i e s p e r c e i v e " v i t a l i n t e r e s t s " . I n t h i s c o n t e x t , t h o s e mos t d i r e c t l y concerned and e s p e c i a l l y v u l n e r a b l e a r e t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s which depend most h e a v i l y on t h e c e n t r e , e i t h e r b e c a u s e t h e y s u p p l y it w i t h i n p u t s which a r e

A' Editor's note: An estimate of the figure for 1979 is 21.9%.

considered i r r e p l a c e a b l e (e .g . o i l ) , o r because t h e c e n t r e countries have l a r g e inves tments i n them. I t i s however e q u a l l y c e r - t a i n t h a t , given t h e p r e s e n t system of i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e l i n k s , no country would be t o t a l l y s h e l t e r e d from t h e f a l l - o u t of an ex- p los ion of t h e cr is is . I t fo l lows t h e r e f o r e t h a t it would n o t be i n t h e Third World 's i n t e r e s t t o adopt a f a t a l i s t i c a t t i t u d e , and, i n a l l p r o b a b i l i t y , it w i l l n o t do s o .

Unfor tunate ly , i t would s c a r c e l y be t r u e t o say t h a t a r e c i p r o c a l a t t i t u d e p r e v a i l s on t h e o t h e r s i d e . The West s t i l l f a i l s t o r e - a l i s e t h a t interdependence i m p l i e s , among o t h e r t h i n g s , t h a t t h e Th i rd World must have i t s say i n d e c i s i o n s a f f e c t i n g t h e world economy. The p r e v a i l i n g view among Western l e a d e r s i s t h a t t h e i r c o u n t r i e s a r e a b l e t o overcome t h e c r i s i s by t h e i r own means and by l i m i t i n g t o a minimum t h e i r commitments t o t h e Third World. There i s admi t t ed ly another school of t hough t , ranging from t h e World Bank t o a number of socia l -democra t ic l e a d e r s , and whose approach i s woven i n t o t h e Brandt Commission's r e p o r t . What it favour s i s a r e p e t i t i o n , on a g l o b a l s c a l e , of t h e Marshal1 P lan , which it cons ide r s t o have been a s u c c e s s f u l experiment. The i d e a i s t o t r a n s f e r massive c r e d i t s t o t h e Third World - U S $ 12 b i l l i o n a y e a r was t h e f i g u r e advanced by Robert McNarnara - i n t h e form of development a i d . One can p r e d i c t from expe r i ence t h a t , v i r t u a l l y a l l of t h e s e c r e d i t s would be r ecyc led t o t h e c o u n t r i e s which provided them through t h e purchase from those c o u n t r i e s of c a p i t a l goods and t e c h n i c a l know-how. These inc reased e x p o r t s would, i n t u r n , s t i m u l a t e t h e economies of t h e i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s , provided t h e sugges ted t r a n s f e r s were cont inued f o r a number o f yea r s . By then , t h e economic p rogres s achieved i n t h e Third World a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s a i d would i n c r e a s e i t s demand f o r Western p roduc t s . With t h e Th i rd World thus a b l e t o import c a p i t a l goods and s e r v i c e s , t h e o b s t a c l e a r i s i n g from i t s i n a b i l i t y t o absorb s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t i e s of consumer du rab le s would have been circumvented, and it would have become an engine o f economic growth f o r t h e i n d u s t r i a l i s e d n a t i o n s . I t is no t t h e purpose of t h i s a r t i c l e t o d i s c u s s t h e c o n d i t i o n s and t h e chances of success of such a p o l i c y ; whi le t hose who have devised it do n o t l ack t h e s p i r i t of i nnova t ion , it has y e t t o f i n d acceptance by Western governments l e t a lone by p u b l i c op in ion . Should t h e Western n a t i o n s one day decide t o implement such a p o l i c y , it could undoubtedly have a n o t i c e a b l y p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on t h e i r economies. However, i n t h e l i g h t of t h e r e a c t i o n of t h e "big seven" t o t h e Brandt Commission's r e p o r t , t h a t day s e e m s remote.

For u s , t h e c r i s i s i n t h e West i s a c r i s i s o f t h e e n t i r e world economic o r d e r , o f which t h e West i s t h e c e n t r e . I t can only be surmounted by means of more o r less s imul taneous s t r u c t u r a l and conceptual changes i n a l l t h r e e c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s o f t h e world economy: t h e c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s of t h e OECD, t h e Third World c o u n t r i e s (known i n UN c i r c l e s a s t h e Group of 7 7 , a l though they i n f a c t number about 120) and t h e s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s ( those of t h e Comecon, a s w e l l a s China) .

The i n d u s t r i a l i s e d powers must re-examine t h e n a t u r e and c o n t e n t of t h e i r growth, s o a s t o d i scove r growth p a t t e r n s which w i l l be l e s s p o l l u t i n g , l e s s w a s t e f u l of energy and n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , and

b e t t e r s u i t e d t o improving t h e q u a l i t y of l i f e . Cons ide ra t ion of t h e environment and of p e o p l e ' s non-mater ia l needs should r e - s u l t no t on ly i n a "new growth", a s a l r eady preached by c e r t a i n writers, b u t a l s o i n a l e s s mechanised and more human way of l i f e . Town-planning which encourages c o n v i v i a l i t y , and a r e - o r g a n i s a t i o n of t i m e which r e f l e c t s t h e needs f o r l e i s u r e , f o r t h e f r e e acqui - s i t i o n of knowledge, and f o r a c t i v i t i e s which a r e compat ib le wi th o l d age: t h e s e a r e s o many pa ths i n t h e s ea rch f o r a b e t t e r way of l i f e f o r a l l people throughout t h e world. The "world of th ings" , i n which people have c l o s e r c o n t a c t w i th machines than w i t h t h e i r f e l l o w s , must g ive way t o a "world o f peop le" , f r e e from t e n s i o n s and encouraging t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n of two fundamental human needs: s e l f - f u l f i l m e n t and c o n v i v i a l i t y . Such a change i n a t t i t u d e s and s t r u c t u r e s w i l l b r i n g about a b e t t e r unders tanding of t h e s t r u g g l e s and hopes of t h e d i s i n h e r i t e d m a j o r i t y of mankind. The Th i rd World w i l l t hen be recognised a s a f u l l y f l edged p a r t n e r i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community; a genuine North-South d i a logue can then begin and l e a d t o t h a t c o l l e c t i v e management of t h e w o r l d ' s a f f a i r s which t h e growing number of problems which c o n f r o n t c o u n t r i e s of bo th North and South make e v e r more neces sa ry .

The Th i rd World, f o r i t s p a r t , must abandon once and f o r a l l t h e i d e a of r e p e a t i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l expe r i ence of t h e development of Western c a p i t a l i s m . Such an ambit ion i s a d e l u s i o n ; h i s t o r y does n o t o f f e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r "remakes" and no-one can r e - c r e a t e t h e h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s i n which t h e West developed. To unders tand t h i s , one h a s on ly t o c a l l t o mind t h e r o l e of c o l o n i a l i s m i n t h a t p roces s o r t o c o n s i d e r t h e l i k e l y impact on t h e environment were Western-s ty le i n d u s t r i e s t o sp read a l l ove r t h e g lobe . Fu r the r - more, t h e coveted Western model i s n o t w i thou t i t s drawbacks; i t s human achievements a r e deba t ab l e . Our c o u n t r i e s should s e e no v i r t u e i n i m i t a t i n g , one might a lmost say i n aping,Western a t t i - t u d e s and s t r u c t u r e s . I t is now f o r us t o innovate : t o modernize w i thou t b reak ing away from our c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y ; t o b e n e f i t from t h e l e s s o n s t o be l e a r n e d from Western expe r i ence , adop t ing what i s p o s i t i v e , avo id ing what i s n e g a t i v e ; and t o e n r i c h human ex- p e r i e n c e wi th o u r own new c o n t r i b u t i o n s . We must l e a r n t o be s e l f - r e l i a n t a s i n d i v i d u a l c o u n t r i e s , a s groups of c o u n t r i e s and on t h e l e v e l of t h e Th i rd World a s a whole. We w i l l t h u s become f o r t h e r i c h c o u n t r i e s n o t on ly a v a l i d p a r t n e r i n d i a logue b u t a l s o an i n e v i t a b l e one.

The s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s a r e emerging f u r t h e r and f u r t h e r from t h e i r i s o l a t i o n . I t fo l lows t h a t they must t h e r e f o r e assume t h e i r f u l l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n t h e a f f a i r s of t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community. The c r i s i s may w e l l be a c r i s i s of c a p i t a l i s m ; none the l e s s , through t h e i r growing e x t e r n a l t r a d e and t h e upheavals it could cause i n t h e i r supply of energy and raw m a t e r i a l s , t h e s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s a r e n o t immune t o i t s e f f e c t s .

Thus, r a t h e r t han t u r n i n g t h e deba t e i n t o a s i d e - i s s u e , t h e pros- p e c t of a deepening of t h e c r i s i s should g i v e new l i f e and new dimensions t o t h e deba t e on t h e new i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r d e r . I n t h e f a c e of a c r i s i s which w i l l a f f e c t t h e e n t i r e world economy, only conce r t ed a c t i o n by t h e whole i n t e r n a t i o n a l community can hope t o succeed. Nothing l e s s i s c a l l e d f o r than t o r e s t r u c t u r e i n t e r -

national relations (economic and others) and to carry out the consequent adjustments in the national economies of the different groups of countries, always taking care to minimize their cost,

The reasons why such an approach finds so little favour with public opinion and with the decision-takers are to be found in certain aspects of the present structures and in attitudes which betray a curious insensitivity to the changes which have occurred and will occur in production relationships. With regard to structures, it may be observed that the crisis has not affected all the "actors" adversely. There is a whole category of players, and not of the least importance, who continue to profit from it. These are the transnational corporations, operating in dozens of countries all over the world. Factors such as their transcendence of national frontiers - so that no government has an overview of the activities of such firms headquartered in its territory - and the flexibility arising from their unrestricted access to capital markets have enabled these "conglomerates" (incorrectly called "multinationals") to accommodate to such phenomena as rapid inflation, unemployment and falling consumption of one or several products, or even of a given national economy. If one considers their economic power (they control 40% of world trade), their political power (some have even succeeded in overthrowing governments...) and their considerable influence on the media, one can clearly see that they have ways of making their point of view prevail. Obviously any concerted action aimed at restructuring the world economy constitutes a potential threat to their interests. Let us consider one example: if a global agreement between oil producers and importers were reached, regulating supplies and prices through contracts among states, the fantastic profits made by the major oil companies would suffer harshly.

As far as attitudes are concerned, the fact has to be faced that the evolution of the last thirty years has brought about a real crisis of civilization, in more ways than one. First of all, certain concepts have to be abandoned. One example is the notion of "natural" resources - with its implication that these resources are unlimited and in some cases more or less free of charge. Today, however, we know that even pure air and pure water cost something. The inclu- sion of the environment in our economic considerations, obliges us to revise completely this notion and its corollaries, such as exter- nalities and economies of scale. More generally, the idea of dominating or conquering nature - so central to Western ideology - will have to make way for the concept of symbiosis between mankind and nature, of which we form an integral part. Similarly, indivi- dualism, sharpened by the notion of the survival of the fittest, will have to be tempered by consideration of collective needs. Third, the concept of efficiency, which has in fact been reduced to that of maximising private profit, needs to be revised in the light of the long-term needs of the whole of society, of solidarity with future generations, and of mankind's non-material needs. On another level, it must also be accepted that the hegemony of Western

civilisation (in its broadest sense, including the socialist countries of Europe) is a thing of the past. Tomorrow's world will be one in which several civilisations (or cultures, as they are termed by anglo-saxon sociologists and anthropologists) will co- exist.

To conclude: observing the present crisis from the Third World, we perceive it as both structural and global. Hence, we are sceptical of the expedients to which the leaders of the big industrialised nations are resorting. In the present situation, we consider that a historical perspective and an acute awareness of future developments are indispensable. What we find most disturbing is that these qualities are lacking both in the North and in the South. p-

( su i t e de la page 5)

natzona'L. l l faudrazt reconnaCtre l e s firrnes transnationales en tant qu'ob- s tacle au chanqement e t remplacer par l e pZuralisrne cul turel lrh6g&monie des concepts occidentaux. Lroceident devrait chercher des modsles de d6veloppe- rnent n o u v e m , 6cologiquement soutenables e t humanisants; Le Sud devrait moderniser son propre cadre cul turel ; l l E s t devrait assumer ses responsabi- lit& envers la comnaut6 mondiale. Un vrai dialogue Sord-Sud devrait arne^ier une gestion comnwautaire. Une v is ion histopique e t une conscience des besoins de I 'avenir sont indispensables aux dzvigeants des nations; les deux font rnalheureusement di faut tant dans Ie Nord que dans Ie Sud.

EL TERCER MUNDO EN LA C R I S I S

Resumen: El capitalistno rnodemo ha entrado en una fuse de creeimiento extrem- adamente lento, papa l a cual no se ve La salida. La c r i s i s estructural que resul ta como consecuencia t iene un impacto global; e l Tercer Mundo es especia'l_ mente vulnerable a e l l a . Mientras e l Tercer Mundo intenta reestrueturar e l orden econ6rnico international, 'La respuesta del Norte es qeneralmente desalen- tadora. La ~n ica , reacc i6n posi t iva es l a transferencia masiva de recursos financieros hacia s l SUP, v i s t a par algunos corno un rernedio, tanto papa e t subdesarpollo del Sur corno par la ' reseci6n1 del Norte. Pero es t e proyecto es td l e jos de ser aceptado pop 20s gobiernos oceidentales y por l a opini6n publieu.

La salida de La cri-sis se encuentra en l a reestructuraci6n fundamental de las relaciones internacionales y en 20s cambios que e l l o implica a nivel nacional. Habria que reconocer a las corporaaiones transnacionales corno un obstdculo papa e l cambio y reemplazar la hegernon-Ca de 20s conceptos occidentales por un pluralisrno cult-uiral. Occidente debevta buscar modelos nuevos de desarrollo que sean ecoZ6qicamente defendibles y rnds humanos; e t SUP debevta modernizar su propio rnarco cultural; e l Este debevta asumir SUB responsabili-dades hacia la cornunidad mundial. Un aut6ntieo dGlogo Norte-Sur deberia conducir a una gesti6n c o r n i t a r i a . Una vis ion his t6r ica y la coneieneia de las necesidades del future l e son indispensables a las l fderes mundiales; desqraciadamente, ambas cosas faltan tanto en e l Norte corno en e l Sur.

ARAB ALTERNATIVE FUTURES */ by Ismail-Sabri Abdalla-

In l i n e with i t s policy of encouraging research workers in t h e i r national and regional environments and building up networks of research i n s t i t u t i o n s , the United Nations University has decided t o i n i t i a t e major regional research projec ts in t he Third World. Each projec t i s t o be t a i l o r e d in c lose co-opera- t ion with soc i a l s c i e n t i s t s from the concerned region so t h a t i t meets the real needs t h a t d i f f e r from one region t o the o ther .

The member countries of the League of Arab S ta t e s have been taken as a region besides Afr ica , Asia, and Latin America. A planning period of over one year including several meetings and individual consultations ended with a projec t document e n t i t l e d Arab Alternative Futures (AAF), t h a t has been approved by the U N University council i n December 1980. The document i s characterized by two f ea tu re s . In the f i r s t place, the AAF projec t w i l l focus on the unexplored areas of research in order t o avoid duplication and overlapping. Secondly, the projec t w i l l emphasize fu ture s tud ie s . A survey of most research work done so f a r i n the region shows t h a t fu ture s tudies did not y e t draw enough a t t en t ion o r e f f o r t . A t r y a t the exploration of the fu tu re of the region as a whole in the l i g h t of an t i c ipa t ed changes has never been undertaken thoroughly o r sys t e - mat ica l ly . As an exerc ise in fu tu re s tud ie s , the AAF p ro j ec t does not aim a t building a forecas t ing model f o r the elaboration of a long range plan. More modestly, i t tends t o r a i s e the awareness abouth the fu tu re in the region, t o show t h a t there i s more than one possible fu tu re and f i n a l l y t h a t decisions taken today wi l l have t h e i r impact on the fu ture i n one d i rec t ion o r the o ther . Future s tud ie s a r e not luxury, among other things they contr ibute t o ra t iona- l i z i n g present and sho r t term decisions and options. They a r e not pure specu- l a t i ons e i t h e r . On the contrary , they ca l l f o r careful analys is of the present and the iden t i f i ca t ion of fac tors deeply rooted in t he pas t .

Designed from the outse t t o involve several research i n s t i t u t i o n s , the AAF p ro j ec t remains open-ended, in order t o a t t r a c t a grea ter number of researchers and t o cover, as extensively as poss ib le , the re ta ined research areas during i t s four years l i f e and beyond.

Bearing in mind the above mentioned cha rac t e r i s t i c s and ob jec t ives , the co-ord- i na t ing u n i t , ( t he Third World Forum - Middle East Off ice) publishes the AAF- Dossier, as a vehicle f o r dialogue within and outside the network of i n s t i t u - t ions and teams involved in the implementation of the p ro j ec t . The AAF Dossier w i l l , i n the f i r s t p lace , inform about a11 a c t i v i t i e s undertakeny by the network. In the second place i t wi l l make ava i l ab l e t o research workers, concerned i n s t i - tu t ions and decision makers the intermediate i n t e l l e c t u a l products: think p ieces , pos i t ion papers, workshop r epo r t s , f indings and conclusions of sub- p ro j ec t s . . . e t c . I t i s hoped t h a t t h i s dissemination wi l l provoke conments, and views both on methodology and subect-matter. By publishing t h i s feedback mater- i a l the audience of the AAF projec t wi l l be enlarged and the substance of i t s

7 Chairman, Third World Forum, Middle East Office 39 Dokki S t r e e t , P.O. Box 43 Orrnan, Cairo, Egypt. and Co-ordinator, Arab Al ternat ive Futures project

a c t i v i t i e s w i l l be enhanced. l loreover , t h i s m u t u a l l y educa t i ve d ia logue may h e l p i n t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l s , research groups and cen t res work ing o n l o r i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s tudy o f t h e f u t u r e o f t h e Arab r e g i o n . The AAF- Doss ie r w i l l p r o v i d e t h e d e s i r e d p u b l i c i t y f o r t h i s t ype o f research t h a t m igh t o therw ise be known o n l y i n l i m i t e d c i r c l e s . A rab ic b e i n g the main work ing language of t h e p r o j e c t , w h i l e i t i s d e s i r a b l e t o remain i n c o n t a c t w i t h the i n t e r n a t i o n a l development community, i t has been decided t h a t the AAF-Dossier w i l l be b i l i n g u a l . Papers and o t h e r m a t e r i a l w i l l be p u b l i s h e d i n t h e language used by t h e au thor , i . e . A r a b i c o r E n g l i s h t o g e t h e r w i t h an a b s t r a c t i n t h e o t h e r language. I n case a reader wants t o g e t t h e o r i g i n a l t r a n s l a t e d , t h i s would be f e a s i b l e a t a t r a n s l a t i o n c o s t . The m a t e r i a l w r i t t e n o r i g i n a l l y i n French w i l l be p u b l i s h e d i n an A r a b i c t r a n s l a t i o n , t o g e t h e r w i t h an E n g l i s h a b s t r a c t .

Wi th t h i s f i r s t i s s u e o f t h e AAF-Dossier, t h e e d i t o r s s t a r t a ven tu re t h e success of which w i l l g r e a t l y depend on feed-back t h e y hope t o r e c e i v e .

( E x c e r p t f rom the AAF-Dossier No. l. Copies i n A r a b i c and E n g l i s h may be ob ta ined f rom t h e address on t h e p rev ious page)

' (cont. from page 3).

As soon as we were informed of his arrest, IFDA started to inform a wide circle of friends as well as officials in the UN system, starting from the Secretary General. We also sent a telex to President Sadat to express our distress, our solidarity with Ismail and to request his immediate release. Since then, we have been informed of many letters, telegrames or oral representations to the Egyptian authorities (the president, ministers, embas- sies).

We wish to repeat here publicly our solidarity with Ismail-Sabri Abdalla and the other Egyptian democrats who are in jail with him. We wish to ensure them of our active solidarity. We ask the President of Egypt to listen to the many voices which request him to release immediately Ismail-Sabri Abdalla. We shall not stop until Ismail is back to work.

(cont. from page 2).

for Research on the New International Economic Order; William J. Maeda, Tanzania, Director-General, Posts and Telecommunications Corporation; Jan

Meijer,Netherlands; Ernst Michanek, Sweden, Chairman, Board of Trustees, Dag HammarskjEld Foundation; Marc Nerfin, Switzerland; Manuel Perez Guerrero, Venezuela, Chairman of the "Group of 77"; Marie-Angglique Savang, Senegal, President, Association of African Women for Research and Development; Roberto

Savio, Italy, Director-General, IPS Third World News Agency; Juan Somavia,

Chile? Executive Director? Latin American Institute for Transnational Studies (ILET); Gabriel Valdes, Chile, Chairman of the Board, IPS Third World News

Agency; Tarzie Vittachi, Sri Lanka, Contributing Editor "Newsweek" Magazine; Michael Zamit Cutajar, Malta.

BUILDING BLOCKS

NICARAGUA 1 9 8 1 : INTERNAL CHALLENGES AND EXTERNAL THREATS by Marcos Arruda Commission on t h e Churches' P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n Development Wor ld Counci l o f Churches P.O. Box 66150 1211 Geneva 20

-: E n g l i s h

Abstract: No one denies that Nicaragua faces substantiaL problems, tensions and contradictions. The f i r s t t o recognize t h i s fact i s the Nicaraguan gouernment i t s e l f . This articLe e x d n e s both the in ternal and the external forces currentL> opposing the construction of a new Nicaragua. I t argues that the l a t t e r appear more o f an immediate threat, not onLy i n the damage they can i n f l i c t by themselugs, but also because they mnj aggravate the internal problems by destabiLizing the economy and making i t s management an inpossible task. The articLe argues that the power con f l i c t being played out today i n CentraL America, and partiaLarZy i n Nicaragua, i s @ a confronta- t ion betmeen superpouers - as the US Govement i s enakauouring t o argue - but one betueen peoples struggling for jus t ice , l iberat ion and self-reLiance, on the one hand, and neocoLoniaLism on the other.

Risum6: Personne ne nie que l e Nicaragua s o i t confront6 2 des probL&mes sgKeux, 2 des tensions e t 2 des contradictions. Le premier 2 l e reconnaftre e s t Le gduvernement du Nicmagua lui-mZme. Cet a r t i c l e exmine Les forces internes e t ex temes qui font obstuele 2 La constmet ion dlun nouveau Nica- ragua. I t montre pourquoi Les secondes apparaissent come une menace plus i m i d i a t e , not seulement en tant que telLes, mais aussi puree quleZLes peuvent aggraver Les probL2mes internes en ddstabi l isant lliconomie e t en r e n h t la gestion impossible. L1ar t i c l e rnontre 6gaLement que l e c o n f l i t actueL en Am6riqu.e centraze - e t n o t m e n t au Nieuraguu - n l e s t pas une confrontation entre super-puissances, come Le gouvernement des Etats Unis voudrait Le faire croire, mais un c o n f l i t entre Les peupLes Luttant pour La jus t ice , La Libiration e t l 'autonomic dlune part, e t contre Le neo-CO lonialisme d'autre part.

Reswnen: Nadie niega que Nicaragua es t e en f ren tanb una situaci6n dif$eiZ, tensiones y contradicciones. E L primer0 que 20 reconoce es eZ propid gobiemo de Nicaragua. Este artfcuLo se propone e x b ' n a r las fuerzas i n t e r n s y

( con t . en pag. l 1 (28)

NICARAGUA 1981: INTERNAL CHALLENGES

AND EXTERNAL THREATS

By Marcos Arruda *

No one d e n i e s t h a t Nicaragua f a c e s s u b s t a n t i a l p rob lemsf t e n s i o n s and c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . The f i r s t t o r e c o g n i z e t h i s f a c t i s t h e Nicara - guan government i t s e l f . A l l who v i s i t t h e c o u n t r y f r e a d t h e news- p a p e r s and t a l k t o t h e l e a d e r s h i p and t o o r d i n a r y p e o p l e c a n s e e t h a t bo th t h e i n t e r n a l and t h e e x t e r n a l problems a r e d i s c u s s e d i n t h e open. The g e n e r a l b e l i e f i s t h a t o n l y by r e c o g n i z i n g and expos ing t h o s e prob lems c a n t h e c o u n t r y f i n d ways t o s o l v e them. A l s o f t h e r e i s t h e c o n v i c t i o n t h a t t h e p r o c e s s o f overcoming b o t h i n h e r i t e d and new problems i s a l o n g and d i f f i c u l t o n e f and f o r t h a t purpose a l l g e n u i n e s o l i d a r i t y and s u p p o r t is welcome.

R e t u r n i n g t o S a n d i n i s t a Nicaraqua f o r t h e t h i r d t i m e f I became convinced t h a t , however complex and c h a l l e n g i n g t h e i n t e r n a l problems a r e , t h e p o t e n t i a l and t h e human and m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s needed t o overcome them e x i s t f a s d o e s t h e w i l l i n g n e s s and power t o o r g a n i z e a new s o c i e t y founded on t h e v a l u e s of j u s t i c e l s o l i d a r - i t y and p e o p l e ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Unemployment, i n f l a t i o n f s h o r t a g e of i n v e s t m e n t c a p i t a l and i n f r a s t r u c t u r e f a b s e n c e of s k i l l e d c a d r e s i n key gconomic a c t i v i t i e s f a t r a d i t i o n a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f p roduc t - i v e and s o c i a l i n v e s t m e n t i n t h e c i t i e s , o p p o s i t i o n of t h e w e a l t h y t o p o l i c i e s aimed a t p o l i t i c a l economic d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n , a m e n t a l i t y of dependence upon t h e S t a t e t o s o l v e a l l problems and assume a l l c o s t s - a l l t h e s e a r e d e e p l y r o o t e d r e a l i t i e s and t e n d e n c i e s . Nicaraguans b e l i e v e t h a t i n o r d e r t o r e v e r s e them, more t h a n new p o l i c i e s and s t r o n g d e t e r m i n a t i o n a r e needed. They s e e k a f u l l r e v e r s a l of t h e l o g i c t h a t g e n e r a t e d and n o u r i s h e s t h o s e problems. To d o s o , t h e y a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o combine p o l i t i c a l p l u r a l i s m w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and e d u c a t i o n of t h e masses t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n dec i s ion-making a t a l l l e v e l s . They a r e i n i t i a t i n g economic p l a n n i n g and d e c e n t r a l i z e d c o o r d i n a t i o n of i t s implementa t ion i n o r d e r t o make a mixed economy s e r v e t h e needs of t h e m a j o r i t y . I n s o d o i n g f Nicaragua is t a k i n g t h e f i r s t s t e p s toward t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of a new s o c i e t y based on i t s own t r a d i t i o n s , r e s o u r c e s and c u l t u r e .

Howeverf i n a wor ld where n a t i o n s a r e more and more i n t e r d e p e n d e n t l and where development problems a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y g l o b a l i z e d by t h e r e a c h and t h e power o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l c a p i t a l , t h e s m a l l s t a t e o f Nicaragua c a n n o t a s p i r e t o become an i s l a n d of autonomous deve lop- ment. I n d e e d f t h e a t t i t u d e s of o t h e r c o u n t r i e s i n t h e r e g i o n f o f t h e U S and o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s o p e r a t i n g l n C e n t r a l

* The a u t h o r i s a n economis t a t t h e World C o u n c i l of Churches (Geneva) and a n A s s o c i a t e Fe l low o f t h e T r a n s n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e (Amsterdam) .

Americal are determining factors in the future of a country that is just emerging from four decades of Somoza-ruled neocolonial dependence. Flexibility or rigidity of private transnational banks in dealing with Nicaragua's foreign debt; fairness or bias of international financial agencies and governments of the Northern hemisphere in regard to the transfer of resourcesfcredits and assistance needed by Nicaragua in this initial period; willingness of TNCs and industrial countries to support or boycott the implementation of Nicaragua's original development plan - all these will play an important role in the consolidation or destabilization of the new Nicaragua.

This article examines both the internal and the external forces currently opposing the construction of a new Nicaragua. It argues that the latter appear more of an immediate threatl not only in the damage they can inflict by themselves~ but also because they may aggravate the internal problems by destabilizing the economy and making its management an impossible task. Finallyl the article argues that the power conflict being played out today in Central Americal and particularly in Nicaragua! is g a confrontation between superpowers - as the U.S. Government is endeavoring to argue - but one between peoples struggling for justicel liberation and self-reliancel on the one handl and neocolonialism on the other.

"1981 - YEAR OF PRODUCTIVITY": THE INTERNAL CONFLICTS Nicaragua's heritage from 40 years of the Somoza dynasty is one where the country.in 1979 began to rebuild from an appalling state of poverty. In this contextl any external efforts to make the situation worse may be considered as overkill. Neverthelessl the threat of economic boycott is not illusoryl with the present U.S. administration the main source of this threat. Using the pretext that Nicaragua is helping to arm the Salvatorian resistance! and using its aid policy as a political weaponl the U.S. recently cut economic aid to Nicaragual including a US $ 9.6 M credit for wheat purchases. More recentlyl the U.S. threatened to ban beef imports from Nicaragual as well as a resin used to manufacture polyvinyl chloride. While some justify such moves as part of the protect- ionist policy of the Reagan administrationl they clearly demonstrate that the Big Brother is firmly committed to use its trade power as a political weapon. * The Nicaraquafi Economic Plan for 1981 was published before the end of 1980 and was wide1.y disseminated throughout the country. A popular version was prepared and is being used by the mass organizations in study sessions, particularly with workers and peasants. The Plan is firm yet humblel pinpointing the achievements of the 1980 economic policies and recognizing the shortcomings in

* Latin America Weekly Report! Washington threatening to tighten economic blockage, WR-8l-lg1 15.5.811 p.6.

implementing sone of t h e t a r g e t s .

I n a r u r a l s c h o o l sur rounded by t h e c o t t o n p l a n t a t i o ~ s of c e n t r a l ChinanGeyaf I a t t e n d e d a s e s s i o n where a 'companero ' o f t h e P l i n i s t r y of Plagfi ing made a c r i t i c a l s u r v e y of t h e economy t o a b o u t GO i n t e r m e d i a t e c a d r e s of t h e S a n d i n i s t a F r o n t (FSLN). The s e s s i o n s t o o d i n marked c o n t r a s t t o s p e e c h e s Gne h e a r s i n most o t h e r L a t i n American c o . d n t r i e s by e c o n o n ~ i c arid f i n a n c i a l a u t h o r i t i e s u s u a l l y f i l l e d w i t h c ~ r e a l i s t i c propaganda and s e l f - p r o m o t i o n . I t was a s e s s i o n of r e a l i s m , h u m i l i t y and m o b i l i z a t i o n f o r independence and s e l f - r e l i a n c e . I n no i n s t a n c e d i d he show t h e economic ach ievements w i t h o u t h plnpo;f i t l r iy t h e a m b i g u i t i e s , r i s k s a ~ d c h a l l e n g e s . The q u e s t i o n s r a i s e d by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e y had c a r e - f u l l y s t u d i e d t h e P l a n and were a b l e t o a p p l y i t s g u i d e l i n e s t o t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n s w i t h c l a ~ r v o y a n c e .

I n f l a t i o n

The S a n d m i s t a s i f i n e r i t e d t h e h i y h e s t r a t e of i n f l a t i o n - 84% - iri t h e h i s t o r y o f Nicarayua . They were a b l e t o r e d u c e i t t o 2 7 % by t h e end of i98G. The t a r y e t of 2 2 % f p r o l e c t e d by t h e 1980 P l a n was missed basically f o r izwc reasor i s . F i r s t f t h e p r i c e of o i l . impor ted by t : i ca rayua went from U S $ 19 t o $ 36 p e r b a r r e l a n d f s e c o n d , t h e c o u n t r y ' s economy was s o d e s t r o y e d by t h e war of 1978-79 t h a t most b a s l c consumption goods were impor ted d u r i n q 1980. S t i l l f t h e r e + ~ ~ c t i o r , of 5 7 p o i n t 5 i n t h e i n f l a t i o n r a t e i n one y e a r i s a r e m a r k a b l e a c h ~ e v e n e n t ~ of which mobt capitalist c o u n t r i e s of t h e rf>rgicc, w i t h o r w i t h o u t IMF " a i d " , a r e n o t c a p a b l e of approach ing ( n o t even t?.c " m ~ r a c u l o u s " Dcl f im Piet to of B r a z i l , where t h e i n f l . a t x o n r a t e , f rom t h e p e r s p e c t i ~ ~ e of t h e waqe e a r n e r s f is r u n n i n g a t 1 G O g a y e a r ) .

T k ~ i s ach ievement , however , h a s an a s p e c t of a m b i g u i t y and p o s e s p r o b l e ~ . s t h a t must be f & ? e d l n tt .e c u r r e f i t y e a r . I n d e e d f p r i c e s d i d n o t yo up f o r two h z i c r e a s o n s . E l r s t , s u f f i c i e n t goods f o r t h e i n t e r n a l were l a r q e l y s u p p l i e d t h r o u g h a n i n c r e a s e i n t h e impor t b i l l . Secondf t h e workinq c l a s s c o n s c i o u s l y c o l l a b o r a t e d w i t h t h e new qovernment i n d e c i d i n g a g a i n s t t h e u s e of i t s new p o l i t i c a l power t o f o r c e wages upward. L e t us examine e a c h of t h e s e f a c t o r s .

Supply based o n i m p o r t s means i n c r e a s e s i n f o r e i g n d e b t . N i c a r a g u a ' s i m p o r t s i n 1980 were wor th U S $ 100 P! more t h a n p r o j e c t e d . The qovernment c o n s i d e r s t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e c o ~ n t r y ' s f o r e i g n d e b t - LJS $ 371 !4 i n 1980 - a s e r l o u s shor tcoming i n economic management and l n s i s t s t h a t Nicaraqua c a n n o t have s u s t a i n a b l e development on t h e b a s i s of e x t e r n a l r e s o u r c e s . A s h i f t f rom a n open t o a r e l a t i - v e l y s e l f - r e l i a n t economy c a n n o t be a c h i e v e d o v e r n i q h t . But a c o r r e c t i v e p o l l c y h a s been a d o p t e d t o h a s t e n t h e t r a n s i t i o n i n t h e c u r r e n t " y e a r of p r o d u c t i v i t y and d e f e n s e " . T h i s p o l i c y s t a n d s on t h r e e p i l l a r s . F i r s t , Nicaragua w i l l o n l y a c c e p t l o a n s t h a t a r e r e l a t i v e l y "cheap" ( i n f a c t f t h ~ a v e r a g e c o n d i t i o n s on l o a n s o b t a i n e d llurincj 1980 were f z v o r a b l e : 20-year d e a d l i n e f 10-year g r a c e p e r i o d at 4% p e r i n t e r e s t ) , and w i l l c u t i m p o r t s t o t h e l e v e l o f a b s o l u t e n e c e s s i t y w h i l e improviny e f f i c i e n c y i n t h e u s e o f e x t e r n a l

r e s o u r c e s . Second, since i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o a c h i e v e economic i n d e - pendence i n t h i s p e r i o d of r e g e n e r a t i o n of t h e economy, t h e aim i s t o d i v e r s i f y dependence. H i s t o r i c a l l y , more t h a n 60% of t h e e x t e r n a l r e s o u r c e s needed by Nicaragua came from t h e US and p r e s e n t l y a b o u t 70% of t h e e x t e r n a l f i n a n c i n g depends on s o u r c e s p redominant ly c o n t r o l l e d by t h e U.S. The t a r g e t i s t o d e v e l o p t r a d e w i t h t h e T h i r d World, t h e s o c i a l i s t c o u n t r i e s and Western Europe s o a s t o a r r i v e a t a t a r g e t o f 2 5 % . T h i r d , t h e c o u n t r y w i l l s t i m u l a t e s a v i n g s by e n f o r c i n g a p o l i c y of a u s t e r i t y and e f f i c i e n c ~ on t h e p u b l i c and p r i v a t e s e c t o r s , a s w e l l a s on consumption of n o n - e s s e n t i a l goods. The s l o g a n h a s been launched: "we c a n n o t l i v e on money t h a t we have n o t p roduced . "

The o t h e r i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e p r i c e s d u r i n g 1980 was l a b o u r s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e . The c r e a t i o n of a N a t i o n a l F e d e r a t i o n o f Trade Unions g e n e r a t e d a p r o c e s s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n which r e s u l t e d i n i n c r e a s e d awareness and s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e w i t h i n t h e l a b o u r f o r c e . While t h e income o f r u r a l l a b o u r i n c r e a s e d , t h a t of i n d u s t r i a l workers h a s g e n e r a l l y remained t h e same a s of J u l y 1979. A t t h e same t i m e , t h e wage l e v e l of t h e middle c l a s s e s and government o f f i c i a l s h a s d e c r e a s e d from t h e f i n a l months of t h e Somozaera. Thus, a p r o c e s s of r e d i s t r i b u t i o n began, f a v o u r i n g t h e most needy, i n t h i s c a s e t h e r u r a l work f o r c e . Labour s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e i s a l s o a n i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e moral a u t h o r i t y of t h e FSLN and t h e g o v e r n i n g J u n t a i s r e a l . However, t h i s t y p e of c o r r e c t i v e p o l i c y c a n o n l y be e f f e c t i v e i n t h e s h o r t r u n . And t h e o n l y way t o r e p l a c e i t w i t h o u t l o s i n g what was a c h i e v e d i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e c o u n t r y ' s w e a l t h s o t h a t wages r i s e i n r e a l t e r m s .

Economic R e a c t i v a t i o n

The 1980 GDP growth r a t e of Nicaragua i n r e a l t e r m s was 1 0 . 5 % , t h e h i g h e s t i n L a t i n America. The o r i g i n a l t a r g e t f o r 1981 was 1 8 % , a i d e d by t h e e f f o r t b e i n g made t o s u b s t i t u t e i m p o r t s . But t h e government now b e l i e v e s t h a t it w i l l n o t s u r p a s s 1 4 % . One r e a s o n i s t h a t it i s d i f f i c u l t t o c o r r e c t t h e d i s t o r t i o n i n t h e p a t t e r n of g rowth o f t h e p a s t y e a r , which c o n s i s t e d of an 1 8 . 5 % i n c r e a s e i n s e r v i c e s and t r a d e a g a i n s t a 3 .8% i n c r e a s e i n m a t e r i a l p r o d u c t i o n . To r e v e r s e t h i s p a t t e r n , t h e government h a s l aunched a Cont ingency P l a n f o r e s s e n t i a l g r a i n s p r o d u c t i o n , a programme t o i n c r e a s e p r o d u c t i v i t y and s t i m u l a t e t h e e x p o r t s e c t o r , and a campaign t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e u s e of a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y by t h e S t a t e a p p a r a t u s .

I n t h e e y e s o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s p l a n n e r s , Nicaraguan p e a s a n t s have t h e p o t e n t i a l n o t o n l y t o f e e d t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n b u t a l s o t o f i n a n c e t h e c o u n t r y ' s o i l i m p o r t s . The t a r g e t s o f t h e Cont ingency P l a n a r e t o c r e a t e s u f f i c i e n t s u p p l y of b a s i c g r a i n s ( c e r e a l s and beans) t o f e e d t h e p o p u l a t i o n , t o g a t h e r a 2-month i n v e n t o r y , t o improve s t o r i n g f a c i l i t i e s and t o maximize t h e e a r n i n g o f f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y from e x p o r t s i n a t i m e of s h o r t a g e i n t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l marke t ( a 10 M t o n d e f i c i t of b a s i c g r a i n s i s f o r e s e e n f o r C e n t r a l America and t h e C a r i b b e a n i n 1 9 8 1 ) .

The program t o s t i m u l a t e e x p o r t s i s based on N i c a r a g u a ' s t r a d i t i o n a l s t r e n g t h s : c o f f e e , s u g a r c a n e , c o t t o n , meat and g o l d . I t was a n i m p r e s s i v e e x p e r i e n c e t o s e e t h e joyous f a c e s of t h e young combatan ts o f t h e S a n d i n i s t a army a s t h e y r e t u r n e d t o Managua on crowded t r u c k s d e c o r a t e d w i t h c o t t o n b r a n c h e s , a f t e r h a v i n g a c h i e v e d s t r i k i n g l e v e l s of p r o d u c t i v i t y i n t h e c o t t o n h a r v e s t . The l a b o u r s h o r t a g e was a n g u i s h i n g t h e b i g p r i v a t e c o t t o n g r o w e r s , who f e a r e d a l o s s a s t h e r a i n y s e a s o n approached . T h e i r f o r m e r l y a g g r e s s i v e o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e government t u r n e d toward p e a c e f u l c o e x i s t e n c e a s t h e government r a p i d l y m o b i l i z e d t h e Army f o r t h e c o t t o n h a r v e s t . "We o n l y a s k two t h i n g s from you" , s a i d t h e government t o t h e c o t t o n g r o w e r s . "One, t h a t you c o n t i n u e t o p roduce : our c o u n t r y i s s t i l l i n bad need of f o r e i g n c u r r e n c y . Two, t h a t you pay t h e combatan ts f a i r xaqes f o r t h e work t h e y d i d : t h i s w i l l be an i n c e n t i v e toward t h e g o a l of a s e l f - s u p p o r t i n g army sometime i n t h e f u t u r e . " I n Nicaragua , more t h a n e l s e w h e r e , economics and p o l i t i c s go hand i n hand.

The f u l f i l m e n t of an a u s t e r i t y and e f f i c i e n c y programme w i t h i n t h e S t a t e a p p a r a t u s seems t o pose a more d i f f i c u l t c h a l l e n g e . The 1981 P l a n a d o p t s a no-growth s t r a t e g y f o r t h e S t a t e budge t , w h i l e a iming a t a q u a l i t a t i v e l e a p i n S t a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n and e f f i c i e n c y by two means. F i r s t , t h e hope i s t o i n c r e a s e t h e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n o f s u r - p l u s e s and p r n 4 u c t i v e a c c u m u l a t i o n f o r t h i s i n i t i a l p e r i o d , a s w e l l as improving f i s c a l - f i n a n c i a l c o n t r o l . Second, e f f o r t s a r e d i r e c t e d a t improving t n c o p e r a t i v e c a p a c i t y of t h e d e p a r t m e n t s and l o c a l governments ir: <he p r o d u c t i o n and s u p p l y of goods and s e r v i c e s , w h i l e stren-;;he:-.in$ t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e workers i n t h e manaqe- me"-lt and c o n t r ~ i of v a r i o u s economic t a s k s .

R e a c t i v a t i o n and A d u l t E d u c a t i o n

The program t o i n c r e a s e p r o d d c t i v i t y , a s w e l l a s t h e campaign t o r a t i o n a l i z e t h e use o f a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s , depend h e a v i l y on t h e development of p o s t - l i t e r a c y a d u l t e d u c a t i o n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p r i o r i t y t a r g e t s f o r t h i s y e a r . Nicaraguans seem aware t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l method of " s c h o l a r i z i n q " a d u l t s l e a d s t o s e l e c t i v i t y and e x c l u s i o n , w h i l e p o s t p o n i n g s o c i e t y ' s enjoyment of i t s e v e n t u a l b e n e f i t s t o t h e d i s t a n t f u t u r e .

The c o u n t r y needs a p o p u l a r e d u c a t i o n t h a t p roduces immediate r e s u l t s . Fo l lowinq t h e l .essons of t h e i r s u c c e s s f u l l i t e r a c y c r u s a d e , Nicara - quans a r e now d i s c u s s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e s t a b l i s h i n g an a l t e r - n a t i v e model of p o p u l a r e d u c a t i o n whereby t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s i s based on t h e c o o r d i n a t i o n o f t h e e d u c a t i v e c a p a c i t y of t h e v a r i o u s mass o r g a n i z a t i o n s and S t a t e e n t i t i e s . Each w i l l become r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e e d u c a t i o n of a d u l t s i n i t s own s p h e r e of a c t i v i t y , t r a i n i n g t h e p e o p l e b o t h i n p r a c t i c e and t h e o r y , i n t h e i r own p l a c e s o f l i f e and work.

I f s u c c e s s f u l , t h i s i n n o v a t i v e model w i l l t r a n s f o r m a l l w o r k p l a c e s , communit ies and i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t o p o p u l a r s c h o o l s ; p r o d u c t i v e and c o m u n a l a c t i v i t i e s i n t o s t u d y d i s c i p l i n e s ; and a l l a d u l t s - whether p r o f e s s i o n a l s , m i l i t a n t s , workers o r p e a s a n t s - i n t o b o t h

t e a c h e r s and s t u d e n t s . T r a i n i n g p e a s a n t s t o d a y on how t o u s e a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s more e f f i c i e n t l y , how t o work c o l l e c t i v e l y and how t o make d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r own a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e c o u n t r y ' s a g r i c u l t u r a l p o l i c y h e l p s g e n e r a t e immedia te ly v i s i b l e r e s u l t s i n t e rms of p r o d u c t i v i t y , o r g a n i z a t i o n , p a r t i c i p a t i o n and , l a s t b u t n o t l e a s t , d e f e n s e .

Employment

The f a c t t h a t 112 ,000 new j o b s were c r e a t e d i n 1980, i n s t e a d of t h e 95,000 p r o j e c t e d by l a s t y e a r ' s p l a n i s a s i g n i f i c a n t v i c t o r y . The r a t e o f unemployment was r e d u c e d t o 17 .5%. However, t h i s a c h i e v e - ment i m p l i e s a s t r u c t u r a l d i s t o r t i o n : o n l y 53.1% of t h e new jobs were i n t h e p r o d u c t i v e s e c t o r s ( p r o j e c t e d : 78 .9%) a g a i n s t 46.9% i n t h e S t a t e , commerce and i n f o r m a l s e c t o r s ( p r o j e c t e d : 2 1 . 1 % ) . T h i s r e f l e c t s t h e u n e q u a l d e v e l o ment of t h e r e a c t i v a t i o n p r o c e s s by s e c t o r and a l s o t h e h y p e r t r o p 6 c t e n d e n c y of t h e t e r t i a r y s e c t o r .

The t a r g e t f o r 1 9 8 1 is, on t h e one hand, t o r e d u c e unemployment t o 13 .3% ( t h a t would be t h e l o w e s t i n t h e c o u n t r y ' s h i s t o r y ) by i n c r e a s i n g t h e u t i l i z a t i o n of t h e e x i s t i n g i d l e c a p a c i t y . C o n c u r r e n t l y , t h e g i v e n government p l a n s t o t r a n s f e r p a r t o f t h e l a b o u r f o r c e from s e c t o r C t o s e c t o r s A and B, s o t h a t 69.5% o f t h e new j o b s a r e i n p r o d u c t i v e s e c t o r s . A s p e c i a l Labour Fund was c r e a t e d t o r e d u c e t h e s o c i a l c o s t of t h a t t r a n s f e r t o a minimum.

Income D i s t r i b u t i o n and Wages

One of t h e c e n t r a l g u i d e l i n e s of b o t h p l a n s (1980 and 1981) h a s been t o improve t h e l i v i n g c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e 50% p o o r e s t of t h e c o u n t r y . Two y e a r s b e f o r e t h e f a l l of Somoza, t h e upper 20% of t h e p o p u l a t i o n c o n t r o l l e d 60% of N i c a r a g u a ' s GDP, whereas t h e l o w e s t 50% had a meager 15% s h a r e o f t h e t o t a l . *

The p o l i c y of income r e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a c o n s t a n t theme i n t h e 1981 P l a n . The t a r g e t i n 1980 of n o t l e t t i n g t h e w o r k e r s ' r e a l wage f a l l was g e n e r a l l y accompl i shed by r e g u l a t i n g t h e s u p p l y and p r i c e s of e s s e n t i a l goods ; s u b s i d i e s t o p u b l i c t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and b a s i c g r a i n s ; p r e f e r e n t i a l t a r i f f s on e l e c t r i c e n e r g y and w a t e r f o r t h e p o p u l a r d i s t r i c t s ; and h o u s i n g r e n t r e d u c t i o n s . A 10 .4% r e a d j u s t m e n t upward of t h e wages of workers e a r n i n g 1200 c o r d o b a s (10 C = 1 US$) o r l e s s was g r a n t e d i n J u n e 1980. The l a b o u r demands f o r wage i n - c r e a s e s l e d t o t h e s i g n i n g of more t h a n 200 c o l l e c t i v e agreements i n t h e 46 y e a r s o f t h e Somoza d i c t a t o r s h i p o n l y 46 c o l l e c t i v e agreements were r e a c h e d ) . Moreover , t h e e v a l u a t i o n of 1980 c o n d i t i o n s r e s u l t e d i n a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n c r e a s e i n t h e s o c i a l waqe o f t h e s a l a r i e d w o r k e r s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a r e a s of e d u c a t i o n and h e a l t h .

The 1981 waqe p o l i c y of a maximum 20% monetary c e i l i n g f o r upward r e a d j u s t m e n t s w i l l be s e l e c t i v e l y a p p l i e d s o a s t o p r e s e r v e t h e p u r c h a s i n g power o f t h e workers w i t h l o w e s t incomes, and t h u s w i l l have a r e d i s t r i b u t i v e e f f e c t . The o r g a n i z e d workers a r e b e i n g asked t o p a r t i c i p a t e w i t h management i n r e s h a p i n g t h e wage s t r u c t u r e s o a s t o a l l o c a t e a j u s t v a l u e t o t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n i n t h e c r e a t i o n of s o c i a l w e a l t h , t h u s r e d u c i n g t h e h i s t o r i c a l i n j u s t i c e s i n h e r e n t i n

* R e v i s t a d a C e p a l , August 1977: p. 16 ; santiago de c h i l e .

t h e wage systC.Ti of t h e p a s t .

The e x t e r n a l . s e c t o r - N i c a r a g u a ' s e x p o r t s r e a c h e d 90% (US$ 470 M ) of t h e 1980 t a r g e t o f L'S$ 524 N, w h i l e imljor ts were 1 2 . 5 % h i g h e r (US$ 870 M ) t h a n t h e ^ ro- ;ec ted US$ 773 M The most i m p o r t a n t r e a s o n f o r t h e e x c e s s i v e v a l x ~ e of i m p o r t s was t h e d e t e r i o r a t i o n of t h e t e rms o f t r a d e : t h e a i r i e s t :@G's, j'drap i n o i l p r i c e s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d , and t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e I . n t e r r . a t i o n a 1 c o f f e e p r i c e from US$ 180 p e r 100 l b . i n 1979 t c $ 120 a t t n e beqir ining of 1981. O v e r a l l , t h e a v e r a g e impor t p r i c e s i n c r e a s e d 15% w h i l e t h e a v e r a g e e x p o r t p r i c e s remained un- changed , r e s u l t i n g i n t h e weaker p u r c h a s i n g power of e x p o r t s .

h e p l a n aim5 toward r ~ d ' ~ ~ t i 0 n i n t h e e x t e r n a l v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f t h e economy by r e r u p e r a t i n q N i c a r a g u a ' s h i s t o r i c a l e x p o r t c a p a c i t y ; r e d u c i n g t h e i m p o r t s of n o n - e s s e n t i a l consumer goods and i n p u t s which c a n be d o m e s t i c a l l y produced; and d i v e r s i f y i n g t h e g e o g r a p h i c a r i y i r i and d e s t i n a t i o n of t r a d e f l o w s . The d e g r e e of economic r e g e n e r a t i o n i n bo th a g r i c u l t u r e and m a n u f a c t u r e , a s wel.1 a s t h e f a v o r a b l e s i t u a t i o n i n t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l c e r e a l s m a r k e t , a l l o w f o r dn e x p o r t t a r g e t of US$ 680 M (FOB) f o r 1981. Impor t s a r e e x p e c t e d t o a~10ur.t t o 556 M , b r i n g i n g t h e e x t e r n a l t r a d e d e f i c i t down t o 275 M . To a v o i d g o i n g beyond t h i s impor t l i m i t , r e g u l a t i o n s and c o n t r o l of cons'umer goods i m p o r t s were e s t a b l i s h e d and c o n s i d e r a b l e impor t ~ u b s t i t ' u t i ~ n i s p r o j e c t e d .

i i c a r a q u a ' s endeavour t o r e a c t i v a t e i t s economy f o r t h e b e n e f i t of t h e m a l o r i t y i s n o t b e i n g r e c e i v e d p o s i t i v e l y a b r o a d , i f we r e v i e w t h e t r a n s f e r s of r e s o u r c e s t h i s f a r . .US$ 490 M i n c o n t r a c t s and e x t e r n a l f i n a n c i n g were r a i s e d , of which US$ 370 M were d i s b u r s e d i n 1980. However, o n l y 50% of t h i s amount e n t e r e d Nicaragua . The d e b t s e r v i c e amounted t o US$ 84.6 M i n 1980 , and w i l l r e a c h US$ 190 M t h i s y e a r , or 28% of N i c a r a g u a ' s e x p o r t s .

'^G make t h e f i n a n c i a l s i t u a t i o n even more d i f f i c u l t f o r Nicaragua , t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s c l e a r l y engaged i n an i n t e r n a t i o n a l campaign t o d e s t a b i l i z e t h e Nicaraguan government . The s u s p e n s i o n of t h e US f i n a n c i a l package (US$ 15 M y e t t o be d i s b u r s e d from t h e US$ 7 5 M a g r e e d t o i n 1980, p l u s US$ 9.6 M i n c r e d i t s f o r t h e p u r c h a s e of v i t a l l y needed wheat s u p p l i e s ) may be o n l y t h e f i r s t s t e p i n t o a s t r a t e g y of economic s a b o t a g e , a s t r a t e g y which proved t o be e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t t h e Unidad P o p u l a r government i n C h i l e . One consequence of t h e US g o v e r n m e n t ' s d e c i s i o n t o c u t t h e c r e d i t f o r wheat p u r c h a s e s was t h e d o n a t i o n by t h e USSR of 29,000 t o n n e s of wheat t o Nicaragua .

Throughout C e n t r a l America, t h e US a d m i n i s t r a t i o n is u s i n g food a s a weapon t o undermine governments t h a t a r e c o n s i d e r e d a U t h r e a t t o US n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y " , no m a t t e r how poor and e c o n o m i c a l l y p o w e r l e s s t h e y may be. A p a r a l l e l p o l i c y t h a t t h e U.S. is p u r s u i n g , i s t o b o o s t m i l i t a r y j u n t a s t h a t a r e s e e n a s f r i e n d l y to U S i n t e r e s t s , r e g a r d l e s s of how i l l e g i t i m a t e , unpopula r and r e p r e s s i v e they may be.

I t was d i n n e r t ime . B e f o r e t h e s e s s i o n ended , one of t h e "com- p a n e r a s " g o t u p , t u r n e d t o t h e p l e n a r y and s a i d : "They have k i l l e d a n o t h e r 'companero ' t h i s a f t e r n o o n i n S o m o t i l l o . A band who came from Honduras. He was one of t h e s e c r e t a r i e s of t h e FSLN i n t h e a r e a . " Her v o i c e t r e m b l e d w i t h emotion and r a g e . " I t i s t h e t h i r d one t h e y have a s s a s s i n a t e d i n 1 5 d a y s . "

1 9 8 1 - YEAR OF DEFENSE: THE THREAT OF INVASION

"The U S w i l l a v o i d d i r e c t i n t e r v e n t i o n b u t w i l l t r y t o b o y c o t t o u r economy and undermine o u r i n d e p e n d e n c e , " s a y s t h e S a n d i n i s t a l e a d e r a s we s t r o l l a l o n g t h e beach a t Masachapa. From t h i s s i t e we c a n s e e t h e f u e l d e p o s i t s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e l a r g e s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l a i r p o r t i n t h e c o u n t r y , b u i l t by Somoza f o r h i s p r i v a t e u s e i n one o f t h e l u x u r i o u s fa rms t h a t he p o s s e s s e d b e f o r e t h e t r iumph of t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n .

The U S a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s mounted a powerfu l campaign t o c o n v i n c e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p u b l i c o p i n i o n t h a t t h e s t r u g g l e of p e o p l e s i n t h e S o u t h e r n hemisphere f o r t h e i r b a s i c r i g h t s , j u s t i c e and n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n must be s e e n i n t e rms of superpower c o n f o n t a t i o n . For t h e N i c a r a g u a n s , t h i s r e p r e s e n t s a r e t u r n t o " b i g s t i c k " d ip lomacy . The r o o t s o f E l S a l v a d o r ' S p rob lems , a s viewed by t h e Reagan a d m i n i s t r a - t i o n , a r e n o t t h e s t a t e of hunger and d e p r i v a t i o n imposed on t h e m a j o r i t y by t h e 14 l e a d i n g landowning f a m i l i e s , nor is it t h e o f f i c i a l and s e m i - o f f i c i a l t e r r o r i s m imposed by t h e m i l i t a r y and t h e n a t i o n a l g u a r d w i t h U S f i n a n c i a l and m i l i t a r y s u p p o r t . I t is Nicaragua , and u l t i m a t e l y Cuba.

The T r i l a t e r a l Commission 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of t h e wor ld , which l a r g e l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e C a r t e r e r a , p roposed an a l l i a n c e between t h e t h r e e i n d u s t r i a l i z e d r e g i o n s of t h e ' f r e e m a r k e t ' world - North America, Europe and J a p a n - a s w e l l a s economic c o o p e r a t i o n and d e t e n t e v i s - a - v i s t h e s t a b l e reg imes of t h e s o c i a l i s t s p h e r e . T h i s would c o u n t e r t h e i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e f o r b a s i c economic and p o l i t i c a l change i n t h e S o u t h e r n Hemisphere. The underdeve loped c o u n t r i e s were s e e n a s a t h r e a t t o t h e power, t h e s t a b i l i t y and t h e l i f e s t y l e s o f t h e s o c i e t i e s of t h e Nor th .

The Reaqan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i n t u r n , i s t r y i n g t o r e e s t a b l i s h t h e manichean "Cold War" v i s i o n of a b i p o l a r wor ld . One s i d e r e p r e s - e n t s t h e C h r i s t i a n w h i t e c i v i l i z a t i o n of t h e West , whose r a d i a t i n g c e n t e r i s t h e U S and whose m a n i f e s t d e s t i n y is t o impose t h e ' f r e e m a r k e t ' and t h e Wes te rn n o t i o n o f p r o g r e s s and democracy on t h e r e s t of t h e w o r l d . The o t h e r s i d e r e p r e s e n t s e v i l , w i t h t h e s t r u g g l e s f o r n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n s e e n a s a major component of e v i l . I f t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n h a s n o t been s p e l l e d o u t i n s u c h words, it h a s been c r y s t a l l i z e d i n t o c o n c r e t e p o l i c i e s . These i n c l u d e t h e s e l e c t i v e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n c e p t o f " t e r r o r i s m " and t h e " q u i e t d ip lomacy" of b u r y i n g t h e c a u s e of human r i g h t s by e s c a l a t i n g m i l i t a r i z a t i o n and economic s u p p o r t t o t h e most r e p r e s s i v e reg imes i n L a t i n America.

"Whai d o e s t h e (.S want of o u r c o u n t r y ? " is a q u e s t i o n asked by many : i c d r a g u a n s . "how c a n such a poor and s m a l l n a t i o n be , i n any r e a l v a y , ' a t h r e a t t o t h e n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y ' of t h e Nor thern g i a n t , r f i t h whom we c';? n o t ever. s h a r e a common b o r d e r ? "

The ;S s u p p o r t e d more t h a n 4 0 y e a r s of Somozan d y n a s t y , and < i c a r a q u a n s have e n d l e s s s t o r i e s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h a t "b loody d i c t a t o r - s h i p " was a c r u e l d a i l y r e a l i t y . The same c a n be a p p l i e d t o d a y t o :l S a l v a d o r and Guatemala. Yet , Nicaragua i s now r u n by a p l u r a - l i s t i c c i v i l i a n government , which h a s , a s t e s t i f i e d by t h e I n t e r - n a t i o n a l Cor'iiriizsion of J u r i s t s , an exemplary human r i g h t s p o l i c y and p r a c t i c e . T h i s u n f o l d s i n a c o n t i n e n t where m i l i t a r y d i c t a t o r - s h i p s abound, and where human r i g h t s v i o l a t i o n s a r e a r u l e o f g o v e r n m e 2 and democracy i s t h e e x c e p t i o n . The Nicaraguan govern- n e r . t ' s l e g i t i m a c y t o d a y i s s a f e g u a r d e d by a human r i g h t s r e c o r d :hat inci ' - ides t h e r e j e c t i o n of t h e d e a t h p e n a l t y , t h e j u s t t r e a t - z e n t of t h e Sontozis ta N a t i o n a l Guard, whose members were a r r e s t e d and p u b l i c a l l y t r i e d , and t h e d i s m i s s a l of more t h a n 2000 p o l i c e - xeri (who abused t h e i r a u t h o r i t y ) s i n c e t h e t r iumph.

". . 1r.e o p p o s i t i u n was g u a r a n t e e d s e a t s i n t h e N a t i o n a l P a r l i a m e n t a r y co,.-- d m - i l and is r e p r e s e n t e d by a t l e a s t t h r e e p a r t i e s . I t s v o i c e i s heard d a i l y t i i rouqhout t h e c o u n t r y i n t h e newspaper La P r e s a , whose p o l i c y i s t o e x p l o i t any o p p o r t u n i t y t o a t t a c k t h e government . There have been no r e s t r i c t i o n s t o t h e f r e e t r a n s i t of opponents of t h e qoverzment e i t h e r w i t h i n o r o u t s i d e t h e c o u n t r y .

The ? r e a t m a j o r i t y of C h r i s t i a n s i n Nicaragua took p a r t i n t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n a g a i n s t Somoza and c o n s i d e r themse lves a s a n e s s e n t i a l component cf t h e S a n d i n i s t a v i c t o r y . Today t h e r e i s f u l l r e l i g i o u s freedon1 and t h e a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n s i n t h e S a n d i n i s t a government i s an i m p o r t a n t c r i t i c a l e l e m e n t and a s a f e g u a r d o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s of j u s t i c e , s o l i d a r i t y and p a r t i c i p a t i o n . Three o f t h e S t a t e m i n i s t e r s a r e C a t h o l i c p r i e s t s and a number of o t h e r government f u n c t i o n s a r e a l s o o c c u p i e d by p r i e s t s and p a s t o r s . R e c e n t l y , t.he Archbishop of Managua, Mgr. Ovando, c a l l e d upon a l l t h e f a i t h - f u l t o respond p o s i t i v e l y t o t h e p l e a by t h e FSLN f o r t h e whole p o p u l a t i o n t o u n i t e a round t h e J u n t a ' s endeavour t o r e c o n s t r u c t t h e c o u n t r y .

A l l t h e s e f a c t s s e r v e t o preempt t h e a c c u s a t i o n t h a t Nicaragua is run by a M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t government . S t i l l , t h e enemies of Nicaragua have s p e n t enormous sums t o t r y t o c o n v i n c e i n t e r n a t i o n a l p u b l i c o p i n i o n t h a t s u c h a c c u s a t i o n s a r e r e a l . The f a i l u r e of b o t h t h e E a g l e b u r q e r m i s s i o n t o Europe and t h e Vernon W a l t e r s m i s s i o n t o South America ( b o t h t r y i n g t o g a t h e r s u p p o r t f rom a l l i e s f o r a new " b i g s t i c k " p o l i c y a g a i n s t Nicaragua and Cuba) is e x p l a i n e d i n good p a r t by t h e w i d e s p r e a d d i s b e l i e f w i t h which :he S t a t e Department d o s s i e r was r e c e i v e d . The d o s s i e r a t t e m p t e d t o p rove t h a t Nicaragua was c h a n n e l i n g arms t o r e s i s t a n c e movements i n E l S a l v a d o r . A w e l l - i ~ f o r m e d West European ambassador i n Managua l i s c o u n t e d t h e d o s s i e r i n h i s comment: "The CIA is s o t h o r o u g h l y p r e s e n t i n Nicaragua t h a t t h e y would have e a s i l y t r a c e d t h e r o u t e of t h e t r a f f i c of weapons; i f it d i d n ' t , it i s because t h i s t r a f f i c e e s n o t e x i s t . "

The Somozistas today a r e being armed and t r a i n e d both by Cuban v e t e r a n s " of t h e CIA-sponsored f a i l u r e a t t h e Bay of P igs , and by US " m i l i t a r y a d v i s o r s . " Tra in ing camps a r e loca t ed i n F l o r i d a and i n p a r t s of C e n t r a l America t h a t a r e under US c o n t r o l o r in-

f luence , such a s t h e Panama Canal Zone and Honduras. * The Nicaraguans a r e prepar ing themselves f o r t h e e v e n t u a l i t y of an invas ion . They a r e o rgan iz ing and t r a i n i n g popular s e l f -de fence m i l i t i a i n every v i l l a g e of t h e coun t rys ide and i n every s t r e e t of t h e urban c e n t e r s . A s one watches them t r a i n i n g wi th o l d weapons but advanced s k i l l s and unbeatable wil lpower, one has t h e f e e l i n g t h a t an invas ion would only be s u c c e s s f u l i f it were t o wipe o u t v i r t u a l l y t h e whole popu la t ion . The Somozistas seem t o have t h e same pe rcep t ion , f o r they a r e asking t h e US a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t o g i v e t h e green l i g h t f o r t h e invas ion wi th in t h e next few months, "be fo re t h e S a n d i n i s t a s become i n v i n c i b l e . "

The t h r e a t of an invas ion from Honduras is no f a i r y t a l e . Accord- ing t o a Hondurean army sub-commander, "war had been 70% l i k e l y " i n May, when d e l e g a t i o n s of t h e two c o u n t r i e s met a t t h e border t o n e g o t i a t e . "The t h r e e s t a g e s of p repa ra t ion f o r f u l l - s c a l e invas ion had a l l been completed - an anti-Nicaraguan p res s campaign, g iv ing Somozista u n i t s ' c a r t e b lanche ' t o provoke t h e Nicaraguans and p u t t i n g t h e army on t o f u l l a l e r t " . ** According t o t h e same source , " t h e Hondurean m i l i t a r y l e a d e r s had been d e t e r r e d by t h e s i z e of t h e May Day demonst ra t ions i n Tegucigalpa and o t h e r towns, i n which Trade Unions openly condemned war p repa ra t ions . " Meanwhile, Gen. Vernon Wal ters announced t h e doubl ing of m i l i t a r y a i d t o Honduras (from U S $ 5 M t o US$ 10 M ) o n May 15th . Yet, U.S. domestic o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e i r governments p o l i c y of i nc reas ing m i l i t a r i z a t i o n of and provocat ion i n t h e r eg ion i s mounting. On May 3 rd , a mass anti-war demonst ra t ion was he ld i n Washington, D.C. , a g a i n s t U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n i n E l Sa lvador . Some U.S. newspapers cons idered it t h e l a r g e s t anti-war demonst ra t ion s i n c e t h e Vietnam war. ***

The format ion of a c r i t i c a l consciousness and p o l i t i c a l and t e c h n i c a l competence w i t h i n t h e popu la t ion ; overcoming t h e dependent, p a s s i v e and f a t a l i s t i c men ta l i t y brought from t h e p a s t ; and b u i l d i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s and mechanisms t h a t ensu re an o p e r a t i v e p a r t i c i p a t o r y p rocess , a r e a l l seen a s ind i spensab le elements of a S a n d i n i s t a s o c i e t y . A l l t hose who v i s i t Nicaragua have t h e oppor tun i ty t o l e a r n t h a t t h e coun t ry is approaching t h i s process i n a h i s t o r i c a l l y o r i g i n a l and c r e a t i v e fashion.

Jo Thomas, "Nicaragua ex-Guards Tra in wi th Cuban e x i l e s i n U.S." I n t e r n a t i o n a l ~ e r a l d Tr ibune, 19.3.81 and "Ensaios de Invasao", VEJA, 6.5.81, p. 43-44, Sao Paulo.

See L a t i n America Weekly Report , Nicaragua-Honduras war headed o f f , WR-81-20, 22.5.81, p.2.

See I b i d . Popular P r e s s u r e b u i l d s up i n U.S. a q a i n s t a i d t o J u n t a , p.5.

I t i s we11 known t h a t t h e r o l e of C h r i s t i a n s i n t h e S a n d i n i s t a i n s u r r e c t i o n and s o c i e t y h a s been c r u c i a l . For a l a r g e m a j o r i t y of C h r i s t i a n s i n Nicaragua , t o be an a c t i v e p a r t i n t h e b u i l d i n g of a S a n d i n i s t a s o c i e t y i s t h e o n l y form of b e i n g f a i t h f u l t o t h e Gospel and t o C h r i s t ' s example. T h e i r t a s k , however, i s a d i f f i c u l t one . They have t o f i g h t n o t o n l y u n j u s t s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s , b u t a l s o o p p r e s s i v e s t r u c t u r e s and o l d forms of behaviour which t h e y them- s e l v e s i n h e r i t e d . They a l s o have t o f a c e l a c k of u n d e r s t a n d i n g and p e r s e c u t i o n from w i t h i n t h e Church h i e r a r c h y . * I t i s , t h e r e f o r e , t h e d u t y of C h r i s t i a n s and t h e ecumenica l movement t o s u p p o r t t h e C h r i s t i a n communit ies i n Nicaragua i n t .he i r s t r u g q l e t o be f a i t h f u l . t o t h e c r o s s .

N i c a r a g u a n s f i n d it d i f f i c u l t t o b e l i e v e i n t h e s i n c e r i t y o f t h e U.S. government , " s a i d one o f t h e p r i e s t s w i t h whom I t a l k e d . "They p r o c l a i m a p o l i c y o f s u p p o r t f o r t h e autonomy o f n a t i o n s and r e s p e c t f o r human r i g h t s , i n c l u d i n g t h e r i g h t of a p e o p l e t o govern them- s e l v e s and p a r t i c i p a t e d e m o c r a t i c a l l y i n d e c i s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r own d e s t i n y and t h a t o f t h e i r n a t i o n . T h i s i s a b a s i c r i g h t Nor th Amer icar~demand f o r t h e m s e l v e s , and t h e i r C o n s t i t u t i o n s p e l l s it o u t v e r y c l e a r l y . Y e t , t h a t government d o e s n o t show any r e s p e c t f o r t h e r i g h t s o f o t h e r p e o p l e s and n a t i o n s . The Reagan a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h a s i n f a c t engaged i n a campaign o f i n t e r n a l d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n and h a s d e f i n e d a s a p r i n c i p a l enemy i n t h e r e g i o n p r e c i s e l y t h e government which i s p u t t i n g t h o s e p o l i c i e s of f reedom and democracy i n t o p r a c t i c e . I t is f i g h t i n g t h e one n a t i o n t h a t i s implementing s t r u c t u r a l and v a l u e changes i n t h e q u e s t f o r a new world o r d e r i n which human b e i n g s become t h e c e n t e r of economic a c t i v i t y . " I n h i s o p i n i o n , t h e s t r a t e g y o f i n t e r n a l d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n and t h e t h r e a t of i n v a s i o n c a n o n l y d e l a y t h e endeavour t o c r e a t e a r e a l p a r t i c i p a t o r y dernocrac y . My e x p e r i e n c e s i n Nicaragua have c o n v i n c e d me t h a t , however d i f f i c u l t t h e i n t e r n a l p rob lems , t e n s i o n s and c h a l l e n g e s may b e , Nicaragua i s c a p a b l e o f f a c i n g and overcoming them w i t h t h e i r own human and m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s , and w i t h some o u t s i d e c o o p e r a t i o n . The major t h r e a t and g r a v e s t e l e m e n t of i n s t a b i l i t y a r e t h e e x t e r n a l menaces. What t h e Nicaraguans need and demand from t h e wor ld i s t h a t t h e y be g i v e n enough p e a c e and s e c u r i t y s o t h a t t h e y have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o d e v e l o p t h e m s e l v e s e c o n o m i c a l l y , p o l i t i c a l l y and s o c i a l l y , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s p e c i f i c c h a r a c t e r of t h e i r own h i s t o r y and c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y .

* See L a t i n America Weekly R e p o r t , L a t e News, WR-81-23, 12 .6 .81 , p. 1 2 .

(cont .de pag. ( 1 7 )

externas que obstacu'L'izan to, construceion de un nupvo Nicaragua. E l muestra porque l a amenaza externa es mds grave e immediata, no solo en tanto que t a l , sin0 tambiin porque e l l a puede agravar 10s probldmas internos d e s e s t a b i l i z d o l a economia y haciendo su gesti-6n imposible. El art-tcuto muestra igualmente que e2 con f l i e to actual en Ameriea Central y en especial en Nicaragua, no es una confrontaci6n entre las super potencias, come e l gobierno de Estados Unidos quiere hacerlo ereer, sino un con f l i c to entre 20s pueblos gue luchan pqr la jus t i c ia , la Ziberacidn y l a autonom-ta de una parte y contra e l neo-colonzalzsmo de otra.

B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

ALTERNATE DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES FOR KORAPUT

by Vinod Vyasulu I n d i a n I n s t i t u t e o f Management 33, Langford Road Banga lo re - 560 027 , I n d i a

O r i g i n a l l anguage : E n g l i s h

Abstract: The challenge of Koraput i s not the challenge of real material supplies, in frastructure , finance and technology; it i s the challenge of innovation, of self-management, administration and progress towards s e l f - reliance i n a manner that i s particularly responsive t o the needs of the t r iba l people. I t i s the challenge of ensuring the i r voluntary participation. I t i s a challenge i n which success i s measured not i n gross aggregates such as exports, but by the increase i n the consumption of essent ial commodities and services by the people through whose e f f o r t s the wealth i s created and made available for general consumption and welfare. Alternate Development Strategies for Koraput suggests ways i n which t h i s challenge could be faced.

STRATEGI ES POUR UN AUTRE D~VELOPPEMENT A KORAPUT

Rhumb: Le d i f i ouvert 2 f e i n t indien de Koraput n ' e s t pas ce lu i des ma- t i e res premieres, de l ' i n f r a s t r u c t u r e des rnoyens financiers ou de la techno- logie . Crest l e deft, de l l innovat ion, de l 'autogestion, de l ' ac lmnis tmt ion e t du progres vers 2 'autononie ( ' s e l f reliance l ) dlune muniere qui reponde aux besoins des populations t r iba les . C'es t igalement Le d4 f i de l e w participation e f f e c t i v e . Son succ2s ne se mesurera pas en termes d'exportations, mais par l'accroissement de la consommation de biens e t services e s sen t i e l s par ceux-l2 mSme qui produisent la m'chesse. L 'ar t i e l e suggere l e s voies par lesquel les l e d i f i pourrait Sire releve.

ESTRATEGIAS PARA A L T E R N A T I V A S DE DESARROLLO EN KORAPUT

Reswnen: El desafio que se ha lanzado a1 estado indio de Koraput no e s e l del abasteeirniento de rnuterias primas, de la infraestructura, de Los medios finaneieros o de la teenologta. Es e l desafio de la innooaaiSn, de la auto- gestibn, de la adminis'hrc.ci6n y del progreso hacia l a autonomia ( 'self-reliance') en una forma que sea espeeialmente sensible a las necesidades de las pobla- ciones t r ibu tes . Igualmente es e l desafio de asegurar su participaci6n espon- tdnea y s f ee t i va . En es ta tarea e l ex i t0 no se medirb en enovmes benefieios luerativos t a l e s como las exportaciones, sino en e l creeimiento del consumo de bienes y servioios esenciales, por la rnisma gente cuyos esfuerzos producen La riqueza y la hacen asequible a1 consumo y bienestar general. Estrategias para Alternativas de Desarrollo en Koraput propone formas de enfrentar e s t e desafio.

Vinod Vyasulu

1 / A L T E R N A T E DEVELOPMENT S T R A T E G I E S FOR KORAPUT -

In this paper an effort will be made to discuss alternate approaches to development policy in the case of one backward district - Koraput in Orissa, India. The discussion is meant as a background to an action research project concerned with field experiments in development policy.

I Koraput t o d a y

Koraput is the second largest district (after Baster in Madhya Pradesh) in India, and in area it is larger than Kerala 2 / . Koraput, the district headquarters, was built by the British; it was the office of the Political Agent and the first collector, R.C.S. Bell, who is the author of the first District Gazetteer. The district was formed by a merger of Zamindaris of the area, mainly Kashipur and Jaypore. The Zamindaris were Oriya speaking, but a large number of people in the district are Telugu speaking with close links to neighbouring Andhra Pradesh. Before 1936, the district was part of the Madras Presidency. However, since 1936, it has been part of Orissa Province, under the Bengal Presi- dency, and later, of Orissa State. The biggest part of the population is Scheduled Tribes - 61% and another 13% are Scheduled Castes. It is a "declared" backward district that is eligible for all the Central and State incentives for development activity.

The backwardness of the district is quite well reflected in the poor infrastructural facilities, which are all geared to taking out of the district its rich raw materials. For Koraput is very rich in raw materials. It has at least 10 million tonnes of iron ore and very large deposits of high grade bauxite - over 60 million tonnes, enough for several centuries at current rates of consumption. It has 225 million tonnes of limestone of the best cement grade quality and also some deposits of mica and other metals. Official agencies feel that further geological and other studies of the district are necessary since full information is not yet available about its natural resource potential.

Koraput has vast forest resources, in spite of the indiscriminate deforestation that has occured in the last half century. There is good quality timber (such as sal and teak) and plenty of bamboo.

I/ Paper presented at the Seminar on "Alternate Development Strategies - Their - Relevance to India", Giri Institute of Development Studies, Lucknow, February 21-22, 1981.

2 2/ It has some 2 million inhabitants on an area of 27,000 km . -

The potential for various activities connected with forest produce, such as collection and processing of minor oil seeds I/, mohua flowers, spices and so on is considerable. The Department of Soil Conservation of the Orissa Government has experimented, (solely as a by-product of soil conservation activity) with plantations of cashew, coffee and sisal. The Coffee Board is planning to extend its activities in a big way to this district, in conjunction with industrial groups like Thepers and Khodays and this effort has the backing of the Governor of Orissa. Surviving from the past are fruit plantations of mangoes and apples. The main cereals grown are mandia (ragi) and paddy.

Koraput has tremendous hydro-electric potential. The power station at Machkund (the second in the country after KRS in Mysore) is a joint endeavour of the Governments of Orissa and Andhra Pradesh. In addition, Indrawati power station is being expanded, and construction work has begun on the Upper Kolab Project. Thousands of acres will benefit from irrigation. Yet there is no debate on the implications of such vast changes which are being wrought by administrative decisions from above.. In this, Orissa is quite different from Karnataka and Kerala where hydro-electric projects have been centres of public controversy. Lower Kolab will soon be taken up. Across the border, Andhra Pradesh has the Lower and Upper Sileru power projects. Thervali will coordinate the power from Balimala, Machkund and even Talcher. Orissa is currently a power surplus state, and the addition of power from these projects provides it with one of the essential inputs for rapid growth in the district where, currently power consumption per capita is 4 KWtt. At present, the surplus power is simply being sold to neighbouring states.

The total railway length in this large district is only 224 kms. This is part of the Raipur-Waltair line and the Kirandue-Kottaval- sala line which simply pass through the district, linking interior sources of raw-material to the port at Vizag. Although designed for goods traffic (especially the KK line), they cater marginally to passenger traffic. The Chattisqarh Express connects the district to Delhi. The Department of Mining has proposed a Koraput- Rayagada rail link, but this has not yet been approved. The major reason for this link is to facilitate the shipment of bauxite out of the district to Vizagapatnam. The important townships in Koraput are linked by the national highways connecting Andhra

l/ One of these is the sal seed, now used in large quantities not only in soap - manufacture, but also to prepare a substitute for cocoa butter which gives chocolate its "melt in the mouth" quality. Hindustan Lever has pioneed this technology and advertises its role in helping the tribals of Orissa. While the benefit to the transnational seems clear enough, it was very difficult for us to pinpoint the exact benefit to the tribals. This is a matter that requires dispassionate study.

Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. State highways link most of the other townships. In 1975, there were 387 post offices, ten telephone exchanges and 23 telegraph offices.

The level of literacy in Koraput is only 10 per cent, well below the Orissa average of 26 per cent and the national average of 30 per cent. While there are 3161 primary schools, 515 middle schools and 69 high schools (run by State Government and Ashrams) 5 col- leges, one IT1 and one Technical Training Institute and one Crafts school, the spread of education is poor, and perhaps the education itself is of little immediate relevance to the people in their daily working life.

The district is served by several agencies of the Orissa Govern- ment. Central agencies and the nationalised banks also serve Koraput. The lead bank of the district is the State Bank of India, which prepared an action plan in 1970 and is currently (1980) in the process of preparing an updated Credit Plan. While all the agencies are prepared to collaborate in development projects, there appears to be no-coordination and clear-cut direction to the little work currently underway.

A large number of agencies have conducted studies of the district.

An important part of the economic and social scene in Koraput is the Dandakaranya Development Authority (DDA) which has its headquarters in Koraput. Although the DDA is active in neighbouring districts also, it has had a great impact particularly on the economy of Eastern Koraput (Malkangiri) through the settlers who have been brought in from Bengal, and also through the introduction of crops like mestha which are new to this area, and which seem to be doing quite well. The DDA, however, has functioned solely as a rehabilitation agency, rather than as a development agency. It does not appear to have the ability to act as a catalyst for progress.

Inspite of all these rich natural resources, minimal institutional and infrastructural support, the Koraput tribals have consistantly been outside the mainstream of the national economic and social life. This is the main reason for Koraput being a backward district. Perhaps one should say that Koraput is an underdeveloping district today, since it is an excellent case of internal colonial- ism, with every major development since Independence reinforcing the Indo-colonial forces of exploitation, particularly of the tribals.

Koraput is pre-dominantly dependent upon its own forest and agricultural wealth. Six large-scale industries are located in the district: Sugar, Ferro-manganese, Ferro-Silicon, Silicon Carbide, Paper and MIG Engines.

In addition there are proposals to set up a cement factory, a maize starch plant and a paper mill. There is also the Indo- French Consortium Plan for tapping the resource of bauxite (via the ecologically harmful process of open cast mining) by setting up an Alumina Smelter with its own captive power station en- visaging a total investment of Rs. 1620 crores. A public sector company, NALCO, has recently been set up for this purpose. None of these large units have had any positive impact on the local people of Koraput district and they tend largely to be islands of privilege catering to the external Indian and foreign markets. No effort is even made to train the local people in the required skills - in this case, aluminium technology. All the skilled workers come from elsewhere. No effort is even made to set up downstream units to convert aluminium into other products, such as utensils, even though non-ferrous casting as a skill is locally available. Rather, the market sucks out the natural resources of the district, giving nothing in return to the local poor.

There are some small scale industries in the district concentrated mainly in Jeypore and Rayagada. Those are in the categories of engineering, chemical, glass and ceremic, textile, leather, wood, forest and agro-based industries. According to the District Indus- tries Centre they number 324 with blocked capital of Rs. 1,25,54,694/-; working capital of Rs. 90,61,294/- and employing 2375 persons in 1971.

The district has a rich tradition in tribal handicrafts which include metal and smithy such as non-ferrous metal casting at Umerkote. There are many other rural industries related to traditional activity such as oil extraction, hides and skins, handloom and so on, but these are gradually dying in the light of external market stresses. The various government agencies have identified Jeypore, Rayagada and Sunabeda as potential growth centres and it is around these towns that most of the agencies are making their action plans for tribal development. But the tribals themselves have no part in the process of planning for their welfare. Nor do these agencies seek to give them such a role, even in the future.

If the district of Koraput is ever to develop, attention must be focussed on the main factor because of which it has remained backward. This is the non-integration of its vast tribal population in the economic activity of the district, and this is because the district economy is only an appendage to the external market. As things stand today, Koraput is a rich district whose many natural resources are being heedlessly extracted by outsiders for

their own benefit and at great cost to the local, largely tribal, population. There are also industries located in this district which have no links whatsoever to the district and sometimes even to the state. An example of such an industry is the HAL factory in Sunebeda which is. more closely integrated with Vizagapatnam and Andhra Pradesh than Koraput and Orissa. If any agency is to break this vicious circle of grinding poverty of the majority of the people of Koraput, it will have to concentrate its activities upon strengthening the traditional skills of the tribal people and upon the local production of goods consumed by them while coun- tering the exploitative market pressures. That is to say, it must expand the economic base of local production and consumption and later reintegrate the district to the national economy in such a way that the pattern of overall growth ensures that at all times the majority of the local population, specially the tribals, de- rive clearcut benefits in the form of increased investment in projects of importance to them, improvement in their living conditions, and a continual betterment in their quali-ty of life, as perceived by them and not by the external "development cata- lysts" and change agents. This is important, since, say, the idea of the two on what constitutes "decent housing" or "adequate food" often turns out to be radically different, reflecting their respective class and other biases. In such cases, it is the external agent whose views must be passed over. To do this it must in some measure in the early stages delink itself from the Indian and foreign markets - an apparently impossible requirement.

Such a process is unlikely to succeed within the traditional approach of industrialization based upon the identification of entrepreneurs who are given technical, financial and marketing support to set up industrial activity. For an Indian entrepreneur of today, to succeed in the best of conditions, he requires to belong to a certain culture in which he can operate in the market, deal with vast numbers of "educated" and "sophisticated" people such as suppliers, customers and officials spread across the country and the world. The tribals of Koraput, whose educational and cultural traditions are completely distinct from those of the industrial class, and whose traditional values are against individual initiative and private enterprise of modern variety, cannot be expected to industrialise the district by becoming entrepreneurs, nor perhaps may they even wish to I/, This is particularly so in view of their concrete experience of exploitation - brutal exploitation - by the market in recent years.

l/ And yet, there is really little option. It is becoming increasingly clear - that traditional systems are today inadequate from many points of view. Simultaneously, modern solutions are out of reach of the poor. So change they must, and the question is "how", I have benefitted in this connection from discussionswithprof. Amulya Reddy of ASTRA"

Self-reliance is a long way from the traditional systems of bon- dage like the "gotha" system prevalent in Koraput. It is not a matter of surprise that a large factory like the HAL has been un- able to attract even one local small scale ancillary entrepreneur inspite of the incentives and Government Guidelines on Ancillari- zation.

Nor is it a matter of surprise that a village outside the HAL township, Indraguda, seems to have benefitted little, if at all, by the modern industry in its neighbourhood. In such a situation of vast difference in values, cultures and behaviours, promotional efforts must first win the trust and confidence of the tribal people who are the "target population" of any development. Mana- gerial innovations and major efforts need to be made at divising new methods together with the tribals to meet the situation. Some general ideas in this alternative direction are presented below as a base for action research.

I 1 An alternative vision The resources of the district would suggest that efforts should be made to tap the potential that already exists. With the availability of oil seeds in large quantities, it is natural to consider the setting up of units engaged in oil extraction, in the processing of the oils into soap base (and glycerine) and later in the decentralised production of cakes of toilet soap. In the same way the availability of hides and skins would suggest that small rural centres for the tanning and finishing of leather and at a later stage for the development of leather products, first for local consumption, should be encouraged. This can only be done by breaking the Madras stranglehold on this industry - a formidable task under the best of conditions.

The existence of sisal plantations would suggest village level units and taluk level plants for extracting the chemicals available in the sisal juice in addition to the traditional fibre products. Today R & D efforts are underway in Bangalore to examine these possibilities I/. The availability of vast resources of wood would suggest that the people be trained in the use of wood working machinery and encouraged to build up a furniture industry in which the basic components can be manufactured in their own district and exported for assembly elsewhere. This must be accompanied simultaneously by a planned reforestation programme drawing on the tribals vast experience of and inherent respect for his habitat. The existence of a tradition of metal working and non-ferrous casting would suggest that efforts be directed towards

l/ Report of the Working Group on Sisal Utilization, Karnataka State Council - for Science and Technology, 1981.

gradually upgrading their skills by introducing new products such as builders hardware and hand tools, developing at a later stage into updated foundry technology.

Knowing the traditional resistance to change, one of the key factors of such an alternate strategy would be to make haste slowly. No one will participate in new activity unless it benefits them in some way - this statement is as true of urban elites as of tribal people. In a situation where traditional methods are no longer adequate for a decent life, and where the modern, market solutions are accessible only to a few - who most often are from outside the district - it is necessary to think of measures based on modern scientific knowledge but which have built into them an egalitarianism that is missing from market solutions. This is obviously difficult because it is new and novel. It is nevertheless necessary. Thus, in the early stages, such efforts should be related to consumption technologies where concrete benefits, and egalitarian opportunities, are evident. One such technology seems to be the community biogas plant, which meets the essential need for cooking fuel, provides opportunities for other activities, and introduces new cultural work forms in a positive context. It is such technologies that need to form the starting point of alternate development strategies - and the complexity of this process must at no time be understated. New technical options, along with novel organizational frames, will together need to form the base of an alternate technology, which itself will be part of an overall strategy.

In all this, care must be taken to see that essential inputs are made freely available (but not free of cost). For example, the district must be assured that the alumina that is produced from local bauxite will be available for downstream processing, for example, into utensils, in the decentralized sector. There is no reason why these industries should be set up elsewhere. While on this point, it should be ensured that the proposed captive power station has enough power to supply the downstream units as well. Under the usua.1 cost/benefit calculations even of the social variety, this would never happen.

The availability of vast quantities of agricultural wastes in the forest suggests that technology for pellettssing this into fuel for local use be explored. The existence of sabai grass naturally leads to notions of small hand made paper units, which can supply local schools and offices. Since there is a tradition of handloom weavers among the tribals it should be possible to give suitable support to encourage spinning through the improved pedal charkha in such a way that the yarn produced by tribal women in their homes goes on to the local handloom weaver and then to meeting the demand of the same people for cloth. Further market support will be forthcoming if the local unions can be prevailed upon to advise that the uniform for their members be made from the cloth. In the process their per capita cloth consumption can

be increased. This is of Khadi and Swadeshi; quite an uphill task!

in fact, a return to the original concept and, in the light of recent experience,

The ideas mentioned above do not see the role of traditional crafts as being simply linked to the market by producing souvenirs and other trivia for foreign tourists. It does not envisage a situation in which the resources of the district are extracted and sent as raw material to industries located in India or abroad for further processing, and in which manufactured goods are sent back to Koraput, for consumption by the few who have money. Rather the effort is to try and explore methods by which gradually at each stop local value added is increased by manufacture in the district itself by the people who live there, and where trade with outsiders is conducted on equal, not colonial, terms. This may be contrasted with the way in which the NALCO projects seems to be going. At present officials are thinking of extracting alumina in Koraput and sending this ore to a smelter in Talcher. In such a situation, the investment of a thousand odd crores will benefit the district very little. If one were to use the concept of net present value of net gains to the region, the ranking of this project may turn out to be quite adverse. It is a matter that requires much deeper analysis. (But this must not be mistaken for an anti-industrialization argument either, since it is not the intention here to oppose industrial growth in India). It is however, an argument for strengthening intersectoral and structural linkages in the economy.

Such an effort calls for major innovations in introducing new values, organizational structures and improved and alternate technology. There is no easy method by which in a very short span of time spectacular results can be obtained. What is called for is a major effort relying upon the persons stationed in the district, cooperation with all other developmental agencies, be they central, state or private, in order to set up new structures in which the opinions, abilities and talents of the tribal population will at all times be respected and built upon. This might, for example, call for the formation of a Trust between the NSIC, the DIC, the lead banks (in this case the SSI, and the tribal Development Cooperative Corporation, the District Collector and suitable, democratically chosen, representatives of the tribals. This Trust could begin industrial activity on projects chosen by the tribals at locations of their choice after explaining to them all relevant facts called from modern techniques, (away from the identific growth centres which are based solely on market considerations), which would undertake the entire basic task of setting up, operating and managing the new industrial units. If such a Trust were to set up a unit for converting oil which is being extracted 10- cally into base soapy matter, it can also encourage a system by which the soapy matter is converted into soap cakes locally by smaller units. Orissa can become the soap supplier of the entire country. Such a Trust could build units for non-ferrous casting

by introducing new products in locations chosen by the tribals in terms of their own conveniences. All authority will need to be vested in this Trust, the formation and operation of which requires managerial innovations on a heroic scale. Eventually the entire concern from the provision of inputs, through the process of conversion, to the disposal of final output, may be handed over. In the early stages, the tribals, while being included in all committees and decision making bodies, may only function as ordinary workers. An effort needs to be made, perhaps by special training programmes, over a period of time, to enable them to become the supervisors and organizers of the production process. In the near orforseeable future, there is no possibility by which the total management can be handed over to them. Many managerial functions, such as raw material supplies, quality control, finance, R & D and marketing will have to be handled by such a Trust for quite sometime. Such questions may be re-examined after Trusts of this sort have functioned for two or three years; and the expe- riences of Trusts can differ greatly from district to district and region to region. Caution will need to be exercised in generaliza- tions from specific experience.

Such enterprises would also have to adopt attitudes towards tribals that are quite different from those of employers to wage-labour- ers V. While it is true that all who work in a production unit of the Trust must receive at least the local minimum waqe, it -,v~uld seem desirable that the Trust pay them only part of the wages in the form of cash L / . Given that, currently, they receive less than the minimum waqe, in fact (after the contractors keep their cut). This need not mean a decline in real income for them. The rest should be ploughed back into further investment and into services designed towards increasing per capita consumption of basic essentials of what in a modern state is considered to be the good life. One exampip woold be a community kitchen functioning, (with modifications where needed) like the Indira Community Kitchen in Pune, open to all in the neighbourhood. Other examples would be the provision of safe drinking water, clean toilets (perhaps of the Subbh Sanchalaya type pioneed in Patna), and so on.

I / This must not be misunderstood as any fear of the growth of an industria- - lized labour force. As the discussion brought out, the opportunities for such growth are limited anyway. And the focus here is on encouraging cooperative form of behavior. It is from such nuclii that alternatives will draw their strength when the overall environment is more attuned to them. And such efforts are important in contributing to the emergence of such a supportive environment.

'IIns suggestion is also made by P. Hanumantha Rayappa and Deepak Grover in I'hpluyniunt Planning for the Rural Poor: The Case of Scheduled Castes and Srtiuduled Tribes, (Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1980), p. 104.

This would include investment by the Trust in health, sanitation, education and the breaking of barriers between the tribals and outside people. Such a process would inevitably have to be suit- ably monitored; a tricky business at best,

A method that ignores entrepreneurship on the side of management will also have to accept the logical consequences of ignoring entrepreneurship in dealing with workers. In fact there can be no workers without entrepreneurs. Thus the promotional agencies will have to experiment with a whole host of new forms of organization and administration of local consumption, production and marketing. It is the challenge of expanding the local economic base, as opposed to the simple integration of the district into the national and world markets on unequal terms. It is only the latter that is being attempted today.

It would be useful to examine how such work could start in a district like Koraput. There are already several welfare and other organizations working there. One could begin by looking at the potential of all of them together. There are schools, Primary Health Centres, and other establishments already working in different parts of the district. The schools need chalk, black- boards, notebooks, mid-day meals, fittings, and even, from a longer point of view, clothes, shoes etc. for the children, PHCs, need bandage cloth, simple medicines antiseptics, medical and surgical instruments, first aid kits and so on. All need simple buildings. They need people who can impart field level knowledge, volunteers with local roots who can carry out sustained work. There are many welfare programmes that can finance such activities. Then there are the agriculture related projects under the umbrella of ITDR and what not. All of these, if properly handled, both generate demand by providing some income to poor people and create some assets, tangible and non-tangible, on which people can build in the future, There is no reason why some of these demands cannot be met from local sources. Notebooks can be made from locally produced handmade paper. Bandages can be made from locally woven handmade cloth. Shoes can be made from locally tanned leather by local coblers, These and other such products which come today to Koraput from Vizag, Vijayawada, Hyderabad and Calcutta - because it is presumed that they are cheaper and of better quality. Whether they are in fact cheaper is a moot question There is a need to question whether indeed the quality specified in Calcutta is suitable for Koraput, If not, there is a need to emphasise the positive impact of people being able to meet their own needs, of the much needed confidence that can come from such experience. It is on the basis of such experience that growth and development take place, and not in the face of submission to a market that is manipulated from elsewhere. There is therefore an urgent need to begin such work, And those who can best do it are those in Koraput. Outsiders have only a small, (and gradually diminishing) role to play. If this is not accepted, the result will be, not a farce, but a tragedy.

The challenge of Koraput is not the challenge of raw materials supplies, infrastructure, finance or technology, it is the challenge of innovation, of self-management, administration and progress towards self-reliance in a manner that is particularly responsive to the needs of the tribal people. It is the challenge of ensuring their volunatry participation. It is a challenge in which success is measured not in gross aggregates such as exports, but by the increase in the consumption of essential commodities and services by the people through whose efforts the wealth is created and made available for general consumption and welfare.

Development Education Forum, No. 3 April 1981

IFDA DOSSIER 26 . B U I L D I N G BLOCKS

TECHNOLOGY, "ANOT

NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1981

HER EDUCATION" AND DEVELOPMENT IN AFR b y Ri t a Kashope Dixon-Fyle 17, chemin du V i l l a g e de P e r l y 1258 P e r l y (GE) , S w i t z e r l a n d

O r i g i n a l language: E n g l i s h

Abstract: The argument i s advanced t h a t Afr ican counrries need a r"veiL broader and sys temat ic framework for determining pol ic ies r e g a r d ? t;jc choice and use o f re levant technology. "Appropriate" technology i s rqavde i . as a rrrix o f technological elements a t key l e v e l s o^ economic a d s c c i d development uhich recognizes national needs and an obl igat ion t o sativy rea l i s t i ca l l y -de f i ned patterns of nat ional production and consuli t i e r . It is proposed t ha t countr ies bu i ld up an inventory o f avai lable t e c ' kno lop , .'i A'- genous and "transferred" a t various l e v e l s , wi th the ac t i ve p u r t i c i ~ a r i c ~ ~ our young people. A p r o p m o f pducation 'in bas i c ecor.omic end sccio-l r(:: v d o p i s suggested - "another education" - desQned t o adjus t natioi-!cl and !rdz.>?-

* - dual a t t i t u d e s and production ard consumption patterns. This u c u ~ c k direc ted no t only a t young peopZe b u t a l s o a t adul t s ar.d decision-rakers r ; development. A ro l e i s a l s o de f ined for foreign ass is tance .

Resume: Pour determiner leurs po l i t i ques quant au choix 6 t I ' u s a p dt t r - notogies approprGes, l e s pays d lAfr ique ont besoin d'ur; i-:.&c de r^-f^r^rc'c plus vas te e t plus s y s tematique. La teclznologie apprc)pri f e C S t c-c'v .-idi'rtC, c o m e un ensemble d'dlements, aux niveaux d i e i s i f s du deve'lop~eir.^i,' f m U(,-

mique e t soca i l , qui reconnaisse Zes besoins nationaux a h s i .":Le 7 ' r l< ipa ' i r - de s a t i s f a i r e d'une man ihe r & a l i s t e des modZles nationa'nx de !.Y'c^,:,v+~'~Â¥^ e +

de consormation. L'auteur propose que l e s pays e t a b l i s s e n r , -:v_- ?/i ; - " J J " : ~ ~ , ; -

pation ac t i ve des jeunes, des i nven ta i r e s des technologies d z s y t - ' l ?c.p, endogenes ou ' t rans f e r5es ' 6 d i f f f t r en t s nivpaux. Un p~ogroiw,(~ L ! ' ~ c ~ ~ ~ i m t ?P en technologies dconomiques e t soc ia t e s est propose - line aiiiri' . ' C ~ ! , ~ W L ? C ~ , , - concue de m a n i h e 2 a j u s t e r l e s a t t i t u d e s nat ionales e t ir.divi'i!<f ?'-if, a.,.r modeles de production e t de consomiation c l !o is i s . Get. t ' f f c r t , V Y C ~ ; 6 ) * W - pr i s non seulernent en d i r ec t i on des jeunes, mats fgalemrnt di a ~ n ' . , ! t e ' : ' ' ,:(

decideurs. Le r 8 l e des apports ex tpr ieurs e s t 6galerricnt i3i'fi"i.

TECNOLOG~ A, 'ALTERNATIVAS DE E D U C A C I ~ N ' Y DESARROLLO EN A F R I CA

"ono '^>--a obtigaei6n de sa t i s f acer modelos de poducai6n y consumo naeionales r s d " , s r i c m e n t e de f in idos . Se propone que 20s parses elabo'ren un inventar io is tsanolo& dispowi'E5, tanto ind-Lgena como ' t r a n s f e r i d a f , a vain-os n i ve l e s , son la ~ a r t i c i p a c i S n aeti-va de gente joven. Se sugiere un programa de edu- zze'L6'n e r tec-riologia s c d m i m y soc ia l bhsieas - 'educaciSn a l t e rna t i va ' - i r d o a a , j x t a r attitudes naeionales e indiv iduales y las puntas de oroducsii'n y consumo. Esto ss dir ' ig ir ia no so lo a la gente joven s ine . ., a ? G Los adulros , i a Los que toman las dec is iones en materia de , : r r c l L o . Tmb ikn s s determina un ro t para l a ayuda ex tranjera .

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Ri t a Kashope Di xon-Fyl e

A b r i e f rev iew o f aspects o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e cho ice o f technology, educa t ion and development i n A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , t h i s paper argues: f i r s t l y , t h a t technology choice shou ld be s y s t e m a t i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e t o t a l i t y of t h e c o u n t r i e s ' economic and s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n and development p l a n n i n g and p rospec ts . Secondly, a concept o f appropr ia teness o f technology mix i s advocated which se ts as a s t r a t e g i c o b j e c t i v e i n technology cho ice t h e need t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e b u i l d i n g o f a t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e compat ib le w i t h coord ina ted i n d u s t r i a l development. T h i r d l y , t h e n e c e s s i t y i s under- l i n e d f o r comprehensive popu la r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y of young people, i n t h e e n t i r e process o f technology bu i ld -up . A program o f economic and s o c i a l re -educa t ion i s proposed as a focus o f e f f o r t s t o s t i m u l a t e i n t e r e s t i n technology, f o s t e r c r e a t i v i t y and e l i m i n a t e some o f t h e p r e j u d i c e s which have so f a r p lagued general economic development i n A f r i c a .

Technology i n t h e S e r v i c e o f Development

Whatever t h e s t a t e o f t h e i r knowledge o f a p p l i e d sc ience, A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s a r e endowed w i t h a mix o f va r ious ca tegor ies o f technology. A v a i l a b l e e v i - dence i n d i c a t e s t h a t l e v e l s o f i n d u s t r i a l development i n A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , as indeed i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , a r e r e l a t e d i n ways which r e q u i r e f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e p r i n c i p a l c a t e g o r i e s o f e f f e c t i v e techno logy i n a n a t i o n ' s t e c h n o l o g i c a l endowment. Bear ing i n mind t h e p r e s e n t economic d i f f i c u l t i e s f a c i n g A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s and t h e ques t ions which have been r a i s e d r e g a r d i n g t h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f some elements i n a v a i l - a b l e technology, a more op t ima l o r a p p r o p r i a t e mix o f technology elements s h o u l d improve s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e t u r n s f rom human and i n d u s t r i a l e f f o r t . A two-phased approach o f i n t e r a c t i n g elements i s proposed t o promote such a mi X .

The f i r s t element r e q u i r e s t h e sys temat i c b u i l d i n g up o f an i n v e n t o r y of a v a i l a b l e techno logy a c t u a l l y b e i n g u t i l i s e d i n a coun t ry , as an i n i t i a l s t e p f o r d e t e r m i n i n g e f f e c t i v e technology mix and t h e cho ice o f technology f o r v a r i o u s c a t e g o r i e s o f development a c t i v i t y . The i n v e n t o r y i s n o t conce ived as a s t a t i c , once-and-for-a l l accoun t ing record , b u t as a framework f o r b a l a n c i n g c o n t i n u a l l y technology endowments and revea led development and techno logy needs. The second element i s a comprehensive program of educa t ion i n technology des igna ted "Bas ic Economic and Soc ia l Technology" as p a r t o f "ano ther educa t ion" program f o r schools and o t h e r educa t iona l and i n f o r m a l s e c t o r i n s t i t u t i o n s .

The b a s i c j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r an i n v e n t o r y and o f t h e approach t o i t s development wh ich we propose i s t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s do need a c a r e f u l l y determined t e c h n o l o g i c a l base on which t o anchor i n d u s t r i a l development, i n c l u d i n g " t r a n s f e r r e d technology" . I n t h e absence o f an ade- qua te t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e t h e c a p a c i t y i s l i m i t e d f o r sma l l and even l a r g e c o u n t r i e s t o absorb r e l a t i v e l y s imp le technology - f o r ins tance ,

*/ R i t a Dixon-Fyle, a S i e r r a Leonese, i s former head o f t h e Par l i amenta ry - and Commercial D i v i s i o n o f t h e M i n i s t r y o f J u s t i c e i n S i e r r a Leone. She has a l s o t a u g h t 6 t h Form Economics i n h e r coun t ry .

involving assembly of small trucks requir ing , among other th ings , the accu- r a t e i n t e rp re t a t i on and u t i l i z a t i o n of technical information in process shee t s , blue p r i n t s , operational i n s t ruc t ions f o r machines, minimum s t an - dards f o r p a r t s , material t e s t i n g procedures, qua l i t y control techniques, and so on. A typical European vehic le comprises 2,500 major pa r t s and assemblies and up t o 10 times t h a t number i f every nut and bo l t were coun- ted separately!/. In order t o improve the capacity of t h i s i n f r a s t ruc tu re t o support an economically e f f i c i e n t and soc i a l ly acceptable i ndus t r i a l e d i f i c e , i t i s necessary t o i den t i fy i t s s t rengths and weaknesses, t o co r r ec t defec ts and re inforce areas of actual o r potent ia l s t rength . An inventory of technological endowments of various types i s thus a logica l f i r s t s t ep .

Broad Categories of Technology

Technology types may be c l a s s i f i e d qu i t e simply i n t o ( a ) primary, mainly indigenous technology and r e l a t ed s k i l l s in self-employed o r small business un i t s ; (b ) intermediate, including l a rge r amounts of both indigenous and r e l a t i v e l y simple imported technology employed in en t e rp r i s e s technica l ly more e labora te than in t he case of primary technology. In t h i s category i s included small/medium sca l e manufacturing o r assembly operations which use largely imported equipment and foreign complementary f ac to r s such as s k i l l e d labour o r management, but a l so some local f ac to r s ; and ( c ) la rge-scale , cap i t a l - i n t ens ive technology with imported inputs and generally owned wholly o r pa r t l y by mu1 t i n a t i o n a l s through t h e i r subs id i a r i e s , o r operated under l icence and other in ternat ional commercial o r governmental agreements.

I t i s not presumed t h a t a l l primary technologies a r e b e t t e r than o thers simply because they a re mainly indigenous. Only t h a t t he re i s of ten i n African countries f a r more oppor tuni t ies f o r the more organized use of pr i - mary technology than i s often rea l ized and t h a t enlightened encouragement of i t s use might lead t o t h e discovery of l a t e n t ingenuity and innovative q u a l i t i e s which would otherwise go unrecognized. I t would be the purpose of t he technology inventory t o a id i n t h e documentation and appraisal of t h i s kind of technology.

Simi lar ly , i t cannot be presumed t h a t a11 intermediate technology i s neces- s a r i l y "appropriate". In f a c t , inappropriate and appropr ia te elements a r e found in a l l three ca tegor ies . I t i s poss ib le t o choose a technology which i s intermediate and i s s t i l l " inappropr ia te" because i t r e l i e s , f o r ins tance , more heavily on imported technical components (capi t a l - i n t ens ive ) o r indus- t r i a l property r i gh t s than an a l t e r n a t i v e , equal ly technica l , but s o c i a l l y e f f i c i e n t ( labour i n t ens ive ) technology. Nevertheless, t h e evidence grows and i s convincing^./ t h a t low income, r e l a t i v e l y small economies such as a r e found i n African countr ies should look as much as poss ib le , f o r the s a t i s - f ac t ion of t h e i r technological needs, t o appropriate small and medium-scale intermediate technologies ,

I / Colin H i l l , "Time, Tact and Trus t" i n Development Forum Vol .VII, no.3, - April 1979, p.7.

2/ George McRobie, Small i s Possible (London: Jonathan Cape, 1981) -

An I n v e n t o r y o f Pr imary Technology

The t a r g e t group o f p r imary technology users would comprise t h e wide range o f s e m i - s k i l l e d and s k i l l e d opera to rs i n e n t e r p r i s e s m a i n l y i n t h e s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s . This group, which i s a l l t o o o f t e n neg lec ted i n techno logy and manpower p l a n n i n g i n A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , i n c l u d e s a r t i s a n s , v i l l a g e and c o t t a g e i n d u s t r y workers, mechanics and s imp le p l a n t opera to rs who, n o t o n l y develop know-how, b u t mod i fy o r innova te i n t h e course o f t h e i r normal p r o d u c t i o n opera t ions .

The manner i n which t h i s p a r t o f t h e i n v e n t o r y would be compi led c o u l d be c r i t i c a l i n de te rmin ing n o t o n l y t h e uses t o which i t can be p r o d u c t i v e l y p u t , b u t a l s o i n r e l a t i o n t o t h e process o f educa t ion and t h e s t i m u l a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t i n technology i t s e l f . It would r e q u i r e t h e a c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f young peop le i n t h e documentation and e v a l u a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g p r imary techno logy i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h p l a n n i n g a u t h o r i t i e s . Students and, f o r t h a t m a t t e r , school c h i l d r e n i n A f r i c a a r e o f t e n ve ry s e n s i t i v e t o t h e r e a l i t i e s o f c u r r e n t problems o f development and adjustment . They a r e a p o t e n t i a l f o r c e which c o u l d be harnessed i n tasks o f t h e k i n d envisaged here. T h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n would a l s o serve t o break down t h e b a r r i e r s o f i n d i f f e r e n c e and t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o f s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s which a l i e n a t e young people f rom t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f users o f p r i m a r y technology.

The I n v e n t o r i e s o f I n t e r m e d i a t e and Large-sca le Technologies

I n t h i s area t h e r e i s no l e s s a problem o f b a s i c documentation. Because o f d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e u n i t s o f techno logy invo lved , more f o r m a l i z e d processes o f da ta c o l l e c t i o n a r e r e q u i r e d . However, as i n d i c a t e d below, t h e r e i s neve the less much scope f o r t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f young people. I n t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r access t o i n f o r m a t i o n , over which a government i s i n complete o r p a r t i a l c o n t r o l , shou ld pose l i t t l e problem. I t i s i n t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r t h a t t h e r e m i g h t be a tendency towards secrecy. T h i s need cause few problems where no i n f r i n g e m e n t s o f i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t y r i g h t s a r e i n v o l v e d . Moreover, much o f t h e r e q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n on i n t e r m e d i a t e and l a r g e - s c a l e techno logy e x i s t s as a r e s u l t o f r o u t i n e l e g a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t y assoc ia ted w i t h t h e r e g i s t r a t i o n o f pa ten ts , t h e l i c e n s i n g o f technology, and t h e n e g o t i a t i o n o f commercial agreements.

Non-secret t e c h n i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n i s a l s o con ta ined i n f i l e s and records o f government departments, i n s t i t u t i o n s , a s s o c i a t i o n s , e tc . , a l l t o o o f t e n recorded w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be p u t t o f u r t h e r c o n s t r u c t i v e use w i t h o u t compromising c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y where a p p r o p r i a t e . A l l a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be documented on p a t e n t , non- p a t e n t and t e c h n i c a l know-how i n c l u d i n g designs, p l a n t and equipment c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , apparatus, spare p a r t s , t o o l s , s p e c i a l accessor ies ; on formulae, c a l c u l a t i o n s , p lans , drawings; and concern ing process, p r o d u c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , f a c t o r y p r a c t i c e s and e x e c u t i o n o f p r o j e c t s , o r g a n i s a t i o n o f work, requi rements r e g a r d i n g b u i l d i n g s , e l e c t r i f i c a t i o n , measurements, s tandards, p r o d u c t i o n r o u t i n g and i n s p e c t i o n methods, energy consumption, l a b o u r i n p u t , t u r n o v e r , accoun t ing system and c o s t i n g data, e t c . 1 1

l/ Economic Commission f o r Europe, Guide f o r use i n drawing up c o n t r a c t s - r e l a t i n g t o t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l T rans fe r o f Know-How i n t h e Eng ineer ing I n d u s t r y (Sales no.E70.11E.15) p.2

Modal i t i e s

The i n i t i a l s t e p i n b u i l d i n g up t h e i n v e n t o r i e s would, a c c o r d i n g l y , be more sys temat i c and comprehensive r e p o r t i n g o f t h e t e c h n i c a l da ta from a l l a v a i l - a b l e sources. It would be d e s i r a b l e i n p a r t i c u l a r t o i n c l u d e i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t i n g n o t o n l y t o t e c h n i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f technology and t h e i r sources b u t a l s o t o t h e i r e f f e c t i v e ownership and t h e terms on wh ich t h e r i g h t t o use them a r e s p e c i f i e d . Th is redocumentat ion o f techno logy i n f o r - mat ion a c t u a l l y a v a i l a b l e , would be undertaken j o i n t l y by t h e a u t h o r i t i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r r e c o r d i n g pa ten ts , l i c e n c e s , commercial agreements and r e l a t e d arrangements, by m i n i s t r i e s o f i n d u s t r y and t rade , by f a c t o r y and mines i n s p e c t o r a t e s or , where a p p r o p r i a t e , by a new a u t h o r i t y s e t up t o f o r m u l a t e and implement technology p01 i c y . The e x e r c i s e would r e q u i r e rev iew and upda t ing as new i n f o r m a t i o n i s added. Where t h i s wou ld n o t com- promise c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y and i n d u s t r i a l p r o p e r t y r i g h t s , a complementary r e c o r d i n g process would be undertaken o n - s i t e , where techno log ies a r e used. I n d u s t r i a l and i n s t a l l a t i o n s t a f f , f a c t o r y management, mineworkers, and o t h e r o p e r a t o r s as w e l l as i n d u s t r i a l development o f f i c e r s , a r e i n c o n t r o l o f a g r e a t deal o f p r a c t i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n on i n d u s t r i a l processes, r e q u i r e d i n p u t s o f va r ious c a t e g o r i e s o f l a b o u r and o t h e r p r o d u c t i o n f a c t o r s , and on machine performance and e f f i c i e n c y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Faced w i t h l i m i t a t i o n s i n educa t iona l o r s c i e n t i f i c c a p a b i l i t i e s , s imp le f a c t o r y workers a r e o f t e n d r i v e n by n e c e s s i t y t o c r e a t e o r i n n o v a t e m o d i f i - c a t i o n s i n processes and, sometimes, i n p roduc ts , wh ich a r e more c o m ~ a t i b l e w i t h development needs and resources than t h e a v a i l a b l e technology. It i s a l s o p robab le t h a t some u s e f u l techno log ies and i n n o v a t i o n s on them, s t i l l employed w i t h e f f i c i e n c y f rom pre-independence days, a r e n o t documented anywhere. I t wou ld be one o f t h e aims o f t h e i n v e n t o r y t o research, r e c o r d and e v a l u a t e them.

The p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f s tuden ts i n t h e documentation o f i n f o r m a t i o n would i m p a r t a sense o f i nvo lvement i n an i m p o r t a n t a c t i v i t y i n t h e development process, as w e l l as p r o v i d e a depth o f p r a c t i c a l exper ience which wou ld u s e f u l l y complement academic work, As t h e y come i n c o n t a c t w i t h machines i n a c t i o n and t h e techniques t h a t make them work, n o t h i n g c o u l d be more c a l - c u l a t e d t o spark t h e i r i n t e r e s t i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s which under1 i e techno logy and i t s e f f e c t i v e use.

1 / C l e a r l y t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f technology- elements f o r t h e i n v e n t o r y , t h e development o f documentat ion procedures, and t h e a n a l y s i s and r e t r i e v a l o f i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u i r e s u b s t a n t i a l r e l e v a n t e x p e r t i s e . Th is may need t o be impor ted i n t o some o f t h e s m a l l e r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , perhaps f rom i n t e r n a - t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s , b i l a t e r a l government sources o r f rom p r i v a t e technology i n s t i t u t e s . Where f o r e i g n a s s i s t a n c e i s necessary i t shou ld be d e l i b e r a t e l y merged w i t h l o c a l i n p u t s t o p reserve i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e r o l e which we t h i n k i t i s v i t a l t o accord t o young peop le i n t h i s regard.

A techno logy i n v e n t o r y would o n l y be as good as t h e uses t o which i t i s p u t . The p r i m a r y use i s t o p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r techno logy p o l i c y . Secondly, t o

l/ F o r a d e f i n i t i o n o f technology, see L i c e n s i n g Guide f o r Developing - Count r ies , WIPO P u b l i c a t i o n no.62O(E) 1977.

f a c i l i t a t e technology choice of a mix appropriate i n r e l a t i on t o needs and resource endowments. The s e t t i n g together of ava i l ab l e technology agains t needs enables p r i o r i t i e s t o be determined in r e l a t i on t o i ndus t r i a l and general development objec t ives . In the process, f a i r l y d e f i n i t e assess- ments could be made of p a r t i c u l a r s t rengths and weaknesses and of where they l i e . Bas ica l ly , assuming, f o r example, t h a t a country can only af ford a given amount of technology of a11 types, policy makers would be b e t t e r placed t o prescr ibe an appropriate mix of technology and, by means of legi - s l a t i v e , adminis t ra t ive and f i s ca l concessions and d i r ec t ives , t o influence i t s d i s t r i b u t i o n among a c t i v i t i e s , i ndus t r i e s and sec to r s .

The Choosers of Technology

In t he public s ec to r , profess ionals and adminis t ra t ive o f f i c i a l s have, as p a r t of t h e i r funct ion , the choise of technology f o r various publ ic projec ts . So a l s o have those responsible f o r i ndus t r i a l projec ts in government/ foreign en t e rp r i s e jo in t -ventures , b i l a t e r a l governmental arrangements and in local and t r i b a l a u t h o r i t i e s , a11 of whom we ca l l i ndus t r i a l development o f f i c e r s . These o f f i ce r s a r e of ten faced with grave problems in searching ou t , locat ing , not t o mention choosing and negot ia t ing f o r technology which i s appropriate t o individual projec ts . In the pr iva te s e c t o r , t he problem i s usually as follows: t he owner of a p a r t i c u l a r technology i s a foreign company. The importers a r e e i t h e r a subs id iary , a branch o r an a f f i l i a t e of t h a t same foreign company o r a non-related local business company, whose i n t e r e s t s do not coincide with t he concerns of policy-makers t o choose a technology appropr ia te , economically and s o c i a l l y , f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p ro j ec t . In many cases, especia l ly in t he p r iva t e s e c t o r , o f f i c i a l policy has no d i r e c t s ay , But i t has a powerful weapon and thereby a decis ive p a r t in t he choice, by means of granting o r withholding of concessions, protected monopolistic markets, tax holidays, capi ta l investment allowances and numerous o ther benef i t s which African countries usually af ford i n d u s t r i a l i s t s . A n appropriate technology conforming t o careful ly la id-out guidel ines , based on in s igh t s from the inventory, can be made a pre-condition f o r t he y a n t i n g of these benef i t s a t the level of individual p ro j ec t s ,

Guidelines on Technology P01 icy

Based l a rge ly on the preceding argument, a few broad genera l i sa t ions may be made regarding the s t r a t egy of technology p01 icy. F i r s t l y , t he opportunity should be used t o t i l t t h e balance from the usual concentration on the production of consumer goods t o increasing attempts t o produce r ea l ly needed durable and intermediate goods, For t h i s purpose, a ser ious study should be made o f ex i s t i ng technologies and areas where ava i l ab l e resources would make a search p ro f i t ab l e f o r technologies t h a t would blend with local resources . Secondly, i n choosing a technology compatible with need, overall resource endowments, and cos t s , every e f f o r t should be made t o avoid unnecessar i ly complicated technologies which a r e genera l ly associa ted with large-scale , high cap i t a l and overhead cos ts . Producers would be encouraged through adminis t ra t ive and f i s c a l incent ive measures t o use appropriate primary o r smal l/medium sca l e technology, labour-i ntensive and adapted, where poss ib le , t o domestic requirements.

Thirdly, where r e l a t i v e l y advanced modern technologies a r e necessary, such as in heavy engineering, e l ec t ron ic s , heavy chemicals, and sane types of

1 / i n f r a s t r u c t u r e - , t h e cho ice mix problem i s u s u a l l y pre-determined by ownership r i g h t s and " t r a n s f e r o f techno logy" cons idera t ions , r a t h e r than by c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g "absorp t ion" o f technology i n t o t h e h o s t c o u n t r y ' s economic and s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n . The immediate problem i s u s u a l l y t o a v o i d c o n f l i c t s between a m u l t i n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n o r o t h e r owners of p l a n t s and process techno log ies and t h e r e a l i n t e r e s t s o f A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s Whi le c o r p o r a t i o n s a r e u s u a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t r a n s f e r r i n g , and businesses i n t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r i n accep t ing , techno log ies which maximize t h e i r p r o f i t s o r s a t i s f y o t h e r o p e r a t i n g o b j e c t i v e s , h o s t coun t ry governments would need, f o r each p r o j e c t , technology which he lps i n reduc ing techno lo - g i c a l dependence on o u t s i d e sources, inc rease indigenous i n n o v a t i v e poten- t i a l , can be absorbed i n t h e o v e r a l l p r o d u c t i v e process and l e a d t o a c o s t e f f i c i e n t i n d u s t r i a l development,

I n p r a c t i c e , agents i n t h e p u b l i c and businessmen i n t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r s a r e o f t e n cons t ra ined t o accept o n l y those techno log ies which owners a r e prepared t o p a r t w i t h f o r t h e p r i c e , whatever t h e disadvantages t o t h e former. For example, i n t h e case o f t h e t r a n s f e r o f technology through l i c e n s i n g agreements, n e g o t i a t i o n s o f t e n a r e undertaken " w i t h inadequate t e c h n i c a l knowledge and background and w i t h l i t t l e exper ience o f t h e i n t r i - cac ies o f technology l i c e n s i n g 1 ' ~ on t h e p a r t o f t h e p r o s p e c t i v e l i censees . E v i d e n t l y , technology owners a r e n o t i n business t o h e l p s o l v e T h i r d World economic problems. The n e t r e s u l t o f c o n f l i c t s o f i n t e r e s t s i t u a t i o n s i s o f t e n t h e u t i l i s a t i o n o f square peg techno log ies i n round h o l e p r o j e c t s , Armed w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n and e v a l u a t i o n f rom t h e i n v e n t o r i e s , n e g o t i a t o r s i n t h e p u b l i c and p r i v a t e s e c t o r s would be i n a b e t t e r p o s i t i o n t o d i r e c t t h e i r search t o technology a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e i r demands. A we1 l documented inven- t o r y can be a u s e f u l a i d e memoire and can c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e process o f n e g o t i a t i o n s i n b o t h sec to rs .

Technology Need and Demand

The demand f o r technology i s i n essence a d e r i v e d demand, d e r i v e d f rom spe- c i f i c p roduc ts and a c t i v i t i e s which a r e produced w i t h t h e a i d o f technology. Where a c t u a l demand and b a s i c r e a l needs d ive rge , t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s inc rease f o r d i s t o r t e d choices o f technology and mixes o f i t s elements. P o s s i b l y even more s i g n i f i c a n t i s t h e f a c t t h a t p roduc ts accep tab le to , o r demanded by, A f r i c a n p o p u l a t i o n s l a r g e l y determine t h e average l e v e l of technology which manufacturers o f consumer goods i n p a r t i c u l a r a r e prepared t o employ. On t h e one hand, manufac tu re rs ' choices o f sub-standard, i n a p p r o p r i a t e process o r p r o d u c t technology have a l l t o o o f t e n l e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n of l ow q u a l i t y , sometimes even dangerous p roduc ts which cause problems of domestic acceptance and a r e o f t e n u n s u i t a b l e f o r expor t . These i n d u s t r i e s a r e u s u a l l y p r o t e c t e d f rom c o m p e t i t i o n by l e g i s l a t i v e o r f i s c a l p r o h i b i t i o n on t h e impor ts o f t h e goods they produce, through t a x h o l i d a y s and o t h e r f i s c a l concession. I n some A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , t h e es tab l i shment o f bureaux of s tandards and measurements has enabled p o l i c y makers t o s p e c i f y and en- f o r c e p r o d u c t s tandards. The e f f e c t o f t h i s i n i t i a t i v e on t h e cho ice o f technology has, however, sometimes been l o n g d e l ayed.

l/ Ja i ram Ramesh and Char les Weiss, J r . , M o b i l i z i n g Technology f o r World - Development: Report o f t h e Jamaica Symposium (USA: Preger, 1979) p.35.

21 Guide1 i n e s f o r t h e A c q u i s i t i o n o f Technology i n Developing Count r ies - w i t h s p e c i a l re fe rence t o Technology L icence Agreements (UNIDO Sales no. E.73.11.B.l)

On t h e o t h e r end o f t h e spectrum, producers have themselves chosen, and/or consumers have revea led p re fe rences f o r p roduc ts which r e q u i r e , techno lo - g i e s t h a t a r e unnecessar i l y more advanced and more c o s t l y r e 1 a t i ve t o need and a v a i l a b l e resources. What c l e a r l y i s needed i s , f i r s t l y , f o r pol icy-makers i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e agencies and p r i v a t e i n d u s t r y t o determine what may be c a l l e d " b a s i c q u a l i t y goods" t o be produced l o c a l - l y by t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e technology a v a i l a b l e . Secondly, on t h i s bas is , i n d u s t r i a l p o l i c y a u t h o r i t i e s would be enabled t o s e t o u t b road g u i d e l i n e s , backed by s u i t a b l e f i n a n c i a l i n c e n t i v e s , r e g a r d i n g t h e use o f techno log ies .

The o b j e c t i v e wou ld be t o encourage t h e use o f small/medium sca le , l ow c o s t techno log ies which a r e g e n e r a l l y l a b o u r - i n t e n s i v e , l ow energy - in tens ive , and which a r e j u s t i f i e d by smal l market s i z e , b a s i c need and t h e p re - r e q u i s i t e o f b u i l d i n g an i n d u s t r i a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e capable o f s u s t a i n i n g r e a l i s t i c i n d u s t r i a l development. An i n f r a s t r u c t u r e which would, i n genera l , f a c i l i t a t e t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f small /medium s i z e t r a n s f e r r e d technology and, i n p a r t i c u l a r , p r o v i d e a durab le base i n t o which t h e more advanced, l a r g e - s c a l e techno log ies can be p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n t e g r a t e d , Most A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s f a c e a problem o f dua l i sm i n t h e i r economies, o f two more o r l e s s d i s t i n c t economic sub-systems hav ing very l i t t l e t o do w i t h each o t h e r ,

Tastes, Consumption Pa t te rns , Popu la r Educat ion and Technology

I t wou ld e v i d e n t l y n o t s u f f i c e i f producers were t o a d j u s t t o new techno logy approaches and p o l i c i e s w h i l e consumers make no cor respond ing m o d i f i c a t i o n i n t h e i r consumption p a t t e r n s , t a s t e s and a t t i t u d e s and r e s o r t , f o r example, t o b l a c k market i m p o r t a t i o n t o s a t i s f y t h e i r demand, The b a s i c p r a c t i c a l q u e s t i o n i s how t o g e t across t h e message t h a t t h e new o r d e r o f r e a l i s m i n development approaches and p o l i c i e s r e q u i r e s t h e p r o g r e s s i v e abandonment o r adjustment o f t h e o ld , i n h e r i t e d o r d e r o f t a s t e s and consumption p a t t e r n s . T h i s f o r m i d a b l e problem i s f i r s t and foremost a problem o f educa t ion - o f e n t i r e communit ies across- the-board. C l e a r l y , no s imple, s e l f - e v i d e n t s o l u - t i o n s e x i s t . Never theless, exper ience does suggest t h a t a s t a r t c o u l d be made w i t h t h e s o c i a l educa t ion o f t h e young people. As i n d i c a t e d above, young peop le i n A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s understand t h e problems o f n a t i o n a l development more s e n s i t i v e l y than would p robab ly be t h e case i n more w e l l - o f f s o c i e t i e s .

Teaching economics t o s i x t h form s tuden ts i n an A f r i c a n c o u n t r y some years ago, I r e a l i z e d t h a t we a l l shared t h e same d e s i r e f o r "ano ther economics" whose substance and method d e r i v e d more o r l e s s f rom and r e l a t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y t o t h e A f r i c a n c o n d i t i o n o f "underdevelopment" r a t h e r than t o an i n d u s t r i a l r e v o l u t i o n wh ich had y e t t o occur i n an A f r i c a n coun t ry , Th is c o n d i t i o n o f underdevelopment was more complex than t h e text -books acknowledged. From t h i s "underdeveloped" s t a t e , i .e. , o f d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l , economic and t r a d i n g systems, however rudimentary, o f enormous raw m a t e r i a l wea l th , u n s p o i l e d ecology, whose peoples l i v e d c l o s e r t o na tu re , we have had t o "develop" s o c i e t i e s which have h i s t o r i c a l l y been encouraged t o accept f o r e i g n c u l t u r a l p a t t e r n s , economic systems and consume produc ts o f l a r g e - s c a l e p r o d u c t i o n and advanced technology. S o c i e t i e s which needed a t t h e same t i m e t o assess t h e impact o f i deas r a p i d l y c o m u n i c a t e d t o them on t h e i r t r a d i t i o n s , l i f e - s t y l e s , consumption p a t t e r n s and development p o s s i b i l i t i e s , b u t seldom d i d so. The s tuden ts r e a d i l y accepted t h a t t h e r e had been widespread "Western- i z a t i o n " o f A f r i c a n t a s t e s , a t t i t u d e s , e tc . , which had produced "Westernized" A f r i c a n s i n t h i n k i n g , a c t i o n and consumption p a t t e r n s . Some o f these

A f r i c a n s were i n p o s i t i o n s o f a u t h o r i t y , r e s p o n s i b l e f o r and i n f l u e n t i a l i n i n d u s t r i a l and development p o l i c y decis ion-making and i t s imp lementa t ion , Much o f t h e cos ts assoc ia ted w i t h d i s t o r t e d demand p a t t e r n s and t h e dome- s t i c p r o d u c t i o n o r i m p o r t a t i o n o f goods t o s a t i s f y them appeared t o be borne by t h e mass o f A f r i c a n peoples l e a s t a b l e t o b e a r them. Among these cos ts were t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f abso lu te pover ty , r u r a l m i g r a t i o n t o urban cen t res and h i g h e r unemployment and underemployment. No l e s s burdensome s o c i a l c o s t s i n c l u d e d budget d e f i c i t s , ba lance o f payment problems and t h e c r i p p l i n g c o s t o f a p r o t r a c t e d shor tage o f f o r e i g n exchange f o r e s s e n t i a l impor ts .

A m a j o r f a i l i n g i n A f r i c a n educa t iona l systems, which have remained essen- t i a l l y as they were i n h e r i t e d f rom t h e i m p e r i a l pas t , i s t h a t they have n o t emphasized t h e need f o r s e l f - r e l i a n c e and self-dependence. A f a i l i n g which i s p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e r e l a t i v e n e g l e c t o f s c i e n t i f i c research and t h e l a i s s e r - f a i r e a t t i t u d e towards technology. I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e s o c i a l c o s t s o f f o r e i g n dependence, where i t can be avoided, need t o be more e x p l i c i t l y documented and communit ies made more aware o f them. Th is has n o t h i n g t o do w i t h ideo logy . The A f r i c a n , b o t h t h e masses and t h e 61 i t e , must l e a r n t o d i v e s t h i s p resen t p a t t e r n s o f wants o f t h e " l u x u r i e s " of b o t h Nor thern f a c t o r i e s and those a t home. A s h i f t f rom these towards " b a s i c q u a l i t y goods" c o u l d be f a c i l i t a t e d ma in ly th rough a program o f re -educa t ion .

Regarding t h e c o n t e n t o f educat ion, much more emphasis needs t o be p u t on c u l t i v a t i n g i n q u i r i n g minds f rom e a r l y c h i l d h o o d towards t h e encouragement o f research a p t i t u d e s , and on t h e p o t e n t i a l b e n e f i t s b o t h t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e community o f sys temat i c l a r g e - s c a l e t r a i n i n g o f a r t i s a n s , t e c h n i c i a n s , engineers, t e c h n o l o g i s t s and research and s c i e n t i f i c pe rsonne l , Grea te r e f f o r t s wou ld be needed t o r e - o r i e n t a t e and r e s t r u c t u r e l i f e p a t t e r n s . Here, i t would n o t be t h e o b j e c t i v e s i m p l y t o d issuade i n a p p r o p r i a t e con- sumpt ion and p r o d u c t i o n p a t t e r n s . The r e a l i t y has t o be acknowledged t h a t some impor ted goods have become " i n c e n t i v e goods", Those who w ish t o consume such goods must be made aware o f t h e i r s o c i a l cos ts , and be r e q u i r e d t o pay no l e s s than t h i s c o s t f o r t h e i r consumbtion. I t would be an o b j e c t i v e o f t h e educa t iona l system t o d issemina te knowledge o f how cos ts o f i n a p p r o p r i a t e consumption and p r o d u c t i o n p a t t e r n s a r e d i s t r i b u t e d among v a r i o u s segments o f s o c i e t y , t o g e t h e r w i t h emphasis on t h e need t o accept t h e l o g i c o f c o s t d i s t r i b u t i o n and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r them. Urban e l i t e s s h o u l d n o t expec t t o r a i s e t h e i r l i v i n g standards a t t h e expense o f development i n r u r a l areas and o f t h e w e l f a r e o f r u r a l masses.

The t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f educa t ion wh ich s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e a t a l l l e v e l s cannot be a s i m p l e o r r a p i d process. There seems l i t t l e doub t t h a t t e c h n o l o g i c a l educa t ion o f t h e r i g h t k i n d would be a ma jo r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h i s end. I t i s i n t h i s r e g a r d t h a t t h e need i s urged f o r r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e techno- l o g y aspect o f educa t ion systems around two "new" c o r e s u b j e c t s which we c a l l "Basic Economic and S o c i a l Technology" t o be t a u g h t i n schools, tech- n i c a l i n s t i t u t e s , t r a i n i n g cen t res and c o l l e g e s and communal and v i l l a g e i n f o r m a l s e c t o r i n s t i t u t i o n s . An i m p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f t h e programs would be i t s development f rom "bot tom up1' on a p a r t i c i p a t o r y p r i n c i p l e and a c t i v e invo lvement o f youth, I t wou ld be t h e i n t e n t i o n , th rough such programs, t o f o s t e r a g r e a t e r awareness o f t h e need t o e r a d i c a t e t h e p r e j u d i c e s which have d i s t o r t e d l i f e s t y l e s , demand and p roduc t ion , t o g i v e d i r e c t i o n a l impetus t o s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r y and t o s t i m u l a t e t h e n o n - s c i e n t i f i c mind t o search f o r c o n s t r u c t i v e s o l u t i o n s t o economic problems.

A1 though Bas ic Economic and Soc ia l Technology programs would need t o be developed i n much g r e a t e r d e t a i l than i s p o s s i b l e here, some key elements may be mentioned:

- t h e r o l e o f technology i n economic a c t i v i t y , w i t h emphasis on measure- ment, i n d u s t r i a l design, s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n and q u a l i t y c o n t r o l ;

- a n a l y s i s and a p p r e c i a t i o n of t h e economic use of l o c a l and r e g i o n a l n a t u r a l resources;

- employment and d e r i v i n g s a t i s f a c t i o n f rom inc reased work;

- t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between renewable and non-renewable resources, i n c l u d i n g energy resources ;

- t h e commitment t o and t h e r a t i o n a l e beh ind t h e p re fe rence f o r b a s i c q u a l i t y goods r a t h e r than l u x u r y goods which c a r r y unbearable c o s t s ;

- t h e development o f a resources and management dimension, from smal l s c a l e business u n i t s w i t h l i m i t e d resources t o l a r g e r , more o rgan ized e n t e r p r i s e s ;

- t h e need t o f o r g e g r e a t e r l i n k s between ways o f p roduc ing a p p r o p r i a t e goods and s e r v i c e s , p a t t e r n s o f n a t i o n a l consumption, and t h e e f f e c t i v e use o f n a t i o n a l and impor ted resources;

- t h e b e n e f i t s of o r g a n i c a g r i c u l t u r e and t h e r o l e o f a p p r o p r i a t e techno- l O ~ Y .

As a complement t o t h e above we would envisage p a r a l l e l programs o f s o c i a l educa t ion , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r a d u l t s engaged i n a wide range o f a c t i v i t i e s , f rom l i t e r a c y c lasses a t v i l l a g e , ch iefdom o r l o c a l l e v e l S , i n c l u d i n g s o c i e t i e s and a s s o c i a t i o n s , o rgan ized labour , ex tens ion workers i n a g r i c u l - t u r e and u n i v e r s i t y ext ra-mural c lasses, t o employers, producers, managers, i n d u s t r i a l development o f f i c e r s and o t h e r p o l i c y a d m i n i s t r a t o r s . The p r i n c i p a l i n i t i a l o b j e c t i v e here would be how t o avoid, c o n s t r u c t i v e l y , c o n f l i c t s between t h e requi rements o f an a l t e r n a t i v e approach t o development and long-s tand ing s o c i a l va lues and i n s t i t u t i o n s . I t would be neces- s a r y t o g i v e much a t t e n t i o n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e f a i r d i s t r i b u - t i o n o f t h e b e n e f i t s f rom t h e development process among those who make s i g n i f i c a n t i n p u t s i n t o i t and g e n e r a l l y t o a v o i d t h e p e r p e t u a t i o n o f i n e q u a l i t i e s .

The economic and s o c i a l technology elements o f educa t ion , as w i t h t h e technology i n v e n t o r i e s proposed i n t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n o f t h i s paper, w i l l be researched and developed through t h e procedures o f i n f o r m a l and o rgan ized p a r t i c i p a t i o n and invo lvement o f t h e y o u t h as o u t l i n e d above. The l i n k between a p p r o p r i a t e 1 i f e s t y l e s and demand, t e c h n o l o g i c a l base and t h e r e - a d a p t a t i o n o f educa t iona l systems i s a c r u c i a l f a c t o r i n s t i m u l a t i n g c r e a t i v e t h i n k i n g and i n n o v a t i v e a c t i o n among t h e young and pol icy-makers and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and p lanners a l i k e . P a r t i c i p a t i o n a t a11 l e v e l s i n t h e search f o r s o l u t i o n s cou ld reduce t h e m i s d i r e c t i o n and d e p l e t i o n o f e f f o r t which have p lagued economic a c t i v i t y .

How a r e t h e p roposa ls f o r t h e Bas ic Economic and Soc ia l Technology l i k e l y t o be r e c e i v e d ? Judging f rom t h e success o f t h e e l a b o r a t e and s u s t a i n e d n a t i o n a l and in te r -governmenta l programs o f a few years ago f o r i n t r o d u c i n g t h e "new mathemat ics" i n t o p r i m a r y and secondary educa t ion i n A f r i c a , t h e r e a r e good p rospec ts f o r success. New mathematics programs were welcomed by

p r o f e s s o r s , teachers and p u p i l s a l i k e , implemented w i t h much zeal and backed by educa t iona l a u t h o r i t i e s and governments. The f a c t t h a t Bas ic Economic and Soc ia l Technology programs would e s s e n t i a l l y be b u i l t f rom bo t tom up, and i n v o l v e a c t i v e p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n , shou ld be a cons iderab le advantage.

The need t o develop a p p r o p r i a t e techno log ies , t o e l a b o r a t e programs f o r technology educat ion, and t o complement t h i s w i t h w i d e r programs o f educa- t i o n i n s o c i e t y , does n o t d ispense w i t h t h e need t o b u i l d c a p a b i l i t i e s i n more b a s i c s c i e n t i f i c research f o r technology. U n i v e r s i t i e s and t e c h n i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s wh ich i n t h e main undertake advanced s c i e n t i f i c research i n A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s would need t o a l i g n t h e i r work w i t h t h e requi rements of t h e techno logy processes and p roduc ts which a r e compat ib le w i t h a p p r o p r i a t e demand, consumption and p r o d u c t i o n which we have d iscussed above. T h i s wou ld be undertaken w i t h i n a c o n t e x t o f r e d e f i n e d technology p r i o r i t i e s and resources t o be recommended by p l a n n i n g and development p01 i c y .

The c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t h e Nor th t o t h i s i n i t i a t i v e would be i t s exper ience f rom t h e h i s t o r y o f technology o f a sys temat i c b u i l d up f rom smal l begin- n i n g s . I t can f a c i l i t a t e t h e search f o r small /medium s c a l e t e s t e d approp- r i a t e techno logy f o r c a p i t a l and consumer oods. Several i n s t i t u t i o n s i n Nor thern c o u n t r i e s a re a l ready do ing t h i s d . A f u r t h e r v i t a l c o n t r i b u t i o n a1 ready b e i n g made towards improving, i n a d ispass iona te way, t h e c a p a b i l i t i e s o f t h e South i n n e g o t i a t i o n s f o r t h e t r a n s f e r o f technology i s o f c l e a r bene- f i t t o A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s . I f , however, t h e technology t r a n s f e r r e d as a r e - s u l t o f t h i s h e l p does n o t l e a d t o an a p p r o p r i a t e mix o f technology elements and i s n o t s u p p o r t i v e o f t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e , then i t can o n l y h e l p t o perpe tua te t h e v i c i o u s c y c l e o f dependence and f r u s t r a t e d development.

Concl u s i o n

There i s s t i l l a need i n most A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s t o t a k e s t o c k s y s t e m a t i c a l l y o f requi rements i n technology and educat ion, as a b a s i s f o r i d e n t i f y i n g an a1 t e r n a t i v e development and l i f e s t y l e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h s o c i a l and economic advancement. Technology p01 i c i e s must seek t o upgrade t h e human f a c t o r . Wh i le i t i s o f t e n n o t necessary t o r e j e c t impor ted techno log ies s imp ly t o reduce dependence, t h e r e i s a need t o p l a n f o r and suppor t through s u i t a b l e p01 i c i e s a m ix o f techno logy elements more compat ib le w i t h r e d e f i n e d needs, p r i o r i t i e s and a v a i l a b l e resources. I t i s f o r A f r i c a n peoples themselves t o l e a d t h e way t o t h i s more r e a l i s t i c f u t u r e .

l/ I n t e r m e d i a t e Technology P u b l i c a t i o n s , 9, K ing S t r e e t , London WC2. and George McRobie, Small i s Poss ib le , o p . c i t . , pp.297-309.

MARKINGS

The International Conunission of Jur i s t s held a Conference or Development: anc t h e R J e o f Law i n The Hague on 27 April - 1 May 1981. I t considered, in t e r ali-a, the concept o f the ' r igh t to development', participation i n the form^- latt-onand application of development pc?<cies self-reliance i n development s trategies , agrarian reform, and the role of lawyer's and legul assistance i - r development.

This document i s a summary of the discussions and conclusions of the conference. A full report containing the key-note speech, the l i s t o f participants, the working papers and the conclusions of t h ~ conference are available from the International Commission of Jur i s t s , B.P. 120, CH-1224 Geneva, Switzerland, US$7.50 plus postage.

At a Comnission meeting held following the conference it was decided that the International Commission of Jur i s t s i n i t s future a c t i v i t i e s should v s u e these questions and concern i t s e l f with the irrpac+ on human r igh t s of a l ter- native development s trategies .

1. The Conference first considered the concepts of 'development' 'human rights' and the 'right to development'. It then discussed a number of related topics, including militarisation, participation, agrarian reform, and the role of lawyers and legal assistance.

Development

2. The concept of development was considered in terms of the growth of the gross national product (GNP), the meeting of 'basic needs', and a 'global' concept of development embracing all human rights.

3. The need was recognised for a balance in development policies between investment aimed at increasing long-term economic growth and investment aimed at meeting basic needs, particularly by strengthening local communities to make possible development on the basis of 'self-reliance'. However, as the emphasis has hitherto been placed on the first of these aims priority should now be given to the second. Experience has shown that development

l/ Summary of discussions and conclusions of an International Commission of - Jurists' Conference.

strategies based solely on the objective of GNP growth and following the western model of industrial development have often worsened the position of the rural and urban poor, who constitute a large majority of the population. This has resulted in grave violations of their economic and social rights, and frequently also of their civil, political and cultural rights.

4. In general terms, the concept of development refers to the kind of society one is aiming to build. This should be a society in which everyone has real access to all human rights. Develop- ment policies which concentrate on relieving "absolute poverty" or on meeting "basic needs" can properly be adopted as matters of first priority. However, they should not be seen as sufficient goals in themselves; as policy goals they would be inadequate and would tend to relegate the countries concerned to a permanent status of dependency. Moreover, the satisfaction even of basic needs would be permanently achievable only with structural changes at all levels, local, national and international, that would enable those concerned to identify their own needs, mobilise their own resources and shape their future in their own terms.

5. Development should, therefore, be seen as a global concept including with equal emphasis civil and political rights and economic, social and cultural rights.

6. Strict application of the principle of non-discrimination on grounds of race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status was seen as an essential element in development policies and programmes.

Human Rights

7. The traditional approach to human rights has been to consider separately civil and political rights on the one hand and economic, social and cultural rights on the other. True development requires a recognition that the different human rights are inseparable from each other, and development is inseparable from human rights and the Rule of Law. Likewise, justice and equity at the international level are inseparable from justice and equity at the national level. All these, taken together, are essential elements in the realisation of the human potential and the common aspirations of mankind.

8. Human rights organisations have tended to concentrate mainly on violations of civil and political rights. In keeping with the growing demand for a fuller realisation of human freedoms in our times they should now become involved in the more complex field of social, economic and cultural rights.

9. The enjoyment of the totality of human rights calls for the organisation and mobilisation of the poor in Third World countries for self-reliant development. Mobilisation and orqanisa- tion provide the most effective means whereby the poor are enabled to marshal resources to protect their rights and assert their interests in their dealings with people in power, such as land- lords, creditors, employers, government officials and transnational corporations.

The Right to Development

10. There was prolonged discussion about the use of the term 'right to development', some finding that it was too vague a concept to constitute a legal right, some that its use would distract attention from and weaken the plurality of concepts in the Inter- national Bill of Human Rights. Others argued that the right to development embraced all human rights, and that it was a useful instrument for ensuring a true human rights content in development policies. They urged that the implementation of the riqht to development in this global sense should be considered as a condition of legitimacy of a government, and that there was also an international right to development to be implemented not only by development aid, but by removing the asymmetry in economic relations between North and South as illustrated by ruinious deteriorations in the terms of trade. It was argued that the legal basis for the right at both the international and national level was to be found in Articles 1, 55 and 56 of the UN Charter, in Articles 22-28 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and in the two International Covenants.

11. Eventually, agreement was reached upon the following formu- lations concerning the right to development.

12. Development should be understood as a process designed pro- gressively to create conditions in which every person can enjoy, exercise and utilise under the Rule of Law all his human rights, whether economic, social, cultural, civil or political.

13. Every person has the right to participate in, and benefit from, development in the sense of a progressive improvement in the standard and quality of life.

14. The concept of the riqht to development needs to be more fully elaborated as a legal concept, Nevertheless it already serves to express the right of all people all over the world and of every citizen to enjoy all human rights. The duty of governments to promote the development of their poeple is often a legal obligation which can be derived from the constitution. At the international level it is, as yet, largely based on a moral obligation of solidarity. There are, however, clear beginnings of recognition of the right to development as a general substantive principle of international law.

15. Implementation of the right to development implies the realisation of a number of conditions at the local and national level as well as at the international level. These include the participation of those concerned in the formulation and application of development policies, the adoption of policies based on the principle of self-reliance, and respect for all human rights under the Rule of Law.

16. The primary obligation to promote development, in such a way as to satisfy this right, rests upon each state for its own territory and for the persons under its jurisdiction. As the development process is a necessary condition for peace and friendship between nations. It is a matter of international concern, imposing responsibilities upon all states.

17. In addition to a state's legal obligation to cooperate with other states in the process of development, in accordance with Articles 55 and 56 of the UN Charter and other international and regional instruments, each state has a moral if not a legal obligation to collaborate in rendering the international economic order more just and equitable.

18. Consequently, a state promoting its own development within its available resources is entitled to the support of other states in the implementation of its policies. The industrialised countries should cooperate with the Third World nations to achieve a New International Economic Order with a more just and equitable distribution of the world's resources and wealth.

19. In recognition of the relevance of all human rights to'the development process, governments of all countries which have not yet done so should be urged to sign and ratify the two International Covenants on human rights, and the Optional Protocol to the Covenant on Civil and Political Rights.

20. In promoting human rights of all kinds, priority should be given by the international community, as well as by states, to positive rather than negative measures. Experience has shown that sanctions against impoverished countries tend to provoke defiance rather than compliance. In cases of the breakdown of the rule of law, or other grave violations of human rights, the response of the international community should aim primarily at the restoration of these rights and the provision of assistance to victims, rather than the mere condemnation of the violations or the punishment of offenders.

Militarisation

21. During recent decades the traditional role of the military, to safeguard their country against invasion, has in many countries been replaced by the self-appointed task of overthrowing the government, imposing authoritarian regimes, and suppressing the rights of

the people. Frequently this is done in the name of "national security" or in the guise of furthering development. Assisted by the world arms race, east-west competition and its client system, and the activities of state and private arms dealers, these seizures of power by force or threats of force have resulted in the direct or indirect control of society by an over- weighted military sector.

22. The first and outstanding consequence is a total disregard and suppression of human rights. Some economic gains in terms of GNP growth have at times been achieved, but in such cases they have been accompanied by torture and other gross violations of individual and group rights. Declaring that the state should protect itself against subversion the military forces in the state become increasingly powerful, economically and politically. In some cases the failure of civilian governments to solve national problems has been used as the justification for introducing sys- tematically repressive regimes,but these in turn have usually proved incapable of finding a solution to the problems.

23. Military regimes in Third World countries tend to divert a disproportionate amount of the country's scarce resources to military purposes.

24. The militarisation process in both industrialized and Third World societies needs to be vigorously exposed and condemned. For example, $500,000 million per year, or 6% of the total world output, is devoted to military expenditure. The growth of military expenditure continues in all countries under all systems. In recent years the total growth in military expenditure in Third World countries, where the people are desperately poor, has increased 1% times as fast as their GNP. The combined expenditure on militarisation in all Asian countries in which data are available is now higher, as a ratio of GNP, than that of the NATO countries, and much higher than their expenditure for education and health services. Of course, military expenditure in the North far exceeds the expenditure for development.

Participation

25. The adoption by the international community of the principle of the right to development offers a unique opportunity for re- vitalising what to the world's millions appears to be innocuous or at times even irrelevant concepts of "human rights" and "the rule of law". As seen from the perspective of victims of maldevelopment, "the rule of law" and "human rights" appear as no more than the rights of ruling elites to perpetuate dependency and exploitation, Lawyers attempting to promote the right of development should therefore concentrate their efforts on enhancing the ability of the impoverished to assert for themselves the right to development. Attention should be given to the scope for protection that lies in preventive action, e.g. by securing real and

meaningful participation as a means for creating structural conditions which are less amenable to violations of human rights.

26. The vital need for participation by all people in the decision-making processes that affect their lives and fortunes should, however, take such forms as are decided upon by or in agreement with the people themselves. These people should evolve their own basic proc,edures and processes and decide the particular institutions and procedures suitable for the fuller realisation of this right.

27. Increases in development assistance and resource transfers have not always resulted in increased development or in the promotion of human rights. Sometimes they have generated a growing sense of secured dependence; at other times they have supported repressive policies. Assistance leads to true development only if there is a political will, obtained by consensus, for its proper utilisation - if there is true participation by the people who should be its beneficiaries. In most cases the people are far removed from policy making and implementation, with the result that aid has often been channelled for personal gain or for repression; its beneficiaries have been mainly an urban elite or the authoritarian regimes themselves. To avoid these consequences, preference should be given to project aid over programme aid. Likewise, care should be taken that development assistance does not increase the arsenal of weapons for the suppression of human rights.

Reasons for the Continuance of Poverty

28. It was argued that the contrast between the enormous growth in production and productivity in the world in the last thirty years and the reality of destitution for so many people was due to certain myths that govern the policies of development and the relations between states and peoples:

. The myth of growth as the solution to the problem of poverty. A considerable increase in the standard of living of the majority of the population can be obtained with a lower rate of growth in the GNP if, instead of focussing the main effort on growth, it is focussed on the way to resolve the problem of poverty.

The myth of western style modernisation. When the western model is transferred to Third World countries, only a minority of the population can be incorporated as modern producers and consumers. It may be added that the western model itself is in crisis today.

. The myth of international solidarity between states. In the relations between states the egoism of national interest pre- dominates.

. The myth that a 'New International Economic Order' can relieve governments of Third World countries from the necessity to make essential internal social reforms. The struggle for a New International Economic Order should be inextricably linked to the struggle for justice in human relations internally.

Agrarian Reform

29. The phenomenon of 'maldevelopment' was illustrated by the failure of agrarian reform in many Third World countries. Examples were given of a pattern to be found equally in Latin America, in Africa and in Asia.

30. The failure of agrarian reform programmes has been due not only to obstruction by powerful landowners, bureaucrats and, at times, the legal process. It has also been undermined by failure to support the transfer of land ownership with the necessary services to enable the new owners to farm the land effectively. These include appropriate education and technology, agricultural credits and cooperative marketing services, as well as agricultural pricing policies which make it possible for peasants to farm their land economically.

31. The lack of these facilities has often been due to an exces- sive emphasis in development strategies upon industrialization and production for export, rather than seeking to satisfy basic needs as far as possible from within the country's own resources under self-reliant strategies. The effort to make Third World industrial exports competitive in the international market has required a low wage policy in industry, leading in turn to excessively low pricing of agricultural products. This, together with the use by the larger landowners and by transnational corporations of advanced agriculture machinery to produce cash crops for export, has reduced severely employment opportunities in the rural areas and contributed to the massive exodus from the country to the cities, which then transfers the poverty from the country to urban shanty towns.

32. This process has had disastrous effects upon the economic and social rights of the rural population. When those affected have sought to organise to assert their rights and reverse these trends, they have frequently been subjected to severe repression, denying their basic civil and political rights.

33. These problems are unlikely to be resolved merely by establishing more democratic processes in the election of national parliaments. They also require, as already stated, meaningful participation by the communities concerned in the formulation and implementation of development policies, and freedom to these communities to organise themselves so as to assert their rights and mobilise for self-reliant development. Making a reality of civil and political rights at all levels is an essential element in a

programme of agrarian reform, as of other development policies.

Labour and Social Legislation

34. Labour and social legislation in all countries should be in accordance with the basic ILO Conventions and should guarantee the freedom of association and freedom of expression of all workers, rural and urban, to enable them to organise and engage in concerted activities. This will enable them to participate actively in shaping the structures which govern the production, processing and distribution of goods to satisfy basic needs for material survival.

35. It was suggested that human rights organisations should mani- fest their concern about the violation of human rights by some transnational corporations which exert pressure on the governments of Third World countries to prohibit the right of workers to strike, as a means of ensuring competitive production in international trade.

The Role of the Lawyer and Legal Assistance

36. A special responsibility rests upon members of the legal profession to contribute to the development of the Rule of Law in such a way as to promote development.

37. The task of the legal profession, in the context of the impoverishment of peoples in the Third World- is not only to provide them with traditional legal aid but to build up their legal resources, i.e. the development of their community strength, knowledge and capacity to make use of the law. Towards this end, a new type of legal profession is required, who will be:

. an advocate of collective demands and group interests both in courts and in administrative, legislative and other institutions;

. an educator helping to develop community awareness and knowledge of relevant laws and helping to train community para- professionals;

. a critic Of proposed or existing legislation and administrative actions which impinge on the human rights of impoverished groups ;

. a law reformer assertingclaims for changes in legislation and state structures; ana

. a jurist developing new jurisprudential concepts needed to realise the right to development.

38. Lawyers in the Third World, as elsewhere, have traditionally been linked with the ruling elites. The remoteness of successful lawyers from the majority of the population makes it difficult for them to sense and understand the needs of the people, though

there have been some notable exceptions. There is also a serious shortage of lawyers in many Third World countries.

39. Third World lawyers face an option between defending the interests of a minority who can afford their services and accep- ting the moral commitment to give professional support to the demands of the impoverished majority for their human rights. It is usually easier to interest young lawyers in such work, than those who are already established and fully occupied in their profession. It is also easier for these young lawyers to win the confidence of the poor and understand their needs. The development of internship programmes for newly qualified lawyers in this role should be considered in cooperation with law faculties in the Third World.

Subjects for Study

40. It was agreed that many of the issues discussed call for further study by human rights' lawyers aided by experts in other fields. Among those mentioned were:

the actual relationship between development policies and human rights' observance in different countries, circumstances and periods ;

the reasons military take-overs occur in some countries and not in others;

access to the courts, including constitutional, legislative, procedural and other obstacles;

the way in which some of .the activities of financial institutions, transnational corporations, banks and money-lenders effectively act against the enjoyment of human rights;

the possibility of drawing up a draft model code for legislation relating to development, for distribution to parliaments and courts;

recent experience in the field of human rights and development, including the more successful projects and experiments;

the need for a free and independent judiciary and adequate legal services as an indispensable part of the process of development.

41. It was also suggested that seminars echoing the themes of this Conference should be held in different regions and countries on various aspects of human rights with subjects appropriate to the situations in those countries.

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INTERACTIONS

L A COOPERATION POUR L E DEVELOPPEMENT E T L A P A I X

par Ahmed Ben Salah

S'attacher a esperer et m&ne a croire en un renouveau de la cooperation internationale ne nous semble pas une gageure. Certes, le contexte international, tel que nous Ie vivons et dans lequel demeurent poses les graves problsmes de la missre et des rapports economiques et politiques internationaux, est plus lourd que jamais.

Mais c'est peut-etre en raison de ce contexte et de son evolution explosivement negative que s'imposera de plus en plus l'imperatif d'une revision profonde des voies de la cooperation internationale, des relations internationales.

Depuis la grande esperance levee lors des sessions des Nations Unies en 1974 et 1975, peu de progrss concrets et dynamiques ont et6 realises; dans les espaces nationaux, ce fut generalement la fuite en avant devant les necessaires transformations structurelles exigees par ce qu'on appelle 2 juste raison la crise, dans ses multiples aspects. En fait, aujourd'hui encore, les problsmes de la missre, du developpement, des rapports economiques internationaux sont poses a chaud.

En effet: 1) L'inflation et Ie rencherissement du coiit de la vie ont pris partout des dimensions intenables, voire explosives; les therapeutiques classiques appliquees ici et 12 pour neutraliser cette situation, les replstrages nationaux ou nationalistes visant a temperer les perturbations du systsme economique et mone- taire international, tout l'arsenal des mesures, en general stereo- typees, utilise pour juguler les tensions et les malaises, tout cela demeure impuissant devant le mal economique et politique de cette fin de siscle. C'est qu'on se refuse a voir qu'il est le fait des systsmes et des structures en place; on refuse d'admettre que partout dans le monde, la gravite et la profondeur des troubles economiques, sociaux et culturels expriment en definitive la volon- t6 des peuples, sensibles, eux, aux profondes mutations qui agitent Ie monde, de remettre en cause les systSmes economiques oppressifs

:' Ahmed Ben Salah, membre du Comit6 ex6cutif de la FIPAD, est le secrctaire general du Mouvement de 1'Unite Populaire (Tunisie).

en viqueur et les systfimes politiques qui les expriment comrne l'ordre international qui en a decoule et qui s'en nourrit.

2 ) La therapeutique qui devient Ie recours principal des prin- cipaux pouvoirs dans Ie monde est une fois de plus la course aux armements aussi frenetique que celle qui en decoule, S savoir la course S la satellisation, S l'alignement des autres pouvoirs ... et S l'affrontement planetaire.

3 ) Les guerillas et les guerres au Moyen Orient, en Afrique, en Asie, en Amerique Latine, ne semblent pas du tout susceptibles d'extinction; elles le seraient si elles n'etaient que les expressions violentes des affrontements entre les volontes populaires de liberation reelle et des volontes d'asservissement, d'exploitation et de dictature; mais elles sont aussi les expressions meur- ' trifires des strategies des qrandes puissances en competition pour le developpement et Ie renforcement de leurs heqemonies.

Pendant ce temps et en raison de cette situation, la dependance des pays du Tiers Monde s'est aqqravee; non seulement la dependance economique, financifire ou technologique, mais aussi et surtout la dependance culturelle et politique. L'alignement de nombreux regimes du Tiers Monde sur 1'un ou l'autre des systfimes economiques et politiques dominants est devenu tellement ancre qu'il s'agit, ni plus ni moins, d'un aliqnement strategique et du rejet effectif de l'independance, de la volonte d'etre soi-meme, de jouer un role collectif dans la defense de la paix. I1 s'agit en definitive du reniement, camoufle ou non par le verbe, du non-alignement et de ce qu'il peut apporter au monde comme force de renouveau des rapports internationaux dans 1'interGt du developpement de la prosperit6 et de la paix. C'est dire que 1'on peut considerer toutes les neqociations Nord-Sud c o m e des pourparlers Nord-Nord ou Nord-Est; m6me les cooperations balbutiantes Sud-Sud seront de plus en plus des cooperations Nord-Nord ou Est-Nord ...

4) Oui, les problfimes de la misfire, du developpement et des relations internationales sent aujourd'hui, et 2 certains eqards plus que jamais poses 2 chaud. Non seulement, conune nous l'avons evoque brisvement plus haut, en raison des situations economiques des pays industrialises et puissants, non seulement en raison des affrontements 2 l'interieur du Tiers Monde ou de l'aliqnement de la plupart de ses regimes sur telle ou telle puissance, mais aussi pour une raison qui nous semble determinante: cette raison se trouve dans Ie nouveau reveil des peuples 2 l'Est, S 1'Ouest et dans les pays du Tiers Monde. Nouveau reveil des peuples depuis la fin de la dernifire querre et aprfis la ferveur de la reconstruction, de l'adhesion aux ideologies ou systfimes politiques consideres comme garants siirs centre Ie nazisme, le facisme et la querre; nouveau reveil des peuples du Tiers Monde depuis la fin officielle du pro- cessus de d6colonisation et aprSs la levee d'une qrande esperance vite etouffee par des directions politiques assoiff6es de pouvoir et de richesses imediates.

Les explosions polonaises, les progrgs du socialisme en Occident, Ie developpement des mouvements ecologiques, la grande force des exigences de la jeunesse, les reveils culturels, autant de fac- teurs qui se rencontrent naturellement avec ceux qui aiguisent le renouveau de la volonte des peuples du Tiers Monde de se liberer et de se developper, de se developper pour consolider leur lib&- ration en tant que societes, que nations.

Tous les partenaires dans la negotiation universelle pour un nouvel ordre, y compris les absents, devraient d'abord avoir la sagesse de tenir compte des expressions vivaces ou violentes de la mutation de l'humanite; tenir compte des nouvelles donnees annonciatrices de nouveaux rapports de force dans Ie monde. On ne negocie pas pour consolider 116ph6mSre, pour parer aux volontes renovees de liberte, de justice et de paix par la force militaire, les preparatifs de querre, les satellisations toujours revocables, les duperies.

Pour ce qui est du Tiers Monde en particulier, la principale des donnees qui s'imposent est que les peuples sont de plus en plus presents; ils se libsrent de plus en plus des mythes atrophiants qui cultivent S leur intention leurs propres "leaders"; les nouvelles generations de l'independance se tiennent d6jS S l'avant- garde partout; grace S elles les mythes s'effondrent; ceux qui se sont sacres "p5rest' de leurs nations sont de plus en plus accules 2 se dgmasquer dans des repressions impitoyables contre les jeunesses, les travailleurs, les intellectuels; ceux-l2 mEmes qui se redressent dans la fureur de voir leurs "leaders" s'appuyer sur une minorit6 engraissee et sur les protections etrangsres pour etouffer leurs aspirations S la democratie reelle, 2 la liberte et au droit d'etre de quelque apport S la civilisation humaine. S'acharner S ne pas tenir compte de 116volution rapide des peuples et des jeunesses, notamment du Tiers Monde, relsve de l'aveugle- ment generateur d'extremismes et de bouleversements incoherents et souvent meurtriers. Ces peuples, contre lesquels on utilise la "cooperation" pour soutenir des regimes repressifs et sans espoir, ces peuples compteront demain des multitudes de cadres, d'ouvriers hautement qualifies, de chercheurs, de savants, d'intellectuels; autant de forces qui donneront 2 ces peuples, eux-mEmes de plus en plus eduques, les moyens de rfialiser leurs puissants espoirs de dignite, de bien-Etre, de liberts, de culture et de joie de vivre. Les repressions, les epurations, les saignees de l'emigration, des recuperations, du brain drain, ont toutes leurs limites dans l'es- pace et dans le temps.

Seule demeurera vraie et utile au progrgs et S la paix, une cooperation loyale avec les peuples et leurs cadres attaches S 'leurs libertfis, S leur culture, S leur promotion.

Centre les objectifs de satellisation, de domination par la guerre generalis6e ou la multiplication des guerres de harcslement ou encore et toujours par l'exploitation, l'objectif global de la cooperation internationale devrait Etre en premier lieu de freiner et neutraliser toutes les tentations vers Ie pire. C'est dire que les moyens de cette cooperation devraient acceder au niveau requis par un objectif aussi important que la paix par le d6veloppement, contre les strategies de balkanisation, de satellisation ou de zones d'influence. La strategic de la cooperation internationale devrait pouvoir Stre fondee sur la creation et l'extension continue de reseaux de solidarites des besoins, de compl6mentaritEs des int6rSts dans lt6yalit6 scrupuleusement calculee et respectee des partenaires qu'ils soient nations individuelles, groupements regionaux ou orqanismes sectoriels.

Par dela les ideologies capitalistes ou socialistes ou 2 travers elles, par del2 les societes transnationales ou a travers elles, contre les entrepreneurs du sous-developpement et des explosions, la cooperation internationale renov6e dans ses moyens, ses structures, ses dimensions, ses procedures, devra pouvoir Etre la qrande affaire de cette fin de siscle. Parce qu'elle protsgera les pays riches et puissants contre leurs propres instincts d'alie- nation et de destruction, parce qu'elle permettra l'emergence reelle de forces vives, de cultures originates, et l'eclosion d'un optimisme nouveau qui sera l'apport essentiel des peuples du Tiers Monde. Parce qu'elle, et elle seule, pourra assurer un developpement soutenu au benefice de l'ensemble de l'humanite qui alors saura se coaliser et agir collectivement pour preserver la paix et la consolider.

HUMAN RIGHTS: THE SILENT VICTIMS by Asma Ben Hamida E'

A " m i n o r i t y r i g h t group" c a l l e d on i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s f o r an u r g e n t and c o n c r e t e a c t i o n th rough p r a c t i c a l and f i n a n c i a l a s s i s t a n c e t o e r a d i c a t e sexual m u t i l a t i o n s o f some 70 m i l l i o n female c h i l d r e n . Fo r t h e f i r s t t ime . a UN human r i g h t s body, namely t h e subcommission on p r o t e c t i o n o f m i n o r i t i e s and p r e v e n t i o n o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , has taken up t h e cause o f t h e "70 m i l l i o n s i l e n t v i c t i m s " o f female c i r c u m c i s i o n , e x c i s i o n and i n f i b u l a t i o n i n some 20 c o u n t r i e s i n A f r i c a and As ia .

The m i n o r i t y r i g h t s group, based i n t h e U n i t e d Kingdom, p resen ted a r e p o r t on t h e f a c t s o f these p r a c t i c e s g e n e r a l i s e d m a i n l y i n an i n t e r r u p t e d b e l t ac ross t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t and t h e Red Sea coas ts , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n Egypt , Sudan, M a l i , Somalia, Senegal, Repub l i c o f Yemen and Oman.

I n t e r P r e s s S e r v i c e , 207 v i a Pan i sperna , 00184 Rome, I t a l y .

The group p resen ted p roposa ls f o r change and suggested t h a t t h e r e p o r t shou ld be r e f e r r e d t o t h e Organ isa t ion o f A f r i c a n U n i t y (OAU), t h e Economic Commission f o r A f r i c a (ECA), UNICEF, WHO and UNESCO f o r t h e i r o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h i s m a t t e r .

Benjamin Whi taker , d i r e c t o r o f t h e group, wondered why t h e w o r l d community has been s i l e n t on t h i s q u e s t i o n . Even though i t i s s t i l l ha rd t o know the e x a c t number o f what he c a l l e d " t h e s i l e n t v i c t i m s " , t h e most r e c e n t e s t i m a t e of women m u t i l a t e d i s 74 m i l l i o n s accord ing t o t h e r e p o r t .

"If these seven ty m i l l i o n had been men, t h e r e would have been p r o t e s t s i n t h e General Assembly, p u b l i c demons t ra t ions and u rgen t programmes t o dea l w i t h t h e problem: Wh i taker argued.

Accord ing t o t h e r e p o r t f o u r t ypes o f m u t i l a t i o n s , c i r c u m c i s i o n , e x c i s i o n , i n f i b u l a t i o n and i n t e r m e d i a t e , were p r a c t i c e d every day on female c h i l d r e n f rom a few days o l d t o seven y e a r s o l d . The g r a v i t y o f these m u t i l a t i o n s v a r y f rom c o u n t r y t o c o u n t r y and even w i t h i n t h e same c o u n t r y f rom r e g i o n t o r e g i o n . The r e p o r t p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e b e l t o f A f r i c a n and Arab c o u n t r i e s where t h e p r a c t i c e i s a lmos t u n i v e r s a l corresponds s t r i k i n g l y w i t h t h e b e l t of c o u n t r i e s which have t h e h i g h e s t c h i l d m o r t a l i t y r a t e s ( o v e r 30 p e r c e n t f o r c h i l d r e n from one t o f o u r years o f age) . R e f u t i n g t h e widespread a l l e g a t i o n s t h a t these s e c u l a r p r a c t i c e s were o r i g i n a t e d by r e l i g i o n , t h e group d i r e c t o r s a i d t h a t " t h i s un- necessary m u t i l i s a t i o n w i t h no d i s c e r n i b l e r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n was a t r a d i t i o n o n l y , hav ing , - d e s p i t e common b e l i e f - no a u t h e n t i c connec t ion w i t h any r e l i g i o n , i t was c a r r i e d o u t on young c h i l d r e n w i t h o u t t h e i r consent and was everywhere i l l e g a l " .

Accord ing t o t h e r e p o r t , t h e p r a c t i c e was widespread i n t h e p r e - i s l a m i c e ra , i n Egypt , A r a b i a and t h e Red Sea coas ts and r e f e r r e d t o i n Sudan as "pharaon ic c i r c u m c i s i o n " and i n Egypt as "Sudanese c i r c u m c i s i o n " .

E x c i s i o n and i n f i b u l a t i o n , wro te t h e group, a r e p r a c t i c e d by moslems, c a t h o l i c s , P r o t e s t a n t s , Jews, cop ts , a n i m i s t s and non-be l ieve rs i n v a r i o u s concerned c o u n t r i e s .

D e s p i t e severa l s t u d i e s on t h e s u b j e c t , i t i s s t i l l n o t p o s s i b l e t o know about t h e o r i g i n s o f t h i s p r a c t i c e . I t has t o be r e c a l l e d t h a t female s e x u a l i t y has been rep ressed i n a v a r i e t y o f ways i n a l l p a r t s o f t h e w o r l d th roughou t h i s t o r y and up t o t h e p r e s e n t t ime .

The r e p o r t c i t e d t h e cases o f female s laves i n a n c i e n t Rome, c h a s t i t y b e l t s i n Europe o f t h e t w e l f t h c e n t u r y , b u r n i n g o f I n d i a n widows, b i n d i n g o f Chinese g i r l s ' f e e t and t h e v e r y r e c e n t p r a c t i c e o f " c l i t o r i d e c t o m y " performed u n t i l v e r y r e c e n t l y i n Europe and t h e USA.

Halima Ourzaz i , a w e l l known Morrocan de fender o f women's r i g h t s , r e c a l l e d t h a t such p r a c t i c e s shou ld be e x p l a i n e d i n t h e w i d e r c o n t e x t o f d i s c r i m i n a t i o n p r a c t i c e d a g a i n s t women over a11 ages a c c o r d i n g t o t h e m y t h i c a l b e l i e f t h a t women, a t t h e o r i g i n o f t h e m o r t a l s i n , shou ld pay t h e t r i b u t e o f h e r s i n w i t h s u f f e r i n g , i s o l a t i o n contempt and submiss ion t o t h e b l i n d r u l e s promulgated by men.

The r e p o r t o f t h e m i n o r i t y r i g h t s group drew a t t e n t i o n t o t h e g rave p h y s i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l consequences o f t h e sexual m u t i l a t i o n s on t h e c h i l d . Immediate and l o n g t e r m c o m p l i c a t i o n s range f rom c h r o n i c i n f e c t i o n s t o p o s t - o p e r a t i o n deaths o f l i t t l e g i r l s t o v a r i o u s sexual i n h i b i t i o n s and s o c i o - p s y c h o l o g i c a l e f f e c t s on m u t i l a t e d ado lescen ts and women.

These g e n i t a l m u t i l a t i o n s s t i l l p r a c t i c e d by m i l l i o n s on bab ies , l i t t l e g i r l s and women, have provoked v i o l e n t emot ive r e a c t i o n s f rom t h e Western media and v a r i o u s human r i g h t s and o t h e r concerned groups; angry words have been w r i t t e n a s s e r t i n g t h a t a "consp i racy o f s i l e n c e " has surrounded t h i s s u b j e c t u n t i l r e c e n t l y .

However, de te rm ined A f r i c a n and Arab women w i t h i n o rgan ised groups have s t a r t e d t a k i n g up t h i s m a t t e r , campaigns a g a i n s t m u t i l a t i o n s a r e advanced i n Sudan, Kenya, Egypt and Somalia.

A t t h e Copenhagen con fe rence on t h e UN decade f o r women, l a s t year , s e v e r a l A f r i c a n women r e g r e t t e d t h e " s e n s a t i o n a l " way t h e Western media have been t r e a t i n g t h e s u b j e c t . It can make i t more d i f f i c u l t f o r those i n t h e c o u n t r i e s concerned t o accep t and understand t h e i n t e r e s t shown by t h e Western w o r l d and m i g h t s low down t h e p rogress o f a c t i v i t i e s aimed towards a b o l i t i o n of these p r a c t i c e s , A f r i c a n women warned.

Accord ing t o t h e r e p o r t , some Western groups became conv inced t h a t t h e o n l y e f f i c i e n t way t o s u p p o r t A f r i c a n women i n t h a t campaign i s by f i n a n c i n g s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s and e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s p lanned and implemented by and w i t h those o f t h e c o u n t r i e s concerned.

The r e p o r t l a r g e l y r e f e r r e d t o t h e views expressed by some A f r i c a n and Arab women who s t a r t e d speaking o u t a g a i n s t these s e c u l a r t r a d i t i o n s and u n d e r t a k i n g b o l d and courageous s teps towards t h e e r a d i c a t i o n o f these inhuman p r a c t i c e s .

Fo r t h a t purpose, t h e m i n o r i t y r i g h t s group, launched a c a l l f o r an u r g e n t and c o n c r e t e a c t i o n f rom t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l community p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e UN agencies such as UNESCO, UNICEF, WHO t o h e l p these women by p r o v i d i n g funds f o r research and i n f o r m a t i o n and h e a l t h e d u c a t i o n a l campaigns i n t h e c o u n t r i e s concerned.

The human r i g h t s group a s s e r t e d i n i t s r e p o r t t h a t these A f r i c a n and Arab women, work ing t i r e l e s s l y t o see t h i s form o f v i o l a t i o n e r a d i c a t e d , a r e l o o k - i n q up t o t h e UN f o r a c t i o n now.

The r e p o r t accused UNESCO o f m a i n t a i n i n g t o t a l s i l e n c e on t h e s u b j e c t and s t r e s s e d t h a t UNICEF shou ld ex tend i t s r e c e n t i n i t i a t i v e i n t h e Sudan where t h e y a s s i s t e d i n t h e p r e p a r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n o f an i l l u s t r a t e d i n f o r m a t i o n pamphlet i n A r a b i c .

The m i n o r i t y r i g h t s group agreed however t h a t i n o r d e r t o have any hope o f success t h e i s s u e must be t r e a t e d as a h e a l t h i s s u e w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t s e n s i t i v - i t y a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o n d i t i o n s i n each c o u n t r y .

BLACK I S THE COLOR OF MY TV TUBE l / An I n t e r Press S e r v i c e Feature by Claude Robinson-

'B lack i e t he c o l o r o f my TV tube ' by Gil Hoble, published by Lyie S t ~ a r t Iw,, Neu Jersey , pp. 190, 10 d o u s .

According t o t h e b l u r b on t h e j a c k e t o f t h i s book, 'B lack i s t h e c o l o r o f my TV tube ' i s a newsman's personal account o f t h e w o r l d i n which he l i v e s .

True. Bu t i t i s more than t h a t . It i s a l s o abou t two o f t h e c e n t r a l i ssues o f t h e c u r r e n t debate about a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n o rder , - t h e need f o r m i n o r i t y access t o n a t i o n a l media systems and access by t h e poor T h i r d World na t ions t o t h e t r a n s n a t i o n a l media systems.

Ã Gi1 Noble i s a B lack American j o u r n a l i s t w i t h more than 20 years p r o f e s s i o n a l exper ience beh ind him. He i s t h e producer and h o s t o f a b l a c k p u b l i c a f f a i r s t e l e v i s i o n s e r i e s c a l l e d ' L i k e i t i s ' which i s a i r e d th roughou t t h e New York area on t h e American Broadcas t ing Company, ABC's e a s t c o a s t f l a g s h i p s t a t i o n ,

He has won t h e coveted Emmy Award, t e l e v i s i o n ' s e q u i v a l e n t o f ho l l ywood 's Oscar, f o r t h e s e r i e s ,

By themselves, these a r e unusual achievements. No o t h e r producers o f a ma jo r show a r e b lacks , and t h e r e a r e no comparable b l a c k programmes.

Whi le they c a r r y t h e r e c o g n i t i o n which u s u a l l y go t o t h e famous, they a l s o c a r r y enormous r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , which i s a l s o what t h i s book i s abou t ,

The main t h e s i s o f t h e book i s s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d enough: Noble a t t r i b u t e s h i s presence i n t e l e v i s i o n t o t h e C i v i l R i g h t s s t r u g g l e s o f t h e 1950's and t h e 1960's which c r e a t e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r b l a c k s . Th is s t r u g g l e was a p a r t o f t h e s t r u g g l e i n t h e T h i r d World f o r independence.

The e a r l y phase o f t h e s t r u g g l e has been won, b u t rac ism and economic d i s c r i - m i n a t i o n remain a r e a l i t y o f American s o c i e t y , and economic s e l f - r e l i a n c e and a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o r d e r remain d i s t a n t dreams among a few leaders o f t h e T h i r d Wor ld.

Noble develops t h e t h e s i s and draws very c l e a r conc lus ions about h i s r o l e as a b l a c k j o u r n a l i s t i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . 'The key t o be ing an e f f e c t i v e media person i s involvement i n t h e cominunity' (p,141) and f o r him, t h a t means t h e b l a c k community,

He does n o t a p o l o g i s e f o r t h i s v iew a l t h o u g h he i s aware o f t h e arguments t h a t i t endangers o b j e c t i v i t y . However, he does n o t b e l i e v e t h a t w h i t e j o u r n a l i s t s who pow wow w i t h w h i t e p o l i t i c a l and business leaders can m o r a l l y o r p r o f e s - s i o n a l l y cha l lenge h i s involvement w i t h b l a c k people i n har lem.

Noble j u s t i f i e s t h e way he he lps b lacks g e t t h e i r vo ices heard on t h e media on t h e grounds t h a t w h i t e s c o n t r o l a11 t h e m a j o r media i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , and t h a t t h e i r o u t p u t r e f l e c t s t h i s w h i t e b i a s .

L' IPS , United Nations, Room 485, New York, N.Y. 10017.

He p o i n t s o u t t h a t i n t h e t h r e e e a s t e r n s t a t e s o f New Jersey, New York and Connec t i cu t , b l a c k s compr ise 35 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n , h i s p a n i s c s 25 p e r cen t , and o t h e r m i n o r i t i e s f i v e p e r c e n t . Yet 'I have never heard o f a news d i r e c t o r , p roducer o r ass ignment e d i t o r a t any of t h e ma jo r r a d i o o r TV s t a t i o n news o p e r a t i o n s who a r e e i t h e r b lack , brown o r y e l l o w ' .

'Mass audiences a r e b e i n g s u b j e c t e d d a i l y t o i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t comes f r o m t h e p r i o r i t i e s and preferences o f a sma l l number o f peop le who r e p r e s e n t l e s s than h a l f o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ' (p . 36 ) .

He a l s o argues t h a t t h i s w h i t e b i a s i s a l s o r e f l e c t e d i n t h e power s t r u c t u r e and j o u r n a l i s t i c o u t p u t o f such papers as t h e New York Times, one o f t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l papers i n t h e coun t ry .

A t t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l , Noble g i v e s examples o f m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f even ts i n s e v e r a l A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s , and Car ibbean s t a t e a s u c h as Jamaica under Michael Manley,

I t i s imposs ib le , he argues, f o r A f r i c a n c o u n t r i e s t o g e t t h e i r v i e w p o i n t across on t h e m a j o r t r a n s n a t i o n a l news w i r e s , AP, UP1 and Reuters.

'There i s an i n b u i l t b i a s i n t h e m a t e r i a l , no m a t t e r how w e l l i n t e n t i o n e d t h e r e p o r t e r s a r e ' , he c la ims , a r g u i n g f o r t h e need f o r an independent network o p e r a t i n g among T h i r d Wor ld n a t i o n s owned and c o n t r o l l e d by peop le o f c o l o u r i

'B lack i s t h e c o l o r ' i s n o t t h e detached s c h o l a r s h i p o f communications bureau- c r a t s , I t i s n o t encumbered w i t h s t a t i s t i c a l d e t a i l s , o r end less f o o t n o t e s .

T h i s i s n o t t o say t h a t t h e views he expresses a r e pe rsona l p r e j u d i c e s , There i s ev idence o f w h i t e c o n t r o l o f t h e US media. There i s ev idence o f t h e b iased coverage o f t h e C i v i l R i g h t s e ra . There i s ev idence o f t h e l i m i t e d exposure o f b l a c k s on TV, and t h e l a c k o f se r iousness i n what exposure t h e r e i s .

There i s ev idence t o o o f t h e dominant i n f l u e n c e American TV en joys i n t h e T h i r d World, and o f t r a n s n a t i o n a l news agency p e n e t r a t i o n ,

' B l a c k i s t h e c o l o r o f my TV t u b e ' i s a h i g h l y readab le book, and an i m p o r t a n t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o unders tand ing t h e media i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s . I t a l s o r e p r e - sen ts a n o t h e r v iew i n t h e deba te abou t t h e need f o r a b roader range o f a c t o r s i n t h e news processi

B u t perhaps those who would b e n e f i t most f rom r e a d i n g t h e book a r e b l a c k and o t h e r T h i r d Wor ld p r o f e s s i o n a l s , 'I i n v i t e b l a c k s who a r e upwardly mob i le , o r who have "made i t " t o j o i n w i t h me i n my anger and concern. I ask t h a t you do n o t separa te y o u r s e l v e s f rom t h e masses o f o u r r a c e and o u r common predicament . Never f o r g e t t h a t t h e b e n e f i t s you en joy were made p o s s i b l e by t h e s t r u g g l e o f t h e masses' ( p , 174)

' B l a c k i s t h e c o l o r ' i s p a r t l y about t e l e v i s i o n and t h e media. I t i s p r o f o u n d l y about t h e r o l e and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f t r a i n e d and s k i l l e d b l a c k s i n t h e i r p e o p l e ' s l i b e r a t i o n ,

FEAR, ANXIETY AND HATE WE STILL KEEP . byt se knou our lessons a Little batter Â¥io\i"

( I n 1977, development workers p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a r e g i o n a l program f o r some South and South-east As ian c o u n t r i e s v i s i t e d a remote v i l l a g e i n t h e P h i l i p - p i n e s . Today a peasant f rom t h e r e would w r i t e . He speaks o f a people l o n g depr i ved . Here i s t h e t r a n s l a t i o n f rom t h e d i a l e c t . ) p

Our dear young Men:

Your t r a c e had become v e r y obscure -in our minds u n t i l Sabur v i s i t e d a g a i n e a r l i e r t h i s year , l i k e a p leasan t f l i c k e r , we remembered we had f r i e n d s f rom Tha i land , Indonesia, Malaysia, Bangladesh, S r i Lanka, I n d i a . We remembered a l l o f you. We would s t i l l know t o o y o u r i n d i v i d u a l ben ts . L i k e t h e one o f you who would n o t r e a l l y mind e a t i n g meat as l o n g as i t i s a l a d y c h i c k e n ' s !

B u t u n t i l today we a r e s t i l l i n a maze why you had once come. Then went . Then i t would be t h e l a s t we hear about you. The F i l i p i n o i n y o u r group we would n o t even see aga in . Sometimes we would l i k e t o t h i n k we were never f r i e n d s a t a l l . We would both, you and us, n o t i n d i c a t e i n t a n g i b l e terms how we would p a r t n e r i n o u r common concerns about t h e h i s t o r y o f ou r peoples. Or d i d we ever have common concerns, anyhow? I f t h e r e may have been, you and y o u r program, e i t h e r d u r i n g y o u r s t a y w i t h us o r a f t e r , have n o t i n i t i a t e d nor at tempted any d e f i n i t i o n t o c o n s o l i d a t e i t .

Noth ing much has changed s i n c e you v i s i t e d . Not o v e r t l y , anyway. The l a n d we t i l l t h e t i t l e s we do n o t s t i l l own. We n o u r i s h no i l l u s i o n about peace fu l r i g h t s over i t under p resen t p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . The a u t h o r i t i e s would s t i l l w ish t h a t we l e a v e o u r l a n d .

We would n o t know if you have t o l d o t h e r s o f o u r s t o r y . Tha t our v i l l a g e i s a good twen ty - four k i l o m e t e r s f rom t h e town c e n t e r o f a p r o v i n c e here i n Mindanao About a hundred o f us f a m i l i e s sought homes i n here i n t h e y e a r 1939 as l a n d - l e s s homesteaders. We s tayed on th rough t h e war years . The p l a c e had been o u r sanc tuary f rom t h e ons laugh t o f t h e Japanese invaders .

We have t o l d you t h a t over t h e years , a g e n e r a t i o n o f o u r f a m i l i e s c l e a r e d about a thousand hec ta res of c h o i c e a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d hereabout . From a once dense j u n g l e o f w i l d animals and t h i c k f o r e s t , t h i s v i l l a g e has become a coin- m u n i t y o f f o o d - r i c h farm l a n d s .

The government re leased t h i s v i l l a g e ' s l a n d as a l i e n a b l e f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l pb r - poses i n 1953. I n 1956, a c o r p o r a t i o n t o l d us through t h e c o u r t s t h a t an ownership t i t l e f o r t h e l a n d has been i ssued t h e c o r p o r a t i o n by t h e l a n d bureau s i n c e t h e y e a r 1952, e x a c t l y one y e a r b e f o r e , by v i r t u e o f l a n d a1 i e n - a b i l i t y laws i n t h e coun t ry , t h e l a n d can be t i t l e d t o anyone. But who can bea t a c o r p o r a t i o n l e d by a postwar lawmaker! Bu t who cares?

l/ P u b l i s h e d by t h e P e a s a n t Program o f ACFOD, 4 t h Fir, 4861109 Phya thay Kuoi.1, R a j t h e v i Ba rza Bangkok 4 , T h a i l a n d ,

The re f inements o f t h e law have always i n t r i g u e d us. We l o s t a s e r i e s o f i n j u n c t i o n s i n c o u r t . Bu t l i k e we have t o l d you, we w i l l r e s i s t , and c r e a t i v e - l y , a11 k inds o f at tempts from anywhere t o d e p r i v e us o f ou r r i g h t s over t h i s l a n d . We w i l l keep h o l d i n g on. Our r e s o l v e o f s t r u g g l e r o o t e d i n whatever meager l e f t o v e r t h e r e i s of j u s t i c e f o r t h e poor .

There have been k i l l i n g s i n t h i s v i l l a g e . You knew o u r lawyer, ve ry young l i k e you, was, coming from t h i s v i l l a g e , way la id , murdered and consequent ly robbed o f documents c r u c i a l t o o u r case. The l e a d e r o f t h e band surrendered t o t h e a u t h o r i t i e s . To t h i s day, he cont inues t o be i n a c t i v e d u t y as a m i l i t a r y personnel . We heard he i s due f o r promot ion ve ry soon.

Soon a f t e r you l e f t , t h e m i l i t a r y massacred t h r e e o f our b ro ther - fa rmers i n t h i s v i l l a g e . A t an e a r l y dawn r a i d i n November, 1977, m i l i t a r y s o l d i e r s , a ided by members o f t h e l o c a l c i v i l i a n defense b r igade , most o f whom a l s o work as s e c u r i t y guards o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n , surrounded t h e house o f a fanner - leader you had e a r l i e r a l l met and exchanged jokes w i t h . Wi thou t p r e s e n t i n g any search o r a r r e s t papers, t h e s o l d i e r s s t r a f e d t h e house. I n s i d e were t h e farmer, h i s w i f e and f i v e c h i l d r e n . The f i r i n g l a s t e d f o r about an hour . The p i l e d - u p bags o f r i c e j u s t ha rves ted p rov ided e f f e c t i v e , i f opportuned, cover f o r t h e f a m i l y . No one was h u r t except f o r some b r u i s e s f rom f l a r e s . Then t h e h e l p l e s s farmer was dragged ou t , beaten up severa l meters away f rom h i s house. H i s s k u l l cracked f rom t h e bea t ing . They s h o t dead two more farmers i n t h e v i c i n i t y , one o f them on h i s way t o t h e farm a s t r i d e h i s carabao. The m i l i t a r y v i r t u a l l y dragged t h e i r bodies up t i l l near t h e m i l i t a r y camp, o l d guns taken f rom t h e m i l i t a r y armory p u t on t o p o f t h e i r corpses, photographed and o u b l i c i z e d as r e b e l s .

There has been h a t e i n t h e hushed o u t c r y a g a i n s t t h e massacre. The church had asked i f t h e r e was any connec t ion between t h e i n c i d e n t , t h e rumors spread by t h e barangay c a p t a i n o f t h e p l a c e (who a l s o happened t o be a s e c u r i t y man of t h e c o r p o r a t i o n i n t h e v i l l a g e ) t h a t a l l t h e homesteaders i n t h e area a r e communists o r r e b e l s and t h e move o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n t o e j e c t a11 t h e homesteaders f rom t h e v i l l a g e by a l l means imag inab le . The governor o f t h e p r o - v ince , knowing o f t h e s o c i a l q u e s t i o n i n o u r m i d s t f o r so l o n g had, about two y e a r s b e f o r e t h e massacre, i n s t i t u t e d a commission t o s tudy t h e l a n d d i s p u t e and had come up w i t h recommendations. Masses o f concerned people have asked whatever happened t o t h e same s tudy t h a t found o u t documented f a c t s t i l t e d i n favor o f t h e homesteaders. Hope f o r answers we d i d n o t expect . We know from exper ience t h a t n o t any m i t i g a t i n g one was fo r thcoming .

The government s i d e who proved i n s t r u m e n t a l i n pursu ing t h e c la ims o f t h e c o r - p o r a t i o n d i d s u f f e r some c a s u a l i t i e s t o o . The c o u r t s h e r i f f and h i s m i l i t a r y e s c o r t s who c a r r i e d o u t t h e house d e m o l i t i o n and p r o p e r t y repossess ion (con- f i s c a t i o n ! ) o r d e r s o f t h e c o u r t i n 1976 were k i l l e d i n t h e i r q u a r t e r s by a group o f u n i d e n t i f i e d persons who a p p a r e n t l y shared w i t h us o u r j u s t a s p i r a - t i o n s over t h e l a n d i n ques t ion . We always knew t h e s h e r i f f had been assured o f a twenty-thousand-pesos a p p r e c i a t i o n g r a n t by t h e c o r p o r a t i o n and a twen ty - f o u r h e c t a r e c h o i c e l a n d i n t h e v i l l a g e as soon as we l e a v e .

That year , more than s i x t y o f o u r homes had been burned. We have evacuated. Some have r e t u r n e d t o our p laces o f o r i q i n i n t h e Visayan i s l a n d s . Today,

o n l y a c l u s t e r o f about twenty o r so f a m i l i e s o f a g e n e r a t i o n t h a t has grown i n t o about t h r e e hundred f a m i l i e s , p ioneers a l l i n t h e v i l l a g e years and y e a r s ' ago, a r e l e f t i n h e r e . P r i c e tags have been earmarked f o r t h e l i v e s o f ou r homesteader-leaders. We are w i tness t o our f u l l y p r o d u c t i v e coconuts and o t h e r crops b e i n g harves ted by t h e guards o f t h e c o r p o r a t i o n . The complete e lementary school o p e r a t i n g f o r y e a r s has n o t been f u l l y re-opened. But some- day soon, a l l o f us w i l l come t o re-occupy o u r c u l t i v a t i o n i n t h i s v i l l a g e , and i n droves, no one can s top us because t h i s i s o u r l a n d .

No th ing much has changed indeed s i n c e you had come and then went. The c u l - t i v a t e d area by t h e c o r p o r a t i o n i s f i f t e e n hec ta res i n 1956. Another s i x t y - e i g h t , and so f a s t , i n 1973 a t t h e onse t o f m a r t i a l l aw. A l l t o rubber t r e e s . A11 by f o r c e . The same q u e s t i o n t h e r e f o r e o f j u s t i c e we s t i l l ask. The same f e a r , a n x i e t y and h a t e we s t i l l keep. But we know o u r lessons a l i t t l e b e t t e r now.

We a r e sad though t h a t y o u r t o u r w i t h us would n o t seem t o be d i f f e r e n t f rom the many o t h e r s t h a t we know. To some o f us, i f o n l y f o r a w h i l e , perhaps, as we have y e t t o grow i n t o unders tand ing b e t t e r t h e dynamics o f h i s t o r y , y o u r coming was a cause f o r hope t h a t o u t p l i g h t would lessen on w i t h you. We though t we shared common concerns. We have been t o l d t h a t yours was f o r development. And we know t h a t t h e s t r u g g l e o f t h e poor , as ours i s , needs t h e o b j e c t i v e c o l l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e more l e t t e r e d ones l i k e you. We would n o t r e a l l y know t i l l now i f t h a t ever were p a r t o f y o u r coming n o r would we y e t know whether t h a t t o o had become p a r t o f y o u r p resen t p e r c e p t i o n s about development i n t h e c o n t e x t o f our , you t o l d us, homogenous c o u n t r y - r e a l i t i e s .

We c o u l d o n l y hope t h a t y o u a r e do ing y o u r share i n y o u r own c o u n t r i e s . L i k e us, we know, y o u r own peoples have t h e i r own hates t o keep a t l e a s t , y e t . Sometimes these hates a r e d i r e c t e d even a g a i n s t those l i k e you who would s t i l l come and go, up and down the c o u n t r i e s , w i t h o u t d a r i n g t o l i g h t a b i t more t h e b l a z e now b u r n i n g i n the many c o u n t r y s i d e s o f A s i a . L i k e them, we shou ld have guaranteed access t o our l a n d i f t h e r e were a democracy. L i k e them, we w ish the guaranteed equal r i g h t s and access t o l i f e . We a r e one w i t h y o u r peoples i n t h e i r a s p i r a t i o n . We would l i k e t o f o r g e deeper f r i e n d s h i p s w i t h them. K i n d l y t e l l them t o w r i t e us - f o r a s t a r t .

THE NEW WAVE OF THE INTERNATIONAL CONSUMER MOVEMENT

Some 350 de lega tes f rom 38 c o u n t r i e s concluded t h e 1 0 t h IOCU I*/ Congress, The Hague, June 22-26, 1981, w i t h t h e announcement t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o j e c t s w i l l be launched:

" The International Organization of Consumers Unions (IOCU) links the a c t i v i t i e s of consumer organizations in some 50 countries. An independent, non-profit and non-political foundation. IOCU promotes world-wide co-operation in consumer protection, information and education. Its Headquarters are: 9, Emmastra:it, The Hague Netherlands. The Regional Office for Asia and Pacific is at P.O. Box 1045, Penang, Malaysia.

1 ) a CONSUMER INTERPOL - n o t o n l y as a c i t i z e n ' s network t o exchange i n f o r m - a t i o n , b u t a l s o as a t o o l f o r a c t i o n and a b a s i s f o r l o c a l , n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l campaigns a g a i n s t hazardous p roduc ts ;

2 ) a WORKING GROUP ON TRANSNATIONALS which w i l l p l a n and execu te programmes;

3 ) suppor t f o r t h e EXPANSION OF THE CONSUMER MOVEMENT I N LATIN AMERICA. As a f i r s t s t e p a s p e c i a l n e w s l e t t e r and c l e a r i n g house f o r i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d .

"The consumer movement s t a r t s t h i s decade w i t h a renewed energy and con f idence t o p r o v i d e a m u l t i n a t i o n a l response t o m u l t i n a t i o n a l problems", s a i d Anwar Faza l , who was r e - e l e c t e d unanimously as P r e s i d e n t o f IOCU. "A new wave i n t h e consumer movement has begun", he added.

Anwar Fazal a l s o s t a t e d t h a t t h e Consumer I n t e r p o l which was suppor ted by a g r a n t f rom t h e Ne ther lands , w i l l focus on t h e Dumping o f hazardous p roduc ts , t e c h n o l o g i e s and waste i n t o T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s .

The reasons f o r t h e h i g h p r i o r i t y t o t h e Consumer I n t e r p o l a r e as f o l l o w s :

t h e env i ronmenta l and h e a l t h damage caused by c e r t a i n u n r e g u l a t e d asbestos, dye, and p e s t i c i d e i n d u s t r i e s , t o name o n l y a few, has been f a r g r e a t e r , even when reduced t o economic terms, t h a n t h e t o t a l v a l u e o f these i n d u s t r i e s ;

T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a r e more and more becoming dumping and t e s t i n g grounds f o r hazardous t e c h n o l o g i e s ;

i n many cases a h i g h l e v e l o f t e c h n i c a l e x p e r t i s e and c r i t i c a l awareness i s needed t o i d e n t i f y p roduc ts and t e c h n o l o g i e s t h a t pose unaccep tab le r i s k s and t h a t these q u a l i t i e s a r e n o t those n o r m a l l y r e q u i r e d of , o r e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o , government o f f i c i a l s c o n t r o l l i n g such i m p o r t s ;

. t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s use h i g h l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d p romot iona l and s a l e s techn iques :

t h e techno logy o f f e r e d t o poor c o u n t r i e s i s o f v e r y l i t t l e r e l a t i v e v a l u e and m o s t l y f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s u p e r f l u o u s o r l u x u r i o u s goods, o u t of reach o f t h e m a j o r i t y . I n t h e food i n d u s t r y t h i s has r e s u l t e d i n t h e massive p romot ion and m a r k e t i n g o f h i g h c o s t l u x u r y junk foods w i t h l i t t l e n o t i o n on n u t r i t i o n a t t h e same t i m e p romot ing t h e i n c i d e n c e o f m a l n u t r i t i o n t h a t a l r e a d y e x i s t s i n l a r g e s e c t i o n s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ;

. t h e non-governmental community has t h e o b l i g a t i o n t o assure t h a t t h e h e a l t h o f t h e p u b l i c and t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e envi ronment a r e accorded a h i g h e r p r i o r i t y than concern about t h e ba lance o f payments and t h e p romot ion o f f o r e i g n t r a d e .

IOCU, w i t h t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f i t s member o r g a n i z a t i o n s w i l l w i d e l y p u b l i c i z e t h e d e t a i l s o f t h e e x p o r t o r i m p o r t o f dangerous p roduc ts and t e c h n o l o g i e s so t h a t governments w i l l e v e n t u a l l y be f o r c e d t o a p p l y severe economic d i s i n c e n - t i v e s f o r t h i s t o t a l l y out rageous behav iou r .

An e f f i c i e n t hazardous p r o d u c t s i n f o r m a t i o n network w i l l be e s t a b l i s h e d .

A databank on p roduc t s a f e t y s tandards and r e g u l a t i o n s , as w e l l as on a c c i d e n t s caused by p roduc ts w i l l be examined.

I O C U w i l l promote i n t e r n a t i o n a l p roduc t l i a b i l i t y l e g i s l a t i o n and i t s implement- a t i o n as p a r t o f t h e campaign t o s t o p what has been descr ibed as " t h e c o r p o r a t e c r ime o f t h e c e n t u r y " , s a i d Faza l . "The w o r s t t h i n g i s t h a t you g e t a combin- a t i o n o f a v i o l e n t techno logy and m a n i p u l a t i v e marke t ing" .

Anwar Fazal of Ma lays ia a l s o s t a t e d t h a t " t h e consumer movement i s an i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e developmental process and i s t h e r e f o r e even more i m p o r t a n t f o r T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s . The consumer movement concerned economic j u s t i c e , i t concerned human r i g h t s , i t concerned a c t i o n and change b u t most o f a11 i t concerned people w i t h i n t e g r i t y , commi tment and stamina. We must be concerned w i t h t h e new powers and e f fec ts o f i n f o r m a t i o n technology and a l s o be s e n s i t i v e t o t h e impact o f consumption on t h e envi ronment . Consumers must a l s o be conservors " .

11 THE POLITICS OF THE SOLAR AGE by Haze l H e n d e r s o n

The P o l i t i c s o f t h e S o l a r Age p r o v i d e a l t e r n a t i v e v i s i o n s o f t h e f u t u r e and v i a b l e s t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e t r a n s i t i o n , showing how we can f u l l y r e l e a s e human p o t e n t i a l and employ t h e t a l e n t s o f a l l c i t i z e n s w h i l e conserv ing n a t u r a l resources. The au thor proposes t h a t , i n f a c t , resource l i m i t s a r e good news, f o r c i n g us t o grow UP i n t o a f u l l e r human m a t u r i t y , now t h a t we can no l o n g e r l e t cheap pe t ro leum do o u r t h i n k i n g f o r us. S t r e s s i s e v o l u t i o n ' s t o o l , and t h e s t resses o f t h e 1980s can l e a d n o t t o breakdown, b u t t o a new breakthrough t o more humane, e c o l o g i c a l l y - compat ib le , s h a r i n g s o c i e t i e s , where c o m p e t i t i o n i s balanced a g a i n w i t h c o o p e r a t i o n and community. T h i s new p o l i t i c s o f a l t e r - n a t i v e f u t u r e s f o r i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s w i t h i n a p l a n e t a r y c o n t e x t o f human interdependence w i l l no l o n g e r f i t t h e narrow p o l a r i t i e s o f L e f t and R igh t , i n f l a t i o n o r recess ion , s top-go o f t r a d i t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l / e c o n o m i c debates. I t i s n o t c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e o l d p a r t i e s o r t h e i r l a b e l s o f Democrat o r Repub- l i c a n , L i b e r a l o r Conservat ive, T o r i e s o r S o c i a l i s t s , n o r can i t be e x p l a i n e d by i n v o k i n g t h e 1 9 t h Century debate between Adam Smi th ' s I n v i s i b l e Hand and K a r l Marx. The macro-economic "management" t o o l s and l e v e r s have s t r i p p e d t h e i r gears, and economists v a i n l y man ipu la te c o n t r o l s t h a t a r e sw ing ing w i l d l y , whether p r o v i d e d by schoo ls o f l a i s s e z - f a i r e , f ree -marke te rs , Key- nesians, M o n e t a r i s t s , Post-Keynesians, s t a t e p lanners , c o r p o r a t e p lanners o r s o c i a l i s t s . A l l these a t tempts t o "manage" t h e excess ive c o m p l e x i t y and i n t e r - l i n k a g e s o f i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s have l e d i n e v i t a b l y t o i n c r e a s i n g c e n t r a l i s m , e x p l o d i n g bureaucracy, technocra'cy and o v e r l y a b s t r a c t governance, whether f rom Washington, Brusse ls , London, Moscow o r Tokyo, u s i n g s t a t i s t i c a l i l l u s i o n s de- v i s e d b y academic e l i t e s , which do n o t f i t any r e a l - w o r l d cases anywhere i n t h e wor ld .

I/ Anchor ~ r e s s / ~ o u b l e d a y & Co.Inc. 245 P a r k Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10017.

The P o l i t i c s o f t h e S o l a r Age o u t l i n e major r e a l ignments i n a11 i n d u s t r i a l c o u n t r i e s as the o l d p a r t i e s break down and f a i l t o channel t h e energ ies of i n c r e a s i n g l y a l i e n a t e d v o t e r s . It descr ibes t h e new, w inn ing c o a l i t i o n s a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g , w a i t i n g t o be f o r g e d i n these s o c i e t i e s , composed of a l l those groups marg ina l i zed , and f o r whom t h e e x i s t i n g economy does E work. These coa l i t i o n s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e i n c r e a s i n g number o f drop-outs, non-voters ( o n l y 52% o f t h e e l e c t o r a t e vo ted i n t h e 1980 P r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n i n the US), w i l l i n c l u d e : t h e poor , the u n t r a i n e d , t h e young, t h e s e n i o r c i t i z e n s , t h e structurally-unemployed, the workers i n o l d and newer unions who see l a b o r l o s i n g i t s membership base and a r e o r g a n i z i n g those fo rmer ly -exc luded women, b lacks , H ispan ics , s e r v i c e workers, t h e a c t i v i s t s i n food, housing and o t h e r co -opera t i ves and c r e d i t unions; t h e "smal l i s b e a u t i f u l " r u r a l and urban homesteaders and l a n d - t r u s t e r s ; t h e s o l a r and renewable energy and a p p r o p r i a t e techno logy i n v e n t o r s and en t repreneurs ; t h e s e l f-he1 p hea l t h - c a r e and n u t r i - t i o n re fo rmers ; those i n t h e human p o t e n t i a l and educa t ion movements advoca t ing new approaches t o human m o t i v a t i o n and p r o d u c t i v i t y (humaniz ing workplaces, f l e x t i m e , day-care, worker-ownership and self-management, s h a r i n g jobs and j o i n t - p a r e n t i n g , e t c . ) as w e l l as the movements f o r consumer and e n v i r o n - menta l p r o t e c t i o n , f o r g r e a t e r a c c o u n t a b i l i t y f rom huge c o r p o r a t i o n s and t h e government bureaucracies t h a t c a t e r t o them; media a c t i v i s t s demanding l e s s v i o l e n t TV programming and b e t t e r access f o r c i t i z e n s ' concerns; as w e l l as the a c t i v i s t s f o r human r i g h t s , g l o b a l j u s t i c e , and an end t o n u c l e a r p r o l i f - e r a t i o n and c o n v e r t i n g t h e arms race expend i tu re t o meet human needs, hunger and disease. Such a new coa l i t i o n , t o q e t h e r w i t h t h ~ 48% who o n l o n a e r v o t e a t

a l l , comprises a m a j o r i t y o f Americans, and i t i m p l i e s an a l t e r n a t i v e f u t u r e f o r t h e U.S. as w e l l as a more e q u i t a b l e , t h e r e f o r e l e s s dangerous w o r l d o rder . I t does n o t i m p l y a r e t r e a t t o a p a s t a g r a r i a n p a r o c h i a l i s m o r i s o l a t i o n i s m . Rather t h e new c o a l i t i o n s w i l l be composed o f au tonomous ly - th ink ing p l a n e t a r y c i t i z e n s , " T h i n k i n g G l o b a l l y and A c t i n g L o c a l l y " , c r e a t i n g communit ies w i t h i n e c o l o g i c a l t o l e r a n c e s i n mutual s e l f - r e l i a n c e . Some o f t h e i r s logans sum up t h e new wor ldv iew: "We do n o t I n h e r i t The World f rom our Parents We Borrow i t from o u r C h i l d r e n " . "There i s Enough i n t h e World f o r Our Needs b u t n o t f o r ou r Greeds" and "Stop Tourism! Make Where you Are A Parad ise" .

Development Education Forum - No.3 April 1981

PROPOSAL FOR THE CREATION I N B R A S I L OF A CENTRE FOR THE STUDY AND PROMOTION OF URBAN AND RURAL A L T E R N A T I V E S (CEPAUR)

*/ by Manfred A. Max-Neef -

The c o n t e x t

The b i g c i t i e s i n T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s a r e growing a t such a f a s t pace t h a t t h e y a r e becoming burdensome and unmanageable. The process has no precedent i n h i s t o r y . Unemployment and s q u a t t e r s e t t l e m e n t inc rease , i n t h e i r m i d s t , a t a l a r m i n g r a t e s , as a consequence o f m i g r a t o r y waves t h a t o r i g i n a t e i n t h e r u r a l areas and smal l c i t i e s and seem t o have no ending. Simul taneously smal l c i t i e s d e t e r i o r a t e and t h e r u r a l areas become poore r .

The immoderate urban growth t h a t accompanies an e q u a l l y speedy debasement of smal l c i t i e s and r u r a l impover ishment , rep resen t t h e p roduc t o f a development s t r a t e g y t h a t f a i l e d , i n as much as i t emphasized r a p i d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n a t t h e expense o f r u r a l development.

The p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f i n d i n g s o l u t i o n s - a t l e a s t f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g - a r e n o t s imp le , and t h i s because o f a ve ry c u r i o u s reason. The problem has n o t a t t r a c t e d so fa r , a s u f f i c i e n t and widespread i n t e r e s t . Hence, p o l i t i c a l l eaders and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s have been l a c k i n g t h e necessary suppor t t o p e n e t r a t e t h e q u e s t i o n i n dep th i n o r d e r t o search f o r f e a s i b l e s o l u t i o n s . The reason f o r t h i s l a c k of i n t e r e s t i s even more b i z a r r e . It i s m a i n l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e phenomenon of h y p e r - u r b a n i z a t i o n a f f e c t i n g t h e poore r c o u n t r i e s was never foreseen by development t h e o r y t h a t promoted t h e model o f r a p i d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n . There- fo re , i t was n o t supposed t o come about. On t h e c o n t r a r y , a number o f i n t r i n - c a t e se l f - r e g u l a t i n g mechanisms ( o r p lanned c o n t r o l s ) were supposed t o make t h e development process " tend" toward a r e l a t i v e g l o b a l e q u i l i b r i u m . The f a c t t h a t such mechanisms r e f u s e d t o f u n c t i o n , has d i s c o n c e r t e d many t h e o r e t i c i a n s .

We f i n d ourse lves a t a crossroad. We know what shou ld be done, b u t we s t i l l d o n ' t know @ t o do it, because we a r e l a c k i n g a c o n v i n c i n g a l t e r n a t i v e development t h e o r y . Whi le w a i t i n g f o r t h e a p p a r i t i o n o f such a new grand theory , l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g i s done. Yet a new grand t h e o r y i s what we may need t h e l e a s t . Grand t h e o r i e s have f a i l e d t o o o f t e n . Probably what we need i n s t e a d o f a t h e o r y i s a purpose. A purpose t h a t g ives way t o peop les ' f u l l . p a r t i c i p a t i o n , th rough m u l t i l e v e l a c t i o n processes, s t a r t i n g a t g r a s s - r o o t l e v e l s f rom t h e V i l l a g e t o a World Order.

The need f o r v i g o r o u s l y i n t e n s i f y i n g r u r a l development (and r e v i t a l i z a t i o n of smal l c i t i e s ) i s accepted i n t h e m a j o r i t y o f c o u n t r i e s , a l t h o u g h i t i s n o t p r a c t i z e d . If t h i s p e r s i s t s , t h e T h i r d World c o u n t r i e s may never reach t h e a s p i r e d l e v e l s o f w e l l b e i n g t h a t t h e r a p i d i n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n was supposed t o b r i n g about . A l l b e n e f i t s w i l l be annuled due t o t h e severe and c h r o n i c urban problems. The utmost a b s u r d i t y may be - and i n many cases a l r e a d y i s - t h a t t h e economic b e n e f i t s a c c r u i n g f rom t h e development process a r e used i n t h e s o l u t i o n & , -' c10 Dag Hammarskjold Foundation, &re Slottsgatan 2, S-752 20 Uppsala, Sweden

o f those a c u t e problems c rea ted by t h e same development process

A new o r i e n t a t i o n i s r e q u i r e d . There a r e c e n t e r s i n Europe and exper iences o f impor tance i n A f r i c a and As ia . L i t t l e , a long these l i n e s , i s t o be found i n L a t i n America. Hence t h e g r e a t p r a c t i c a l and t h e o r e t i c a l u t i l i t y f o r B r a s i l - and f o r t h e c o n t i n e n t - t o c r e a t e a c e n t r e capable o f i n t e g r a t i n g e f f o r t s and promote knowledge and exper iences about r u r a l and urban a l t e r n a t i v e s .

O b j e c t i v e s

The f o l l o w i n g shou ld be t h e fundamental o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e Centre f o r t h e Study and Promot ion o f Urban and Rura l A l t e r n a t i v e s (CEPAUR):

Promote and a d v i s e demons t ra t i ve exper iences t o be c a r r i e d o u t i n s e l e c t e d r e g i o n s o f t h e B r a z i l i a n t e r r i t o r y and o t h e r p a r t s o f L a t i n America, w i t h t h e purpose o f p e r f e c t i n g t h e o r i e s , s t r a t e g i e s and t a c t i c s d e s t i n e d t o d i m i n i s h t h e severe e x i s t i n g r e g i o n a l and s e c t o r a l d e s e q u i l i b r i u m .

Design methodologies and s t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e r e v i t a l i z a t i o n of sma l l c i t i e s and t h e i r r u r a l env i ronment , f o l l o w i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n and e d u c a t i o n w i t h p r o d u c t i o n , f o r t h e achievement o f adequate l e v e l s of l o c a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e .

S t i m u l a t e , sponsor and a s s i s t a l l a c t i o n s t h a t , w i t h i n t h e r e g i o n o f t h e C e n t r e ' s l o c a t i o n , as w e l l as o t h e r r e g i o n s i n B r a s i l and e lsewhere i n L a t i n America, a r e c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e purposes o f d i m i n i s h i n g r e g i o n a l and s e c t o r a l d e s e q u i l i b r i u m and promote l o c a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e .

Make t h e i n f r a s t r u c t u r e and t e c h n i c a l s e r v i c e s o f t h e Cen t re a v a i l a b l e t o those persons and groups t h a t a r e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s t u d y and p romot ion o f a1 t e r n a t i v e development.

S t i m u l a t e t h e o r e t i c a l and p r a c t i c a l advancement i n t h e f i e l d o f i t s concern t h r o u g h seminars and t e c h n i c a l meet ings w i t h t h e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f s p e c i a l - i s t s t o g e t h e r w i t h p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and p l a n n e r s .

A c t as a v e h i c l e o f d i f f u s i o n and exchange o f exper iencesbo th a t n a t i o n a l and i n t e r n a t i o n a l l e v e l s , f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f t h e L a t i n American r e g i o n .

M a i n t a i n c l o s e c o n t a c t and c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h i n s t i t u t i o n s , i n o t h e r p a r t s of t h e wor ld , whose i n t e r e s t s a r e coheren t w i t h t h e purposes of t h e Cen t re .

Through a p p r o p r i a t e communication channels e s t a b l i s h a b r i d g e between s c i e n t i f i c researchers , on t h e one hand, and p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and p lanners , on t h e o t h e r , so as t o f a c i l i t a t e c o n c r e t e a c t i o n s .

L o c a t i o n o f t h e Cen t re

I n t h e S p r i n g o f 1981, t h e imp lementa t ion phase o f t h e "T i raden tes P r o j e c t " was completed. The p r o j e c t was an i n i t i a t i v e promoted by SENAC ( B r a s i l i a n i n s t i t - u t i o n devo ted t o p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g i n t h e t e r t i a r y s e c t o r ) and CINTERFCR of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour O r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h t h e purpose o f "p romot ing t h e r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f sma l l urban c e n t e r s as a l t e r n a t i v e s o c i e t i e s v i s - a - v i s t h e

i n c r e a s i n g d i s f u n c t i o n o f t h e g r e a t m e t r o p o l i t a n areas, a l l o w i n g f o r a b e t t e r - ment i n t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e and p r o d u c t i v i t y o f t h e i n f o r m a l economic s e c t o r s " . The work t h a t was c a r r i e d o u t i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e accumulated exper ience had repercuss ions i n t h e L a t i n American r e g i o n , and shows t h e convenience o f e s t a - b l i s h i n g t h e proposed Cen t re i n B r a s i l , and, more c o n c r e t e l y , i n t h e c i t y of T i r a d e n t e s i n t h e S t a t e o f Minas G e r a i s .

The advantages o f s e t t i n g up t h e Centre i n B r a s i l a r e s e v e r a l . F i r s t , t h e coun t ry , due t o i t s d imension and r e g i o n a l v a r i e t i e s , o f f e r s an immense gamut o f cha l lenges i n terms o f a l t e r n a t i v e development i n t h e s p i r i t o f l o c a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e . Second, i t i s t h e c o u n t r y o f L a t i n America most a f f e c t e d by t h e h y p e r - u r b a n i z a t i o n process. T h i r d , i t m a i n t a i n s c l o s e r e l a t i o n s w i t h a l l L a t i n American c o u n t r i e s and t h e A f r i c a n c o n t i n e n t . Four th , t h e r e a r e a number o f p u b l i c and p r i v a t e i n s t i t u t i o n s i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e s u b j e c t , t h a t c o u l d g i v e suppor t t o t h e a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e Cen t re . F i f t h , t h e Federa l Government i s s e r i o u s l y p reoccup ied w i t h t h e g r e a t r e g i o n a l d e s e q u i l i b r i u m a f f e c t i n g t h e c o u n t r y , and t h e P r e s i d e n t of t h e Repub l i c h i m s e l f has r e c e n t l y g r a n t e d h i g h p r i o r i t y t o a11 e f f o r t s geared towards t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e problem.

S t r u c t u r e and s u o o o r t

Due t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s t h a t i n s p i r e i t , t h e Cen t re w i l l be dynamic, open, a g i l e and w i t h a g r e a t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s i m p l i c i t y . It w i l l have a minimum o f t e c h n i c a l and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e pe rsonne l , t h u s a l l o w i n g f o r a h i g h r o t a t i v i t y o f s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s , s p e c i a l i s t s , p lanners and p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t o r s work ing f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s and devoted t o c o n c r e t e and p r a c t i c a l t a s k s w i t h o u t r e p r e s e n t i n g a burden i n terms o f i t s f i x e d c o s t s .

The C e n t r e ' s per formance w i l l depend on a scheme capab le o f i n s u r i n g t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f funds t o cover those f i x e d c o s t s ; a d d i t i o n a l c o s t s may be f i nanced th rough ad-hoc agreements w i t h i n s t i t u t i o n s f o r s p e c i f i c p r o j e c t s

I n t e r n a t i o n a l suppor t i s a l s o necessary, a t l e a s t d u r i n g t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d o f t h e C e n t r e ' s l i f e . I t i s hoped t h a t such suppor t , b o t h t e c h n i c a l and f i n a n c i a l , may be o b t a i n e d f rom i n s t i t u t i o n s a l r e a d y e s t a b l i s h e d and i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e p rob l6mat ique o f a l t e r n a t i v e development f o r l o c a l s e l f - r e l i a n c e .

Techn ica l a s s i s t a n c e w i l l be o f paramount impor tance i n o r d e r t o a l l o w t h e Cen t re t o become an a c t i v e and e f f i c i e n t component o f t h e growing network o f i n s t i t u t i o n s t h a t , i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y , a r e devoted t o Another Development.

I t w i l l be g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d i f any i n s t i t u t i o n s o r peop le p o t e n t i a l l y i n t e r e s t e d i n e s t a b l i s h i n g any t y p e o f r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e Cen t re , would i n f o r m Manfred A. Max-Neef i n w r i t i n g . I T we can show how much i n t e r e s t t h e r e e x i s t s , i t may be e a s i e r f o r t h e Cen t re t o be e s t a b l i s h e d .

MATERIALS RECEIVED

LOCAL SPACE

. G l o r i a J inadu , S o c i a l work educa t ion and p r a c t i c e i n A f r i c a : A proposed change model (Department o f Soc io logy , F a c u l t y o f S o c i a l Sc iences, U n i v e r s i t y o f Lagos, Lagos, N i g e r i a ) . 18pp.

. D. Bandyopadhyay, Rura l worke rs ' camps show t h e way (Land and l a n d re fo rms Department, W r i t e r s ' B u i l d i n g s , C a l c u t t a 700001, I n d i a ) . 4pp.

. L u i z O t a v i o de Me10 C a v a l c a n t i , Recive, une p r o p o s i t i o n pol i t* (Coordon- n a t e u r des Regions M e t r o p o l i t a i n e s (CNDU), M i n i s t e r s de l ' l n t e r i e u r , B r a s i l i a , B r e s i l ) . 8pp.

. Hasan Moinuddin, Youth: a dynamic f o r c e o f s o c i a l change (Gropiusweg 18, 4630 Bochum 1, FRG). 21pp.

. Ross Kidd, Peop le ' s t h e a t r e , c o n s c i e n t i s a t i o n and s t r u g g l e ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l Counc i l f o r A d u l t Educat ion, 29 P r i n c e A r t h u r Avenue, Toronto, O n t a r i o , Canada). 1 ~ P P . . Budd L. H a l l , P a r t i c i p a t o r y research : A q u e s t i o n o f power ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l Counc i l f o r A d u l t Educat ion, 29 P r i n c e A r t h u r AV., Toronto, Ont . , Canada M5RlB2). 2 3 ~ ~ . . Hans Bakker, The Gandhian p a t h t o development: R e a l i s t i c u t o p i a o r romant i c i d e o l o g y ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Guelph, Guelph, O n t a r i o , Canada N1G 2Wl). 49pp.

. Fernando Reyes Mat ta, La comunicac ion a l t e r n a t i v a como respues ta democra- t i c a (ILET, Apdo 85 025, 10200 Mexico OF, Mex ico ) . 18pp.

N A T I O N A L SPACE

. F l o r i a n S te inberg , Tanzania: S i t e s and s e r v i c e s and Housing p o l i c y f o r t h e poor i n t h e c i t i e s o f underdeveloped c o u n t r i e s - t h e exemple o f s lum and shan ty upgrad ing i n Colombo ( S r i Lanka) (Techn ica l U n i v e r s i t y B e r l i n , Sekr . A 53, S t r a s s e des 17. J u n i 135, D-1000 B e r l i n 12, FRG). 23pp. + 27pp.

. Frank Long, Seminars as a v e h i c l e f o r m o b i l i z e d a c t i o n i n t h e a rea o f techno logy t r a n s f e r : t h e case o f Guyana (Technology t r a n s f e r ( p o l i c y ) u n i t , 147 F i f t h & A l b e r t s t r e e t s , A l b e r t t o w n , Georgetown, Guyana). 10pp.

. B r a n i s l a v K r s t i c , Envi ronment and t e r r i t o r i a l development i n Yugoslav ia Federa l E x e c u t i f , Savezno izv rsnovece , 11070 Beograd, Y u g o s l a v i a ) ,

. W a l t e r R. S tahe l , &bs f o r tomorrow., t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r s u b s t i t u t i n g m a n p o E f o r enerqy ( 7 chemin des V iqne t tes , 121 3 V i l l e t t e , S w i t z e r l a n d ) . 6pp.

THIRD WORLD SPACE

. Mukoka Nsenda Kabuakantanda, Le p r o j e t de c r e a t i o n d ' u n reseau des consu l - t a n t s a f r i c a i n s : un pas s u r l a v o i e de 1a l u t t e c e n t r e 1es dangers du t r a n s - f e r t de t e c h n o l o g i e (Departement des Sciences P o l i t i q u e s e t A d m i n i s t r a t i v e s , U n i v e r s i t ? . n a t i o n a l e du Za'i're, B.P. 1825, Lubumbashi, Za'i're). 4pp.

. L.A.G. de Souza, La c r i s i s d e l d e s a r r o l l o y l a participation popu la r en America L a t i n a (Cen t re Joad X X I I I , Bambina 115, 22251 R i o de J a n e i r o R.J. B res i l ) 17pp.

GLOBAL SPACE

. Werner O l l e , The i n t e r n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n and t r a d e un ion p o l i c y ( B e r l i n e r Pro jek tg ruppe , I n t e r n a t i o n a l e Gewerkschaftspol i t i k (PIGEP), Rothen- burqs t rasse 25, 1000 B e r l i n 41, FRG). 7pp.

. Jeremy Boissevain, Towards a Medi terranean s c i e n t i f i c community ( I n s t i t u t e o f Development S tud ies , U n i v e r s i t y o f Sussex, B r i g h t o n BN1 9RE, England). 15pp.

. S. D e d i ~ e r , M u l t i n a t i o n a l s , I n t e l l i g e n c e and d e v e l o p m G and The r o l e o f i n t e l l i a e n c e i n t h e develooment war (Business Manaaement Department, Lund Univer Â ¥ s i t y Box 5136, 220 05 Lund, sheden). 10pp.

. Hazel Henderson, New and renewable resource techno log ies : t o o l s f o r a new i n t e r n a t i o n a l economic o r d e r (P.O. Box 448, G a i n e s v i l l e , F1 32602, USA). 18pp.

. Swapan K. Chakrabar t i , Mould l i k e t o address t h e North-South summit f rom a m i c r o - l a n d p l a t f o r m " (Perhaps t h e World i s t o o s m a l l ? ! ) ( 2 Maharaja Tagore Road, C a l c u t t a 700 031 W.B., I n d i a ) . 3pp.

. Michael Kaufman, C o n t r a d i c t i o n s o f semi -co lon ia l i sm and t h e New I n t e r n a t i o n - a l Economic Order (Dpt o f Soc ia l Science, A t k i n s o n Col lege, York U n i v e r s i t y , 4700 Keele s t r e e t , Toronto, On ta r io , Canada). 26pp.

FOOTNOTES / NOTES / NOTAS

LOCAL SPACE

. I v a n I l l i c h , Vernacu la r Gender (Cuernavaca: Tecno-Politics, 1981) , mimeo, 60 pp. (Apdo 479, Cuernavaca, More los, Mexico) .

. Henk Thomas, "Mondragon producer c o o p e r a t i v e s " , Human F u t u r e s ( V o l . I V , no. 1 , 1981), pp. 99-107

La fa rge , R te des ~ i l l e s , 13290 Les M i l l e s , France) , mimeo, 73 pp.

. Duane E l g i n , V o l u n t a r y s i m p l i c i t y , Toward a way o f l i f e t h a t i s o u t w a r d 3 s imp le , i n w a r d l y r i c h (New York: W i l l i a m Morrow & Co., 1981), 312 pp.

. J e f Ulburghs, Pour une pedagogic de l ' a u t o g e s t i o n ( P a r i s : Les E d i t i o n s Ouvr ie res , 1980), 231 pp.

. "Les h a b i t s neu fs du P r e s i d e n t T i t o " , Au toges t ions (no. 6, e t 6 1981), pp. 155-258.

. Manuel Bar re ra , Worker p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n company management i n C h i l e , a h i s t o r i c a l exper ience (Geneva: UNRISD, 1981), mimeo, 25 pp.

. San t iago Roca, "An approach towards d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g self-managed f rom non- self-managed e n t e r p r i s e s " , Economic a n a l y s i s and workers ' management, ( V o l . X V , no. 1, 1981) , pp. 1-19.

. S e r g i o Gomez, Rura l employment p o l i c y research programme, P a r t i c i p a t i o n exper iences i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , A case s t u d y i n C h i l e (Geneva: ILO World employment programme research work ing paper * S , 1981) , mimeo, 36 pp.

. P.V. Paranjape e t a l . , R u r a l employment p o l i c y research-programme, r o o t s s e l f - r e 1 i a n c e i n Shramik San Ghatana, Dhul i a d i s t r i c t , (Geneva: ILO World employment programme research work ing papers, 1981) , mimeo, 66 pp.

. Odida T. Quamina, The s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n o f p l a n t a t i o n Mackenzie, an account of l i f e i n t h e Guyana m i n i n g e n t e r p r i s e s (Geneva: UNRISD, 1981) mimeo, 36 pp.

. A n i s u r Rahman, Some d imensions o f p e o p l e ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n t h e Bhoomi Sena Movement (Geneva: UNRISD, 1981), mimeo, 49 pp.

. M a t t h i a s Wesseler (ed . ) , P a r t i c i p a t o r y l e a r n i n g and r u r a l development - Working papers (Witzenhausen/FRG: Deutsches I n s t i t u t f i r t r o p i s c h e und

s u b t r o p i s c h e L a n d w i r t s c h a f t , Mai 1981), 157 pp. - A collection of papers from an interdisciplinary learning, reflecting on

methodological and practical issues in the rural context. The project grew out of an international workshop on "science for rural developmentU(1979) with Paulo Freire.

. S t e l i o s Ka fandar i s , "The b u i l d i n g i n d u s t r y i n t h e c o n t e x t of development", H a b i t a t (Vo l . 5 , nos. 3/4, 1980), 289-322 pp.

. J u l i o Calderon Cockburn y L u i s O l i v e r a Cardenos, Manual de l pob lador de pueblos jovenes (L ima: DESCO, 1979) , 142 pp.

. Gustavo R i o f r i o Benavides, Se busca t e r r e n c para prox ima b a r r i a d e , Espacios d i s p o n i b l e s en Lima 1940-1978-1990 (L ima: DESCO, 1978) , 171 pp.

. M igue l Angel Ramos P a d i l l a y Car los F r i a s Coronado, La v i v i e n d a , un d e r e ~ s v i o l a d o en e l Peru (Lima: Cuaderno CIDAP no. 2, D ic iembre 1980) , 88 pp.

. E t i e n n e Henry e t a l . , blovimiento de pobladores y centralization (L ima: Cuaderno CIDAP no. 3, A b r i l 1981) , 158 pp.

. A n i l Agarwal , Mud, mud: t h e p o t e n t i a l o f an ea r th -based m a t e r i a l s , Third World Housing (London: Ear thscan, 1981) , 100 pp.

. Jorge E n r i q u e Hardoy e t a l . , A i d f o r human s e t t l e m e n t s i n A f r i c a (Dakar : ENDA o c c a s i o n a l paper no. 64, 1981), 84 pp.

. Aree Va lyasev i & Jean Baker ( e d . ) , Proceedings o f t h e workshop on b r e a s t - feed ing and supplementary foods ( ~ a n g k o k : U n i t e d P r o d u c t i o n Press, 1980), 76 pp.

. Feminine p l u r a l ( I ) on women and educa t ion , (Geneva: IDAC document, 1981 ) 40 PP.

. Feminine p l u r a l (11 ) on women and h e a l t h , (Geneva: IDAC document, 1981) 42 pp.

. From I t i n e r a i r e s , no tes e t t r a v a u x , p u b l i s h e d by t h e Geneva I n s t i t u t e f o r p o s t g radua te development s t u d i e s ( I n s t i t u t u n i v e r s i t a i r e d ' e t u d e s du deve lop - pement) :

- Claude A u r o i , C o n t r a d i c c i o n e s y c o n f l i c t o s en l a re fo rma a g r a r i a peruana: e1 caso de l a SAIS R i o Grande (Puno), mimeo, 80 pp.

- C h r i s t i n e Dabat e t a l . , Femmes e t c o n t r 6 l e des naissances, Refus, c o n t r a i n - t e s e t vecus, mimeo, 119 pp.

- N i c o l a s You, A l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s i n urban development, Some ch inese exper imen ts i n q u e s t f o r an a g r o p o l i t a n space, mimeo, 29 pp.

- Jean-Luc Maurer , c u r i s m and development i n a s o c i o - c u l t u r a l perspecti?, Indones ia as a case study, mimeo, 131 pp.

- E m i l e Ntanyungu e t Francois NIDuhirane, L u r i s m e e t dependance, l e cas de 1 ' A f r i q u e n o i r e , mimeo, 95 pp.

. F u t u r i b l e s , w o p p e m e n t c u l t u r e l , modes d c v i e , p r o j e t s de s o c i 6 t 6 ( P a r i s : A s s o c i a t i o n F u t u r i b l e s , 1981) , Rappor t du 4e c o l l o q u e europeen de p r o s p e c t i v e , 80 pp.

. Rolande C u v i l l i e r , I e r s l a r 6 d u c t i o n du temps de t r s (Geneve: B I T 1981) , 174 pp.

, Dharam Ghai, The cha l lenge o f r u r a l p o v e r t y (Geneva: ILO, 1981) . A p rogress r e p o r t on r e s e a r c h a d v i s o r y s e r v i c e s o f t h e World employment programme- Rura l employment p o l i c i e s branch, 52 pp.

. L o r e t t e Coen, Le v i e i l homme e t l a f o r g t , J a r i : une enc lave en Amazonie (Lausanne: E d i t i o n s P ie r re -Marce l Favre, 1981 ) , 128 pp.

. Biogas f e r t i l i z e r system, Techn ica l r e p o r t on a t r a i n i n g seminar i n China ( N a i r o b i : UNEP Repor ts and Proceedings s e r i e s , 2, 1981), 86 pp.

. Zentrum fur angepasste Technologies und S o z i a l o k o l o g i e , Langenbruch: J a h r e s b e r i c h t (can be o b t a i n e d f rom W i l l y S i e r t e r , Schwengis t rasse 12, 4438 Langenbruck, S w i t z e r l a n d ) . This is the first annual report of the foundation for appropriate technology and social ecology established in Langenbruck, Switzerland, in October 1979. Purpose of the foundation is to promote improvement of the relationships between man and nature through appropriate technology, development of new technological, social and economic models and through experimentation with such models, with special emphasis on low energy and low raw materials profiles.

NATIONAL SPACE

. Homa Ka touz ian , The a g r a r i a n q u e s t i o n i n I r a n (Geneva: I L O World employment programme research , 1981) , mimeo, 46 pp.

. B . B . Vohra, A p o l i c y f o r sand and wa te r ( D e l h i : Gvt o f I n d i a , Opt o f Env i ron - ment, 1981) , 28 pp. Text o f t h e Sardar Pate1 Memorial L e c t u r e d e l i v e r e d i n 1980 by t h e s e c r e t a r y o f t h e Dpt o f pe t ro leum.

. Reza Najafbagy, k d m i s t r a t i v e r e f o r m and management o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o n f l i c t i n I s , ( D e l f t : Founda t ion f o r bus iness a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , 1981), mimeo, 36 pp.

. Sahabat Alam, Development w i t h o u t d e s t r u c t i o n , S t a t e o f t h e Ma lays ian en- v i ronment 1980/81 (Penang, Ma lays ia : F r i e n d s o f t h e Ear th , 1981) , mimeo, 32 pp.

. Ignacy Sachs, " C O G ~ ~ 6co log iques e t soc iaux du ma1d6veloppement1', Econornie e t humanisme (no. 260, j u i l l e t - a o h t 1981) , pp. 3-7 . Editorial d'une section -p-

u r Ie meme theme consacree au cas bresilien.

. Manuel A n t o n i o Gar re ton , "Democratization y o t r o d e s a r r o l l o : e l caso Ch I leno ' i y Fernando Henr ique Cardoso, "El a t o l l a d e r o de 10s regimenes au to - r i t a r i o s : e l caso de S r a s i l " , R e v i s t a mexicana de s o c i o l o g i a (An0 X L I I , v o l . X L I I , no. 3, J u l i o - S e p t i e m b r e 1980) , pp. 1145-1165 y 1167-1214.

. J u l i e t t a Ki rkwood, C h i l e : 1a mu je r en 1a f o r m u l a c i o n p o l i t i c a s ( S a n t i a g o de C h i l e : FLACSO, 1981) , mimeo 16 pp.

. G a b r i e l Valdes, "Por una democracia fundada en l a s o l i d a r i d a d " , A n a l i s i s (no. 37, I V , 1981) , pp. 22-23.

. Frank Ba f foe , The economics of m i g r a t o r y l a b o u r e x p l o i t a t i o n i n S o u t h e r n A f r i c a : I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r m i g r a n t s & s u p p l i e r c o u n t r i e s (Maseru, Lesotho: The I n s t i t u t e o f Labour S t u d i e s , 1981), mimeo, 16 pp.

. T.V. Ramahapu, The c o n t r o l l i n g mechanisms o f t h e mine compound s y s t e m 2 South A f r i c a , (Maseru, Lesotho: The I n s t i t u t e o f Labour S tud ies , 1981), mimeo, 29 PP.

. Mahmoud Ourabah, Programme de syn these de p o l i t i q u e e c o n o m i q u ~ e t ~ i a l ~ ,

N i k h i l C h a k r a v a r t t y , P o l i s h impress ions ( D e l h i : Mainstream, 1981) , 35 pp.

. Annie H a u t e f e u i l l e , " L e modele suedois s u r l a d e f e n s i v e " e t Gosta Rehn, "Les modeles suedois en p e r s p e c t i v e " , F u t u r i b l e s (no. 46, j u i l l e t - a o u t 1981 ) , pp. 43-59

, Yves D u r r i e u , L ' h e r i t a g e de T i t o , 1 ' a u t o g e s t i o n n e c e s s a i r e ( P a r i s : E d i t i o n s Syros, 1981) , 284 pp.

. Gar A l p e r o v i t z & J e f f Faux, "Marching t o D u n k i r k " , The New Repub l i c (21 February 1981) , pp. 14-16.

. C h r i s t i a n L e i p e r t & Udo E. S imonis , S o z i a l i n d i k a t o r e n und En tw ick lungs - p l a n n ( B e r l i n : Techn ica l U n i v e r s i t y , 1981 ) , mimeo, 26 pp.

THIRD WORLD SPACE

. K a r l P. Sauvant, The group o f 77, E v o l u t i o n , z t r u c t u r e , o r g a n i z a t i o n and The c o l l e c t e d documents o f t h e group o f 77, a 5 volume s e t (New York: Oceana P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1981). The book by Sauvant and the 5 volumes collection of documents were undertaken as part of IFDA third system project.

. Yves Lacos te , U n i t e & d i v e r s i t e du T i e r s blonde ( P a r i s : Maspero, 1980) , 3 v o l . 208, 200 e t 208 pp.

. Andre Gunder Frank, C r i s i s i n t h e T h i r d World (New York: Holmes & M e i e r , 1981 ) 396 pp.

. Reg ina ld Herbo ld Green, From S i d w e s t a f r i k a t o Namibia, The p o l i t i c a l economy o f t r a n s i t i o n (Uppsala: The Scand inav ian I n s t i t u t e o f A f r i c a n S tud ies , 1 9 8 1 ) T - 45 PP.

. A l o y s i u s Kgarebe ( e d . ) , g C 2 - M a p u t o , The proceedings o f t h e second Southern A f r i c a n developmentco-ordination Conference (London: SADCC L i a i s o n Committee, 1981 , 287 pp.

. Amon J . Nsekela ( e d . ) , Southern A f r i c a , Toward economic l i b e r a t i o n (London: Rex C o l l i n g s , 1981) , 274 pp.

, Eduardo Galeano, Les ve ines ouver tes de l 1 A m 6 r i q u e L a t i n e , ( P a r i s : P lon , 1981) , 274 pp.

. Fernando Henr ique Cardoso, "Transition p01 i t i c a en America L a t i n a " , Soc ia l i smo y p a r t i c i p a c i o n (no. 14, J u n i o 1981), pp. 19-28.

. Fernando Henr ique Cardoso, "Notes s u r 1a s t r u c t u r e de c l a s s e dans 1es s o c i e t e s c a p i t a l i s t e s a c t u e l l e s " , w q u e L a t i n e (no. 6, e t e 1981) , pp. 3-15.

. Enzo F a l e t t o , B u r o c r a c i a y estado en America L a t i n a (San t iago de C h i l e : FLACSO, 1981) , mimeo, 39 pp.

. F r a n c i s c o Sagas t i y Joseph Hodara, "Maximo H a l t y y e l pensamiento l a t i n o - americano sobre p01 i t i c a c i e n t i f i c a y t e c n o l o g i c a " , comerc io E x t e r i o r ( V o l . 31, no. 5, Mayo 1981), pp. 564-567.

. Rehman Sobhan, "OPEC's p o l i t i c a l o p t i o n s : Case f o r c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e l i a n c e w i t h i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld" , A l t e r n a t i v e s ( V o l . V I I , no. l, Summer 1381) , pp. 43-60.

GLOBAL S P A C E

. Jacques A t t a l i , Les t r o i s mondes - pour une t h e o r i e de l ' a p r e s - c r i s e , ( P a r i s : Fayard, 1981) , 336 pp. Mondes de 1a r e g u l a t i o n , de 1a p r o d u c t i o n e t de l ' o r g a n i s a t i o n .

. Andre Gunder Frank, R e f l e c t i o n s on t h e w o r l d economic c r i s i s (London: Hu tch inson U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , 1981 ) , 192 pp.

. Raul P r e b i s c h , " C a p i t a l i s m o p e r i f e r i c o : c r i s i s y transformation", y Juan Car los Sanchez Arnau, "Este ' d e s a r r o l l o ' y a no s i r v e " , D i a l o g o ibe roamer i cano (Ano 1, no. 1, 1981), pp. 42-45 y 68-69.

. Tamas Szentes, Changing p a t t e r n s o f w o r l d economy (Tokyo: U n i t e d Na t ions U n i v e r s i t y , 1981) , mimeo, 26 pp.

. J . C a b a l l e r o e t a l . , z r n a t i o n a l Monetary Fund p o l i c i e s i n t h e T h i r d World: Case s t u d i e s o f Turkey, Z a i r e and Peru (Norwich: U n i v e r s i t y o f Eas t A n g l i a Development s t u d i e s occas iona l paper no. 8, 1981) , mimeo, 87 pp.

. Wolfgang Roth, "The Arusha i n i t i a t i v e " , Development and Coopera t ion (no. 2, 1981, M a r c h / A p r i l ) , pp. 12-13. Wolfgang Roth, a socialist MP from the Federal K ~ ' ~ ) i i l ) l i c of Germany, was one of the ~articipants in the South-North Conference 1 1 1lir International monetary system and the New International Order organized

by, among others, the Dag Hammarskjold Foundation and IFDA in Arusha, Tanzania, in July 1980 (cf. IFDA Dossier 19 and Development Dialogue (1980:2). Copies of the latter are still available from the Dag ~ammarskjold Foundation, 2 Ovre Slottsgatan, S-752 20 Uppsala, Sweden.

. UN Centre on t r a n s n a t i o n a l c o r p o r a t i o n s , T ransna t iona l Corpora t ions i n t h e copper i n d u s t r y (New York: UN document ST/CTC/21), 80 pp. and Transna t iona l c o r p o r a t i o n s i n food and beverage processi& ( i d . , doc. ST/CTC/19), 242 pp.

. Andras November, Les m6dicaments e t 1e T i e r s Monde (Lausanne: ~ d i t i o n s P ie r re -Marce l Favre, 1981), 214 pp.

. Susan George, Les s t ra tSges de l a f a i m (GenSve: E d i t i o n s Grounauer, 1981).

. Leon Zuraw ick i , M u l t i n a t i o n a l E n t e r p r i s e i n t h e West and East (Alphen aan den R i j n , The Nether lands: S y t h o f f & Noordhof f , 1979), 224 pp.

, Uwe H01 t z , "Empresas mu1 t i nac i onales e desenvol v imento i n t e r n a c i o n a l ", D e s a r r o l l o y Cooperacion (D+C) (no. 2, 1981) pp. 4-6.

. "The t r a n s n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f L a t i n America and t h e m i s s i o n o f t h e churches" , Shar ing , B u l l e t i n of t h e World Counci l o f Churches (no. 5, 1981).

. Marcos Arruda (ed . ) , T ransna t iona l c o r p o r a t i o n s , techno logy and human development (Geneva: World Counci l o f Churches, 1981), 65 pp.

. Reg ina ld Herbold Green, "The Brandt r e p o r t - s u r v i v a l o r programme", B u l l e t i n ( A p r i l 1981, n o l . 12, no. 2) , pp. 62-68. Th is i s s u e a l s o i n c l u d e s comments on t h e Brand t r e p o r t by Frances Stewart , Hans Singer , Cons tan t ine Va i t sos and o t h e r s .

. Kenneth Hermele, Sweden and t h e T h i r d World, Development A i d and C a p i t a l i nvo lvment (Uppsala: AKUT, S t Olovsg 9, 1981), 32 pp.

. Paula R . Newberg, The p o l i t i c s of human r i g h t s (New York: U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1981). With papers from Richard Falk, Graciela Chichilnisky and H.S.D. Cole, Richard Barnet. Many of the essays in this volume were commissioned initially as background material and analysis for a UNA-USA panel on the role of human rights in USA foreign policy.

. D i e t e r E r n s t (ed.) , " I n d u s t r i a l redeployment and i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a n s f e r of techno logy : t r e n d s and p01 i c y i ssues" , w e 1 j a h r e s b e r i c h t e ( s p e c i a l i s s u e s ) no. 83, Marz 1981), pp. 13-49. (Forschungs I n s t i t u t de r F r i e d r i c h E b e r t S t i f t u n g , Bonn).

. K.W. Menck e t a l . , "Prospects o f t h e w o r l d models f o r t h e t h i r d development decade", Economics, a b iannua l c o l l e c t i o n o f r e c e n t German c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e f i e l d o f economic sc ience ( V o l . 23), pp. 116-142.

. C h r i s t i a n L e i p e r t & Udo E. Simonis, S o z i a l i n d i k a t o r e n und En tw ick lungs- p lanung ( B e r l i n : Techn ica l U n i v e r s i t y , 1981 ) , mimeo, 26 pp.

. Europa e America L a t i n a i n un nuovo o r d i n e i n t e r n a z i o n a l e (Rome: IPALMO, 1981) , 149 pp.

. The f u t u r e o f communication and c u l t u r a l i d e n t i t y i n an in te rdependen t w o r l d (Stockholm: World F u t u r e S tud ies F e d e r a t i o n , 1981 ) , 164 pp.

. Juan Somavia, "Democrat izac ion y t r a n s n a c i o n a l e s en America L a t i n a " , D e s a r r o l l o y Cooperacion ( D C ) (no. 2, 1981) .

. Le T i e r s Monde de l a 6eme .3 l a 3eme, w m e n t se f a i t l a r e n c o n t r e avec l e T i e r s Monde dans l e s manuels H is to i re -Geogra f i? ( P a r i s : Ecole e t T i e r s Monde, 1981 ) , 134 pp.

. World i n d u s t r y i n 1980 (Vienna: U n i t e d Na t ions , l 9 8 l ) , 274 pp.

PERIODICALS

. I n t e r n a t i o n a l women's t r i b u n e c e n t r e , ( N e w s l e t t e r no. 15, 1981) : Women, m o n e y Y o r k , NY 10017, USA).

. AFSC Women's N e w s l e t t e r , (Spring-Summer 1981) : Women and g l o b a l c o r p o r - a t i o n s , Work, r o l e s and r e s i s t a n c e . (1501 Cher ry S t . P h i l a d e l p h i a , PA 19102)

. IDOC B u l l e t i n , ( n o . 7, 1981) : T r a n s n a t i o n a l p o i s o n i n g . ( V i a S. Mar ia d e l l ' Anima 30, 00186 Rome, I t a l y ) .

. Minka, (no. 6, 1981) : Nos envenenamos. (Apdo 222, Huancayo, Peru ) .

. Man & Development, ( V o l . Ill, no. 2, 1981) : - Gerard de B e r n i s , "The Brand t Repor t : Some search f o r s o l v i n g t h e c r i s i s w i t h i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t o r d e r " . - F r e d e r i c k F. C la i rmon te , " R e a l i t i e s o f t h e New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order " . - Tamas Szentes, "The S t r a t e g i c i ssues of NIEO and G loba l n e g o t i a t i o n s . (95, I n d u s t r i a l Area, Chandigarh-160002, I n d i a ) .

. N e w s l e t t e r o f I n t e r n a t i o n a l Labour Centre, (No. 11, 1981) : Poland So l ida rnosc . ( G a l i l e i s t r a a t 130, 2561 TK The Hague, Ne ther lands ) .

. Peace news f o r n o n v i o l e n t r e v o l u t i o n , (no. 2147, 1981) : P l o g o f f r e s i s t s n u c l e a r power, ( 8 Elm Avenue, Not t ingham 3, Eng land) .

. Labor, (no. 2, 1981) : Tecnologia ap ropr iada . ( C a l l e Montev ideo 152, C a s i T I a 2 0 4 1 0 , La Paz, B o l i v i a ) .

. Contemporary Marxism, (no. 3, Summer 1981) : R e v o l u t i o n and i n t e r v e n t i o n i n C e n t r a l America. ( I n s t i t u t e f o r t h e Study o f Labor and Economic C r i s i s , 608 Tarava l s t r e e t , San F ranc isco , C a l i f o r n i a 94116, USA).

rÃ‘ 1Ã‘ U N N N

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U 0 1 c c > '7 m -iÃ

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c n a) aJ "l .,- L ff U aJ m n -

L -3

0 (U n L +-> c c 0 W .,- 4-Ã aJ m c "l c .i- aJ 7 '7

m L .,- '(U L C1 +-> 7

O W W N N N

W 'l- .- $

Bergh, T., w i t h Hanish, T.J., Lange, E. and Pharo, H.@.

B i r 6 , Andras

Bodar, L a s z l o

Brewster , Havelock M. R.

Growth and developpement: The Norwegian exper ience 1830-1 980

Peasant i n Power: A rev iew 1 8

The v a l u e o f energy d e c i s i o n s 20

Global commons and g l o b a l waste lands: An i d e a f o r u n i f y i n g t h e approach t o a new w o r l d resource 22 t r a n s f e r system

de Bruyn, Jac e t Jacobs, Roger

Bunster , A l v a r o

CE DA

Center f o r Research on t h e NIEO, w i t h Sengupta, A r j u n

C h i c h i l n i s k y , G r a c i e l a

C h i c h i l n i s k y , G., w i t h Fa1 k, R. , and Ser ra , Jose

Cisse, Ben Mahdi

CODESRIA

Le mouvement de base 20

Human r i g h t s : Bases f o r a new system of safeguards 20

Le Centre d S 6 t u d e s p o u r l e d6veloppement a f r i c a i n 2 3

A rev iew o f t h e North-South n e g o t i a t i n g process: Assessment and p01 i cy conc l us ions 1 8

North-South in terdependence, development and t r a d e 18

A u t h o r i t a r i a n i s m and development: A g l o b a l p e r s p e c t i v e 19

Vers un d6veloppement p a r t i c i p e en m i l i e u u r b a i n 20

S t r a t e g i e s f o r t h e f u t u r e o f A f r i c a 20

Peace Char te r 22 Codogan, P e t e r

C o l l i n s , Joseph, w i t h K i n l e y , D. and Lapp6, Frances Moore

A i d t h a t d o e s n ' t 20

Comercio E x t e r i o r de Mexi CO

( E n g l i s h ed.), vo l .26, no.7 SAM: The Mexican f o o d system 2 5

I ssues i n community o r g a n i z a t i o n 2 3 Cons tan t ino - David, K a r i n a

Consumers' A s s o c i a t i o n o f Penang, w i t h I n s t i t u t Masyarakat

Kuala J u r u - A p e o p l e ' s c o o p e r a t i v e 25

Cot, Jean-Pi e r re

Deboste, Mi chel

Deelstra, T jeerd

Dernoi, L.A.

De Si l va, Lee1 ananda

Dixon-Fyle, Ri t a Kashope

Earthscan

Ekelund. T o r a l f

El-Kholy, Ossama

Elmandjra, Mahdi

Evers, Ben

Falk, Richard

Fazal, Anwar

Fer re i ra , F. Whitaker

FIPAD

La nouvel l e p01 i t i q u e f ranca ise de cooperation pour l e developpement

(see Elmandjra, Mahdi)

Planning f o r the urban ecosphere

Towards a new s t y l e i n North-South re la t i ons : The example of a l t e r n a t i v e tour ism (AT)

Basic needs, poverty and government p o l i c i e s i n S r i Lanka (P. Richards and W. Gooneratne) ( A review)

Technology, "another education" and development i n A f r i c a

Water and s a n i t a t i o n f o r a l l ?

P o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r vo luntary reduct ion o f p r i v a t e consumption and changes i n l i f e s t y l e s

The winds o f change - From an in format ion embargo t o a nat iona l survey o f in format ion needs and resources i n Egypt.

On ne f i n i t pas d'apprendre

I n d u s t r i a l r e s t r u c t u r i n g and development cooperation i n the Netherlands

(see Chich i ln isky , Grac ie la)

B rave and angry - The i n te rna t i ona l consumer movement's response t o TNCs

Pour une eva luat ion du p r o j e t des journees i n t e r nat iona les . Pourquoi e s t - i l necessaire de l e cont inuer

Index des a r t i c l e s pub l ies dans l e Dossier FIPAD, nos. 1-16

Index des a r t i c l e s pub l ies dans l e Dossier nos.17-26

Materiaux pour d ' autres s t ra teg ies de developpement

Repertoire annote des a c t i v i t e s dans l e contexts du P r o j e t t i e r s systsme

M

I A

I A

I A

BB

I A

BB

BB

I A

B B

I A

BB

IND

IND

BB

FIPAD (Espafiol ) . I n d i c e anatado de a c t i v i d a d e s en e l c o n t e x t 0 d e l P royec to t e r c e r s i sterna 17 IND

. I n d i c e de a r t i c u l o s pub l i cados en 10s Documentos FIPAD, nos. 1-16 17 IND

. I n d i c e de a r t i c u l o s pub l i cados en 10s Documentos FIPAD, nos. 17-26

. L a d r i 110s para e s t r a t e g i a s a1 t e r n a t i v a s de d e s a r r o l l o

26 IND

17 BB

26 I A

2 2 I A

19 I A

23 I A

24 I A

1 8 I A

F i l i p i n o peasants Fear and a n x i e t y and h a t e we s t i l l keep

F o r s t e r , Simone Donald 1 ' impos teur ou 1 ' i m p e r i a l isme racon te aux e n f a n t s

Frank, Andre Gunder A p roposa l f o r research on d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n

F r i edman, Yona

George, M ike

Un c o n t i n g e n t pour 1a f o n c t i o n p u b l i q u e ?

Arms, t h e economy and employment

Gooneratne, W., w i t h Richards, P.

B a s i c needs, p o v e r t y and government p01 i c i es i n S r i Lanka (A rev iew by Leelananda de S i l v a )

Greig, A lan A l e t t e r f rom t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f Work Cooperat ives o f New South Wales ( A u s t r a l i a )

Grupp A1 t e r n a t i v i , w i t h S e r r a c i n o I n g l o t t , P e t e r

Gupta, A n i l K.

An a l t e r n a t i v e f u t u r e f o r M a l t a

. Gree t ings and comments

. React ions t o p rev ious Doss ie rs : Excerp ts f rom l e t t e r s

Hamel e t , Jean-Cl aude P r o j e t de c r e a t i o n e t de fonct ionnement d ' u n a t e l i e r d ' i n n o v a t i o n s s o l i d a i r e s

(See Bergh, T. ) Hanish, T.J.

Henderson, Hazel . P l a n e t a r y n e t w o r k i n g

. The lesson f rom OPEC

. The p o l i t i c s o f t h e s o l a r age

Huber, Joseph

IBFAN

S o c i a l ecology and dual economy

B r e a s t i s Bes t : The WHO i n t e r n a t i o n a l code o f m a r k e t i n g o f b r e a s t - m i l k s u b s t i t u t e s

ICFTU

I FDA

A statement of i n t e n t - The Delhi Declaration 24

. Annotated l i s t of a c t i v i t i e s of t he Third System Pro jec t 17

. Building blocks f o r a1 t e rna t ive development s t r a t e g i e s 17

. Index o f papers published i n IFDA Dossiers 1-16 17

. Index of papers published i n IFDA Dossiers 17-26 26

. The Arusha i n i t i a t i v e : A c a l l f o r a U N conference on in ternat ional money and f inance 19

BB

IND

IND

M

( s ee Grupp A1 t e r n a t i v i ) I n g l o t t , Pe t e r Serrac ino

I n s t i t u t Masyarakat Behad (see Consumers' Association o f Penang)

In ternat ional Commission of J u r i s t s

Development human r igh t s and t h e ru l e of law 26

In ternat ional Labour Studies Labour movement tourism won ' t s t op mul t ina t ionals 19

In ternat ional Organization o f Consumers Union (IOCU)

I UNS

The new wave of the i n t e rna t iona l consumer movement 26

Who i s ignorant? Rethinking food and nu t r i t i on education under changing soci o-economi c conditions

25

Jacobs, Roger

Judet , P i e r r e

(see de Bruyn, J a c )

Consequences soc i a l e s de 1 ' i n d u s t r i a l i s a t i on dans l e s pays du Tiers Monde

20

Concentration in i ndus t r i a l s e c t o r : Achi l les ' heel 22 of land reform

Kabra, Kamal Nayan

Kadja, Daniel Probl6matique de 1 'eau en milieu rura l i vo i r i en e t aspects m6thodologiques de l ' an imat ion ru ra l e

2 3

. Value f o r people: The potent ia l r o l e of a consumer l 8 movement i n t he Third World

Khor Kok Peng

. Economics, development and the consumer 2 4

Co-opting Frei r e : A c r i t i c a l analys is of pseudo- 2 4 Frei rean adu l t education

Kidd, Ross, with Kumar, Krishna

Kinley, David ( see Col1 i n s , Joseph)

Ki tchen , R ichard L. AI t e r n a t i v e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r h a n d l i n g ba lance o f payments and d e b t c r i s e s : A T h i r d World monetary fund

Kok, W. w i t h Pronk, J.P. , T inbergen, J . and den Uyl , J.P.

Kumar, K r i shna

Lange, E.

Lappe , Frances Moore

A new w o r l d employment p l a n

(see Kidd, Ross)

(see Bergh, T. )

. (see C o l l i n s , Joseph)

. The p o p u l a t i o n f i x

L a t i n American Consul t a t i o n on Transna t iona l Corps.

Leeper, Donald S.

The ITAICI Message

L e t t u c e : 1 food, 2 money, 3 energy

Lorenzo, Raymond, w i t h N icho lson , Simon

MacCal l, B r i a n

The p o l i t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s o f c h i l d p a r t i c i p a t i o n : Steps towards a p a r t i c i p a t o r y s o c i e t y

The t r a n s i t i o n toward s e l f - r e l i a n c e : Some thoughts on t h e r o l e o f p e o p l e ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n s

Ma i r , L u c i l l e M. New I n t e r n a t i o n a l Economic Order : What does development r e a l l y mean t o women

M a l i k , B a l j i t

Marga I n s t i t u t e

An As ian panorama o f peasant oppress ion

Cooperat ion f o r development i n South Asia: A programme o f sub- reg iona l c o l l e c t i v e s e l f - r e 1 i a n c e

No woman, no c r y M a t t i s , Ann R.

Max-Neef, Manfred A. Proposal f o r t h e c r e a t i o n i n B r a z i l o f a c e n t r e f o r t h e s t u d y and promot ion o f urban and r u r a l a l t e r n a t i v e s

Mi got-Adhol l a, S. E.

M i l l s , Son ia

Towards a1 t e r n a t i v e t o u r i s m i n Kenya

T h i r d World: The novel as a t o o l i n t h e search f o r a new i n f o r m a t i o n o r d e r

Mudal i , Danieul

Nicholson, Simon

NIEO Youth

Small f i shermen meet a t Kuantan, Ma lays ia

(see Lorenzo, Raymond)

S o c i o - c u l t u r a l i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r Europe o f ano ther development model i n t h e 80s: A p r o j e c t on p a r t i c i p a t i o n

Odle, Mauri ce A. "Overcompensation o r e x p r o p r i a t i o n ? " F o r e i g n investments i n t h e T h i r d Wor ld

Padron, Mar io, w i t h Scurrah, M a r t i n J.

Pasca l lon , P i e r r e

Passar i s , Solange

Pharo, H . @ .

P i e t i l a , H i l k k a

Sel f-management as a development a1 t e r n a t i v e : R e f l e c t i o n s on t h e Peruv ian exper ience

I n t e r r o g a t i o n s s u r 1e determin isme du developpement

Les enjeux de l a v i e a s s o c i a t i v e en France

(see Bergh, T.)

A p roposa l f o r a disarmament s t r a t e g y of women and o t h e r c i t i z e n s

The a p p r o p r i a t e techno logy o f food p r o t e i n P i r i e , N.W.

Murder o f Wa l te r Rodney: " D o n ' t mourn" Pre iswerk, Roy

Premier Congres de 1 ' A s s o c i a t i o n mondia le de p e r s p e c t i v e s o c i a l e

D e c l a r a t i o n de Dakar

Pronk, J.P. (see Kok, W. )

. I n d u s t r i a l i s a t i o n o f T h i r d Wor ld f o r b e n e f i t o f TNCs o r peop le?

. Technology: T h i r d Wor ld can cure o r c o n t r o l d iseases w i t h p r o p e r d rug p01 i c i e s

Raghavan, Chakravar th i

Raumol i n , J u s s i

Richards, P .

Robert, Juan

Development problems i n t h e Scandinavian p e r i p h e r y

(see Gooneratne, W . )

Como produc i r sus p rop ios a l imentos en l a c iudad: La e x p e r i e n c i a de l a casa e c o l o g i c a

Black i s t h e c o l o r o f my TV t u b e Robi nson, Cl aude

Ruyter , Theo

Sachs

A new w o r l d employment p l a n : An a l t e r n a t i v e Dutch view

. A t i m e l y i n i t i a t i v e (commentary on a new w o r l d employment p l a n )

. L 'economie cachee: Esquisse d 'une p rob lemat ique

Saldanha, Matanhy

Santa Cruz, Adr iana

No more I n d i a n seafood

Las mujeres toman l a p a l a b r a : Una comunicaci6n a1 t e r n a t i v a femenina

Savane, M a r i e Angel ique

Sch i ray , M iche l e t S i g a l , S i l v i a

Schor i , P i e r r e

Scurrah, M a r t i n J.

Seetharan, K.

Senghor, Di ana

Sengupta, A r j u n

Serra, Jose

Shihata, I b r a h i m

Shiva, V.

S i ga l , S i l v i a

SIPRI Yearbook 1981

Somavia, Juan

Nobel P r i z e w inners

Swan-Lai t, Kwee

Thorsson, I n g a

Tinbergen, J.

den Uy l , J.M.

Ventura, A rno ldo K.

Vyasulu, Vinod

Zabol ai-Csekme, Eva

Z i e g l e r , Jean

L ' e m p l o i des femmes dans une p e r s p e c t i v e de changements soc iaux e t de l i b e r a t i o n des femmes: 25 BB Le cas de 1 ' A f r i q u e

. Exper iences 18 I A

. Exper iences 19 I A

C e n t r a l American dilemma 23 BB

(see Padron, Mar io )

(see Bandyopadhyay, J. )

Les femmes: Premieres c i v i l i s a t r i c e s e t premieres t r a v a i l l e u s e s de 1 'humani t 6

(see Centre f o r Research on t h e NIEO)

(see C h i c h i l n i s k y , G r a c i e l a )

OPEC and t h e T h i r d World

(see Bandyopadhyay, J . )

(see Schi ray, Mi che l )

US$500,000,000 a t o u r r i s k s and expenses

. Una p e r s p e c t i v a Lat inoamer icana. L i b e r a c i 6 n y autonomia en l a decada d e l 80

. Global n e g o t i a t i o n s : W a i t i n g f o r Godot?

Man i fes to o f Nobel P r i z e w inners

Pugwash and t h e T h i r d System

The doomsday c l o c k c l o s e r t o t w e l v e

(see Kok, W.)

(see Kok, W.)

The myth o f p r i v a t e business i n T h i r d Wor ld c o u n t r i e s 18 I A 114-116

A l t e r n a t e development s t r a t e g i e s f o r Koraput 26 BB 29-40

The women's movement a f t e r Copenhagen 2 1 BB 13-19

L ' e v i c t i o n de Joseph Ki-Zerbo 19 I A 123-124

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