US Tourist View on Vietnam

This article was downloaded by: [14.161.10.33]On: 19 December 2011, At: 02:30Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office:Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism ResearchPublication details, including instructions for authors and subscriptioninformation:http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rapt20

Image of Vietnam held by US tourists: InitialinquiryTran-tuan-Hung a , Ingrid E. Schneider a & William C. Gartner ba Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, USAb Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota, USA

Available online: 02 Feb 2007

To cite this article: Tran-tuan-Hung, Ingrid E. Schneider & William C. Gartner (2006): Image of Vietnam heldby US tourists: Initial inquiry, Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 11:2, 147-159

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941660600727509

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

This article may be used for research, teaching, and private study purposes. Any substantialor systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling, loan, sub-licensing, systematic supply, ordistribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that thecontents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae,and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall notbe liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand, or costs or damages whatsoever orhowsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of thismaterial.

http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rapt20

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10941660600727509

http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions

Image of Vietnam Held by US Tourists:Initial Inquiry

Tran-tuan-Hung1�, Ingrid E. Schneider1 and William C. Gartner2

1Department of Forest Resources, University of Minnesota, USA2Department of Applied Economics, University of Minnesota, USA

Global tourism, although affected by international terrorism events and contagiousdisease, remains relatively robust and still performs important economic and socialfunctions. Asian nations can and should take the potential of foreign tourists seriously.One nation of particular interest is Vietnam. However, the image of Vietnam as atourist destination is assumed to be relatively unknown, especially among US tourists.Given the critical nature of image as it relates to marketing and development, this is aserious void. The purpose of this project was to examine the image of Vietnam amongthe attractive US market. Utilizing a combined quantitative and qualitative approach,an on-site questionnaire to US tourists revealed they are mature, affluent and welleducated. Factor analysis of quantitative items revealed four key elements in Vietnam’simage: world heritage sites; atmosphere and attractions; service value; and quality.Content analysis of open-ended questions supported and extended this image bydescribing Vietnam’s unique attributes as the world heritage sites, an exciting experienceand positive emotion. Common elements included the food, friendly people and beauty.Utilizing this approach, it is possible to conduct a competitor evaluation. Implications formarketers and developers are presented.

Key words: Vietnam, image, continuum analysis, resource-based tourism

Introduction

Global tourism, although affected by inter-

national terrorism events and contagious

disease, remains relatively robust, has shown

the ability to recover from negative impacts

and still performs important economic and

social functions. The world tourism barometer

demonstrates that global tourism has

improved after the 11 September 2001 ter-

rorist attacks and the following year’s SARS

epidemic (WTO, 2003). The Pacific Asia

region has emerged as a strong region of

tourism growth, where international arrivals

Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, Vol. 11, No. 2, June 2006

� E-mail: [email protected]

ISSN 1094-1665 print/ISSN 1741-6507 online/06/020147–13 # 2006 Asia Pacific Tourism Association

DOI: 10.1080/10941660600727509

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

to Northeast Asia increased by 3% and to

Southeast Asia by 5.2% (PATA Region,

2002). Asian nations can and should take the

potential of foreign tourists seriously. One

nation of particular interest is Vietnam.

Vietnam, located in Southeast Asia, has a

population of 78,685,800 in an area of

329,241 km2. The Vietnamese economy is

historically based on agricultural and mari-

time products. Recent cultural and societal

achievements indicate the stability and

serious orientation of Vietnamese develop-

ment, which includes tourism. Several contex-

tual factors create a rich tourism destination

in Vietnam: the historical and cultural extent

of 4,000 years of civilization; 3,260 km of

seashore; 246,931 km of territory covered

with hills and mountainous forest; and a

moderate climate. Although the numbers of

recorded foreign tourists are smaller than

found in neighboring Thailand and Malaysia,

they reflect a constant increase of 11.5%

since 2000 (Table 1). Vietnam is externally

recognized as a safe and friendly destination

(Vietnam Optimistic, 2003). In 2003, the

Vietnam National Administration of

Tourism cooperated with tourist companies

and provincial tourist departments to organize

tourist fairs (in Ha-Noi and Da-Nang cities),

festivals (in Nha-Trang and Sa-pa cities) and

sports-related tourism. Also, Vietnam has

invited many European, Australian and

Japanese correspondents and tourist compa-

nies to participate in familiarization trips and

has launched new publicity campaigns (Tong

Cuc Du Lich, 2003a; VnExpress, 2003).

Possessing historical, cultural and natural

resources, Vietnamese tourism offers nume-

rous products to US tourists. Historical attrac-

tions include the remaining citadel of ancient

royal dynasties, Hue Imperial City (world

heritage site), a mythical one-pillar pagoda

and the battlefield of Dien-Bien-Phu (relating

to the French occupation), McNamara

electronic fence, and the Cu-Chi tunnels.

Moreover, the current reconstruction of the

Table 1 The Main Tourist Markets of Vietnam

Viet-Nam’s Top 5

International

Tourist Markets 1999 2000 2001 2002

1 China China China China

484,102 626,476 672,846 724,385

2 USA Taiwan USA Japan

210,377 212,370 230,470 279,769

3 Taiwan USA Japan USA

173,920 208,642 204,860 259,967

4 Japan Japan Taiwan Taiwan

113,514 152,755 200,061 211,072

5 France Cambodia France France

86,026 124,557 99,700 111,546

Source: Tong Cuc Du Lich (2003b).

148 Tran-tuan-Hung et al.

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

historical Ho-Chi-Minh trail also promises

historic tours especially for US veterans.

Regarding the cultural base for tourism, the

stamp of Vietnam civilization is manifested

through a large collection of typical temples,

the ancient town of Hoi-An, and My-Son

sanctuary of Cham people (both world

heritage sites). Vietnamese tourism is focusing

on traditional festivals as a comparative

tourism advantage. Handicraft villages such

as Bat-Trang porcelain, Duy-Xuyen silk, Ngu-

Hanh-Son stone, or Dong-Nai artistic articles

provide tourists with plenty of cultural

markers to take as souvenirs. Natural resources

offer many beautiful scenes throughout the land

of Vietnam, such as Hai-Van pass, Ha-Long

bay and Phong Nha–Ke Bang National Park

(both the latter are world heritage sites).

Beaches are abundant and easily accessible.

With an interlacing system of rivers and

canals in the Mekong delta, tourists can take a

sampan trip to watch scenes of Vietnamese

activities and view bird species in many sanctu-

aries. Others destinations include Ba-Na resort,

where tourists can inspire themselves with the

fresh air at an altitude of 500 m, or Vam-Sat

forest and Binh-Chau hot spring, which the

World Tourism Organization has recently cer-

tified as world sites of sustainable ecotourism.

An attractive market for Vietnam is the

USA. In 2002, the US travel services market

was US$157 billion. Thus, the number of US

tourists represents an important potential

market for many international destinations

(Euromonitor International, 2003). For

Vietnam, however, its image as a potential

tourist destination is relatively unknown,

especially among US tourists. Although

Blaine et al. (1995) proposed image research

for Vietnam in the mid-1990s, it was never

conducted. Given the critical nature of image

for marketing and development, this is a

serious void. Thus, this research will advance

destination image research by extending

existing work (Choi et al., 1999; Hui &

Wan, 2003) to Vietnam. Further, Vietnamese

marketers can use the information to develop

tourism to the US market and to understand

how Vietnam compares with some of its

regional competitors.

Defining Image

Based on various disciplines and objectives,

many definitions of destination image have

emerged. Amongst them, one focus is the

overall impression of an object. An early defi-

nition of image was given by Hunt, who stated

that the (state) tourism image is the “impression

that a person or persons hold about a state in

which they do not live in” (as cited in Gartner

& Hunt, 1987, p. 15). Based on this foundation,

Fridgen (1984) established the concept of

tourism image as a spiritual representation of

thing or place through instrumental investi-

gations. Beyond that, because image can

describe the total impression of an entity,

Dichter (1985) suggested scholars should

specifically pay attention to overall impression.

Thus, although projected from the perception of

the subject itself, image is an overall impression

of an object. Similarly, Milman & Pizam (1995)

defined destination image as the visual or

mental impression that people hold from a

place or even an experience. Thus, tourism

image is “influenced by individual’s perception

of alternative possibilities and viability of such

perception” (Kim, 1998, p. 341).

Image has another interpretation that rests

in the concepts of cognition and affection. In

differentiating attitudinal tendencies with

image construct, Mazursky & Jacoby (1986)

defined image as a set of cognitions and/or

effects that are inferred from ongoing percep-

tions and/or memory inputs attaching to a

Image of Vietnam Held by US Tourists 149

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

phenomenon. Thus, image is a perceptive

phenomenon formed through the subject’s

interpretation, whether reasoned (cognitive)

or emotional (affective) (Dobni & Zinkhan,

1990). Similarly, in the domain of behavioral

geography, Jenkins (1999) also implied that

the concept of image included all the associ-

ated impressions and knowledge (cognition),

emotions (affection), values and beliefs.

These elements influence image positively

and negatively, with negative images being

an obvious challenge to attracting tourists

(Schneider & Sonmez, 1999).

Another conceptual approach to tourism

image is the emphasis on the composite nature

of the image construct. A definition of image

that many scholars refer to is Crompton’s

(1979, p. 18), where image is defined as a “set

or sum of beliefs, ideas, and impressions that

people have of a place or object”. Clearly, the

image processes to a “mental construction

(remembrances and imaginations) of events

[or] objects that have [occurred] or might

be encountered” (Woods, 1981, p. 196).

Compared with the focus on cognition and

affection, and particularly on overall

impression, this composite approach is more

focused on the individual’s level of knowledge

and experience. Similar in concept “compo-

site” but different in object from Crompton,

Gartner (1993) and MacKay & Fesenmaier

(1997) affirmed tourism image as a composite

of various products (attractions) with their

attributes woven into a total impression.

Image Theory

Based on the literature of Gunn (1972),

Jenkins (1999) and Gartner (1993), image

theory provides a basis for this research.

Gartner’s seven-stage theory represents how

images are built, modified and conceived as

organic, induced and autonomous formation

agents. Following Gunn and Jenkins, an

organic image consists of what a person has

accumulated from past travel experiences.

Fakeye & Crompton (1991) concurred, and

stated that the organic image is an awareness

of place that emerged before the interference of

destination promoters; but since the order of

information cannot be controlled, an organic

image, based on visitation or information

received from acquaintances who have

visited the destination, may be completely

different from any pre-trip induced images

held. Because image(s) held lead to anticipated

experiences, the destination decision stage is

reached after taking into consideration time,

money and value constraints.

By directly integrating and experiencing the

destination, a person opens all senses that

influence the creation of a pure organic

image. During recall, evaluation and discus-

sion with others on the same trip, a recon-

structed image is formed based on

synthesized experiences. Hence, destination

image may remain similar or completely

different from the first pre-trip image(s) held.

Some researchers refer to an organic image

formed from actual visitation as “reproductive

image” (Denis, 1991, p. 34), where Phelps

(1986) named it as primary in nature.

Whatever terms are used to describe the

resulting destination image formed from

visitation, it is an organic image.

Image Structure

Image structure includes the product (e.g.

quality), the host’s attitude (e.g. communi-

cation) and the environment (e.g. facilities)

(Milman & Pizam, 1995) of a destination.

As a result, both simple and complex image

structures have evolved.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

Image structure ranges from unidimensional

to multidimensional. Gartner & Hunt (1987)

suggested that perception is the most

grounded dimension to establish image struc-

ture. Beyond a unidimensional structure,

other scholars identify image with two psycho-

logical areas: cognition and affect (Assael,

1981; Hanyu, 1993; Russell et al., 1989;

Russell & Pratt, 1980; Zimmer & Golden,

1988). However, Echtner & Ritchie (1991,

1993) suggested that three dimensions exist:

(1) the place image (attribute versus holistic);

(2) functional (tangible) and the psychological

(abstract) characteristics; and (3) common or

unique features of the place. “Functional”

here is understood as observable or measur-

able characteristics (e.g. price, climate), while

“psychological” refers to less tangible charac-

teristics (e.g. atmosphere, romance of setting).

Also, the functional characteristics may be

common (that is, comparable to other desti-

nations, e.g. type of hotels, climate) or

unique (that is, defined as icon and special

events, e.g. pyramid, national music festival).

Similarly, psychological characteristics may

be common or identified as abstract attributes

(e.g. friendliness, notoriety or beauty of land-

scape), or unique or determined as emotional

attributes (e.g. feelings associated with reli-

gious or historical places and destinations

(Jenkins, 1999)). Both categories and aspects

form the third image dimension. In short,

this model consists of three dimensions

containing attribute/holistic, functional/

psychological and unique/common images.

Image Measurement

Researchers have utilized various methods to

assess destination image. The majority of

researchers traditionally used an attribute list

to measure the functional elements of destina-

tion such as attractions, facilities, etc.

(Echtner & Ritchie, 1991, 1993).

Quantitative approaches use standardized

instruments and are easy to manage

(Pizam & Mansfeld, 1999). Most of these sta-

tistical procedures involve bivariate methods

of t-test and correlation or multivariate

methods of factor analysis, cluster analysis,

analyses of variance (ANOVAs) and multi-

variate analysis of variance (MANOVAs).

Structured methodologies have been, tra-

ditionally, the choice of image researchers,

from which the measures for the cognitive

and affective image of destination are easily

derived. Gartner (1996), in relating scale tech-

niques to factor analysis, also discussed that

they hold a function of data-reduction and

allow for image exploration. Meanwhile,

Baloglu & Brinberg (1997) and Walmsley &

Young (1998) argued that the semantic

differential scaling methods have been prefer-

able for measuring affective image.

In contrast, qualitative approaches allow for

liberal descriptions and enable the capture of

the holistic components of image (Pizam &

Mansfeld, 1999). Data for qualitative assess-

ments are usually collected from focus

groups, in-depth interviews, or open-ended

questionnaires. As a free-form description of

image measurement, the success of this

approach “depends upon the verbal and/or

writing skills of the individuals participating

in the study, their knowledge of the product,

and their willingness to provide multiple

responses” (Pizam & Mansfeld, 1999,

p. 215). Another tool for this unstructured

approach is the continuum analysis proposed

by Echtner & Ritchie (1991), which Choi

et al. (1999) successfully adapted and other

researchers replicated (e.g. Hui & Wan, 2003).

A combined approach of quantitative and

qualitative assessment that uses factor analysis

and continuum analysis was deemed most


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

useful in this research (Choi et al., 1999;

Hui & Wan, 2003). This approach allowed

the authors to incorporate functional-psycho-

logical attributes from the attribute list with

functional-psychological holistic images, and

common and unique components from open-

ended questions. Utilizing this approach,

several image factors should emerge, offering

a three-dimensional view of image that is

more complete than either method utilized

alone. Further, this will also allow for image

comparisons between competing regional

tourism destinations.

Methods

Questionnaire Development

Both quantitative and qualitative responses

appear necessary to measure accurately destina-

tion image (Echtner & Ritchie, 1993). There-

fore, in light of Choi et al. (1999), Schneider

& Sonmez (1999), Sonmez & Sirakaya (2002)

and Hui & Wan (2003), an on-site question-

naire for US tourists to Vietnam was developed.

The on-site questionnaire allows the current,

organic image of Vietnam to be captured. As

US tourists are in the act of visitation, they are

not influenced by other sources in the post-

visitation phase (i.e. complex image). The

questionnaire was pre-tested with a group of

potential visitors and several questions were

reworded to ease comprehension. The final

questionnaire consisted of four sections with a

total of 16 main questions.

The first section contained six questions on

general travel experiences. The questions

focused on the number of trips abroad,

number of trips to Asia and Vietnam, and

year of the first trip to Vietnam. In addition

to travel purpose, the primary information

source prior to the current trip was queried.

The second section contained a quantitative

subset of 24 items adapted from Choi et al.

(1999) and Hui & Wan (2003). A seven-point

Likert scale, rating from one, strongly disagree,

to seven, strongly agree, measured the func-

tional and psychological attributes of image.

For instance, respondents defined their levels

of disagreement or agreement that “cultural

activities are available” or “Vietnam is not a

good place for shopping”. To capture the func-

tional, psychological, holistic and unique com-

ponents of Vietnamese tourism, the third

section adapted three open-ended questions

proposed by Echtner & Ritchie (1993). These

questions allow participants to list words

freely about Vietnam’s images or characteri-

stics, atmosphere or mood, and distinctive or

unique attractions. The fourth section included

six socio-demographic questions: state of

residence, sex, age, education and annual

income. Intention to return was also queried.

Sample and Sampling

Questionnaires were distributed to a con-

venient sample of US tourists in Vietnam

from January 2003 to April 2004. As the

tourist season in Vietnam is from September

to May, the timing of the survey was

optimal. Trained and cooperating tour guides

in Da-Nang city (Central Vietnam) presented

self-administered questionnaires to 100 US

tourists in Vietnam on the last day of their

guided tours. All visitors asked to complete

the questionnaires complied with the request

(n ¼ 100). Notably, these guides were not

associated with a particular guiding company

and could be solicited by any tourist

company, thus reducing any dependency bias.

The voluntary nature of the questionnaire

was explained prior to the US tourists’ invita-

tion to participate in the research. To enhance


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

the probability of responses, an incentive of

US$1 was included when the questionnaire

was distributed.

Data Analysis

Using SPSS software, data were entered,

cleaned and analyzed. Descriptive and

factor analyses were used to assess image

scores quantitatively. The 24 Likert scale

image questions were analyzed using princi-

pal components and varimax rotation to

reduce the large number of variables to a

smaller set of factors, allowing a better rep-

resentation of the Vietnamese image dimen-

sions underlying the initial variables.

Following Hair et al. (1995), statements

with factor loadings less than 0.40 and

cross loadings were dropped from the list

and only factors with eigenvalues 1 or

higher were selected. Factor reliability was

determined to be acceptable with a

Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.60 or greater.

The open-ended responses listing images,

mood and attraction evaluations were content

analyzed. Specifically, these variables are cate-

gorized by holistic, functional/psychological

and common/unique images, computed by

percentage, and are displayed according to a

framework adapted from Choi et al. (1999)

and Hui & Wan (2003). Dual coders created

the codes that were combined in a continuum

analysis to present a three-dimensional image

of Vietnamese tourism (Jenkins, 1999).

Results

Respondents

US visitors were mature, affluent and had

graduate education experiences. Slightly

more than half the respondents were female

(53%; Table 2). Half (50%) of the partici-

pants were 60 or more years of age. US visi-

tors were, overall, highly educated, as 22.4%

had attended graduate school and 42.9%

held a graduate degree. Similarly, visitors

were affluent, as 60% indicated annual

Table 2 Profile of Respondents

Frequency Percentage

Sex (n ¼ 100)

Female 53 53

Male 47 47

Age (n ¼ 100)

23–29 6 6

30–39 10 10

40–49 5 5

50–59 29 29

60 and over 50 50

Level of education

(n ¼ 98)

Technical school 1 1

Some college 9 9.2

College degree 24 24.5

Graduate school 22 22.4

Graduate degree 42 42.9

Annual income

(n ¼ 90)

Less than US$25,000 6 6.7

US$25,000–49,999 5 5.6

US$50,000–74,999 15 16.7

US$75,000–99,999 10 11.1

US$100,000–

124,999

20 22.2

US$125,000–

149,999

14 15.6

US$150,000 and

more

20 22.2


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

incomes between US$100,000 and more than

US$150,000.

Respondents had considerable travel experi-

ence abroad, as indicated by their recent

travel. In the last 3 years, 50% of the US tour-

ists had engaged in outbound travel from one

to four times and 37% from five to nine

times. However, almost all visitors (97%)

indicated that this was their first trip to

Vietnam. The primary reason to visit

Vietnam, as indicated by 80% of respondents,

was to experience its history–culture. The

majority of US visitors indicated a high likeli-

hood of returning (62.7%).

Factor Analysis of Vietnam’s ImageAttributes

Four factors emerged during the process of

factor analysis. These factors were named:

world heritage sites; atmosphere and attrac-

tions; service value; and quality (Table 3).

Factor 1 was named world heritage sites

because it specifically consisted of three

items: “world heritage sites are authentic”;

“world heritage sites are worth visiting”; and

“world heritage sites are unique” (a ¼ 0.77).

Factor 2 represented the atmosphere and

attractions of Vietnamese tourism with three

items: “Vietnamese are friendly”; “historical

places are accessible”; and “cultural activities

are available” (a ¼ 0.60). Two items,

“guides are competent” and “prices are

reasonable”, were incorporated under factor

3, service value (a ¼ 0.74). Finally, factor 4,

quality, included two items: “tours are fair

price-value”; and “hotels are good quality”

(a ¼ 0.60). The summed means of each

factor was above 5.0, which indicated

that US tourists had a positive image of

Vietnam.

Table 3 Factor Analysis of Vietnam’s Image Attributes

Factor Name and Attributes X a SD Factor Loading a Eigenvalue

Factor 1: World Heritage Sites 5.98 0.77 3.91

World heritage sites are authentic 5.90 0.99 0.80

World heritage sites are worth visiting 6.32 0.90 0.78

World heritage sites are unique 5.76 1.25 0.76

Factor 2: Atmosphere and Attractions 5.90 0.60 1.70

Vietnamese are friendly 6.47 0.85 0.77

Historical places are accessible 5.91 0.97 0.74

Cultural activities are available 5.44 1.21 0.72

Factor 3: Service Value 6.06 0.74 1.44

Guides are competent 6.02 1.25 0.85

Prices are reasonable 6.06 1.13 0.82

Factor 4: Quality 5.50 0.60 1.32

Tours are fair price-value 5.41 1.60 0.83

Hotel are good quality 5.55 1.31 0.74

aMeasured on a scale where 1 ¼ strongly disagree and 7 ¼ strongly agree.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

Three Continuums of Vietnam’sDestination Image

Based on Jenkins’s (1999) image definitions,

the upper portion of the table presents the

functional and psychological attributes

(Table 4). Notable ratings include “world

heritage sites are worth visiting” (6.32), “com-

petent guides” (6.02), “historical sites are

accessible” (5.91), “friendly Vietnamese”

(6.47), “prices are reasonable” (6.06) and

“world heritage sites are authentic” (5.90).

Among them, the interest of world heritage

sites and friendliness of the Vietnamese were

evaluated most highly. As mean scores of all

items were higher than 5.0, they reflected a

positive image for Vietnam.

Generally, Vietnam is understood and

affirmed as a tourism destination through the

images of its people and natural resources.

Regarding the atmosphere or mood experi-

enced in Vietnam, the dynamic society of

Vietnam with its “busy, crowded traffic” fea-

tures seemed to be the norm as Vietnam is a

small nation with considerable population.

Cultural diversity appeared to play a major

role in attracting tourists. Finally, the func-

tional/psychological and unique/common

components of Vietnam’s image are indicated

in the last two portions of the table. Unique

attributes for Vietnam included the world

heritage sites, an exciting experience and posi-

tive emotion. Common elements included

popular spots such as museums or markets,

Vietnamese food, and the friendship of the

Vietnamese as well as the beauty of Vietnam’s

nature.

Discussion

Vietnam’s image as a tourism destination for

US visitors has been explored through a

combination of closed and open-ended ques-

tions. The information has provided the

Vietnamese tourism authorities with the

ability to compete as a tourism destination for

the US market and also reinforced the usability

of multidimensional image assessment.

Important initially for Vietnam as it works

to enhance tourism campaigns, is that its

organic image among current US tourists to

Vietnam appears to be positive. The three

elements of image structure (product, host

attitudes and environment) have positive

ratings among respondents, as evidenced by

their mean scores of five or above (Table 3).

Attractions were viewed as important, accessi-

ble and authentic. Thus, the attraction base

appears to be solid. Similarly, the hosts were

perceived as friendly and tour guides compe-

tent, creating a hospitable and comfortable

atmosphere for the guest. Based on the image

factor structure revealed in this analysis, an

essential element of Vietnam’s future tourism

success with the US market will be dependent

on maintaining its world heritage sites and

accessible attractions while providing value

and quality.

Beyond indicating a positive image for

Vietnam, the results can inform Vietnam mar-

keters on how to differentiate itself from its

Asian counterparts. One of the image factors

is similar between Hong Kong and Vietnam:

“Activities and atmosphere” (Choi et al.,

1999). However, “service value” is central to

Vietnam’s image, in contrast to Hong Kong’s

most important factor of “tourist information

and shopping” (Choi et al., 1999) and

Singapore’s “political stability” and “personal

safety and convenience” (Hui & Wan, 2003).

Subsequently, a key element for tourism mar-

keting could be the value and high-quality

service available in Vietnam, which would be

in sharp contrast to other regional desti-

nations. Retaining the quality and service is


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

an important element in product consistency

in Vietnam’s tourism area.

Regarding the continuum analysis, “world

heritage sites” and “friendly Vietnamese”

were considered Vietnam’s principal func-

tional and psychological characteristics, as

indicated by their mean scores (Table 4). In

contrast, both Hong Kong and Singapore are

a safe place to visit, while Hong Kong also

provides a “wide variety of products” (Choi

et al., 1999) and Singapore has “many

modern buildings” (Hui & Wan, 2003).

Vietnam’s holistic images are mainly

“Vietnamese people” and “panoramic

nature”, which differ markedly from Hong

Kong’s “metropolis/skyscrapers” (Choi

et al., 1999) and Singapore’s “good shopping

place” and “safe place to visit” (Hui & Wan,

2003). The common images of Vietnam are

represented by the “popular spots” and

“friendly attitude” of the Vietnamese,

whereas Hong Kong and Singapore share

“good shopping places, and good transpor-

tation”. Hong Kong is close to Vietnam in

terms of “friendly and helpful people”, while

“modern” is a central aspect of Singaporean

image.

Vietnam has the ability to add to its differ-

entiation from these competitors by capitali-

zing on the natural and cultural elements

that it offers, through world heritage sites

and other attractions. A mainstay in its

Table 4 The Attribute/Holistic, Functional/Psychological and Unique/Common Images of

Vietnam

2. Functional X a/ (%) 2. Psychological X/ (%)

1. Attribute

World heritage sites are worth

visiting

6.32% Friendly Vietnamese 6.47%

Competent guides 6.02% Prices are reasonable 6.06%

Historical places are accessible 5.91% World heritage sites are

authentic

5.90%

1. Holistic

Vietnamese people 34% Dynamic society 36%

Panoramic nature 34% Interesting destination 29%

Lengthy history 30% Diverse culture 25%

3. Unique

Hoi-An ancient town 42% Exciting experience 25%

Hue imperial city 40% Positive emotion 16%

Ha-Long bay 27% Development process 9%

3. Common

Popular spots 32% Friendly attitude 70%

Vietnamese food 15% Scenic beauty 36%

Tropical climate 13% Pleasant feeling 12%

aMeasured on a scale where 1 ¼ strongly disagree and 7 ¼ strongly agree.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

current tourism campaign, these elements

appear essential for this group of respondents

from the USA.

Nonetheless, challenges remain for Vietnam

to distinguish itself. The physical environment

around Vietnam’s tourist sites is challenged by

litter and other forms of pollution. Specific

challenges include paper litter, animal

manure and standing water among disorga-

nized shopping stalls where illegally collected

tourist fees negatively impact visitors (Loi,

2003).

Conclusion

Regarding destination image dimensionality,

both the factor and continuum analyses

support the existence of multiple dimensions

within Vietnam’s tourist image. Although a

smaller number of factors emerged in this

project than in other work (Choi et al., 1999;

Hui & Wan, 2003), they are unique and

reliable. These dimensions were supported by

the open-ended questions that further refined

the image and provide specific attributes that

marketers and destination developers can

focus on. Thus, Jenkins’s (1999) suggestion

that the holistic image is important and attain-

able through qualitative approaches appears

to be valid, as demonstrated in this study.

The combined quantitative and qualitative

approach provides a rich set of information

for researchers.

As discussed above, measuring destination

image from both a qualitative and quantitative

approach provides a great deal of product

positioning data. This allows for strategic

marketing against competitors, as shown in

the preceding section. As organic images

have the most credibility the results from this

study indicate positive “word of mouth” and

a higher probability for repeat visitation.

Both are essential ingredients to establishing

long-term successful tourism development.

Future research should be carried out to

extend the understanding of Vietnam’s image

among US and other attractive international

markets. Most importantly, as image differs

in the three travel phases of pre-visitation,

on-site visitation and post-visitation (Fakeye

& Crompton, 1991), future research across

these phases could provide a more panoramic

assessment of Vietnam’s image. As mentioned

previously, this study has concentrated only

on establishing organic images formed by des-

tination visitation.

Although this project was conducted with a

convenient sample, it provides an important

step in understanding Vietnam’s touristic

image. Further, it provides a key understand-

ing of how Vietnam differs from regional com-

petitors such that the value, history and

positive host attitude can be nurtured and

enhanced.

References

Assael, H. (1981). Consumer Behavior and Marketing

Action. Boston: Kent Publishing.

Baloglu, S. & Brinberg, D. (1997). Affective images of

tourism destinations. Journal of Travel Research,

35(4), 11–15.

Blaine, T. W., Mohammed, G., Ruppel, F. & Var, T.

(1995). US demand for Vietnam tourism. Annals of

Tourism Research, 22(4), 934–936.

Choi, W. M., Chan, A. & Wu, J. (1999). A qualitative and

quantitative assessment of Hong Kong’s image as a

tourist destination. Tourism Management, 20(3),

361–365.

Crompton, J. L. (1979). An assessment of the image of

Mexico as a vacation destination and the influence of

geographical location upon that image. Journal of

Travel Research, 17(4), 18–23.

Denis, M. (1991). Image and Cognition. London:

Harvester Wheatsheaf.

Dichter, E. (1985). What’s in an image? Journal of Consu-

mer Marketing, 2(1), 75–81.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

Dobni, D. & Zinkhan, G. M. (1990). In search of brand

image: a foundation analysis. Advances in Consumer

Research, 17(1), 110–119.

Echtner, C. M. & Ritchie, J. R. B. (1991). The meaning

and measurement of destination image. Journal of

Tourism Studies, 2(2), 2–12.

Echtner, C. M. & Ritchie, J. R. B. (1993). The measure-

ment of destination image: an empirical assessment.

Journal of Travel Research, 31(4), 3–13.

Euromonitor International. (2003) Travel and Tourism in

USA: Executive Summary. Retrieved 5 August 2003

from http://www.euromonitor.com/Travel_and_

tourism_in_USA_(mmp).

Fakeye, P. C. & Crompton, J. L. (1991). Image differences

between prospective, first-time, and repeat visitors to

the Lower Rio Grande valley. Journal of Travel

Research, 30(2), 10–16.

Fridgen, J. D. (1984). Environmental psychology

and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 11(1),

19–39.

Gartner, W. C. (1993). Image formation process. Journal

of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 2(2/3), 191–215.

Gartner, W. C. (1996). Tourism Development: Principles,

Processes, and Policies. New York: Van Nostrand

Reinhold.

Gartner, W. C. & Hunt, J. D. (1987). An analysis of state

image change over a twelve-year period (1971–1983).

Journal of Travel Research, 26(2), 15–19.

Gunn, C. A. (1972). Vacationscape: Designing Tourist

Regions. Austin, TX: Bureau of Business Research, Uni-

versity of Texas.

Hair, J. F., Anderson, R. E., Tatham, R. L. & Black, W. C.

(1995). Multivariate Data Analysis with Readings (4th

edn). Englewoods Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Hanyu, K. (1993). The affective meaning of Tokyo: verbal

and non-verbal approaches. Journal of Environmental

Psychology, 13(2), 161–172.

Hui, T. K. & Wan, T. W. D. (2003). Singapore’s image as

a tourist destination. The International Journal of


Jenkins, O. H. (1999). Understanding and measuring

tourist destination images. The International Journal

of Tourism Research, 1(1), 1–16.

Kim, H. B. (1998). Perceived attractiveness of Korean des-

tinations. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(2), 340–361.

Loi, H. (2003). Quan ly tai Nguyen du Lich: Bo ngo den

bao Gio? [Tourism resources management: To leave

for how long?]. Retrieved 10 May 2004 from http://

www.vov.org.vn/2003_11_26/vietnamese/

xahoi1.htm#12.

MacKay, K. J. & Fesenmaier, D. R. (1997). Pictorial

element of destination in image formation. Annals of


Mazursky, D. & Jacoby, J. (1986). Exploring the develop-

ment of store images. Journal of Retailing, 62(2),

145–165.

Milman, A. & Pizam, A. (1995). The role of awareness

and familiarity with a destination: the Central Florida

case. Journal of Travel Research, 33(3), 21–27.

PATA Region: The new engine of global tourism growth

(2002). Express Travel & Tourism, 1–15 December

2002. Retrieved 8 August 2003 from http://www.

expresstravelandtourism.com/20021215/macro4.shtml.

Phelps, A. (1986). Holiday destination image – the

problem of assessment: an example developed in

Menorca. Tourism Management, 7(3), 168–180.

Pizam, A. & Mansfeld, Y. (eds) (1999). Consumer Beha-

vior in Travel and Tourism. New York: Haworth

Hospitality Press.

Russell, J A., Lewicka, M. & Niit, T. (1989). A cross-

cultural study of a circumplex model of affect.

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(5),

848–856.

Russell, J. A. & Pratt, G. (1980). A description of the

affective quality attributed to environments. Journal

of Personality and Social Psychology, 38(2),

311–322.

Schneider, I. & Sonmez, S. (1999). Exploring the touristic

image of Jordan. Tourism Management, 20(4),

539–542.

Sonmez, S. & Sirakaya, E. (2002). A distorted destination

image? The case of Turkey. Journal of Travel Research,

41(2), 185–196.

Tong Cuc Du Lich (2003a). A Natural World of Wonders.

Retrieved 24 August 2003 from http://www.vietnam-

tourism.com/vietnam_gov/e_pages/Dulich/DiemDL-

dep/4-dsvh/fr_dldep_phongnha.htm.

Tong Cuc Du Lich (2003b). Vietnam: The Hidden Charm.

Retrieved 24 August 2003 from www.vietnamtourism.-

gov.vn.

VNA News: Vietnam optimistic about steady fast growth

(2003). Source: Vietnam Agency (VNA). Retrieved

August 01 2003 from http://www.vnagency.com.vn/

newsa.asp?LANGUAGE_1D¼2&CATAGORY_1D¼

31&NEWS_1D¼2519

VnExpress – Tourism page (2003). Trang du Lich.

Retrieved 15 August 2003 from http://vnexpress.net/

Vietnam/Xa-hoi/Du-lich.

Walmsley, D. J. & Young, M. (1998). Evaluative images

and tourism: the use of personal constructs to describe


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

the structure of destination images. Journal of Travel

Research, 36(3), 65–69.

Woods, W. A. (1981). Consumer Behavior: Adapting

and Experiencing. New York: Elsevier North

Holland.

World Tourism Organization Marketing Intelligence

Section (WTO) (2003). First WTO World Tourism

Barometer Shows Steadily Improving Conditions for

International Tourism. Retrieved 7 August 2003 from

http://www.world-tourism.org/newsroom/Releases/

2003/june/barometer.htm.

Zimmer, M. R. & Golden, L. L. (1988). Impressions of

retail stores: a content analysis of consumer images.

Journal of Retailing, 64(3), 265–294.


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

14.1

61.1

0.33

] at

02:

30 1

9 D

ecem

ber

2011

US Tourist View on Vietnam

Documents

Transcript of US Tourist View on Vietnam