U.S. History to Reconstruction

Unit 8 – Nation Building and Nationalism

Expansion and Migration American perspective shifted from Europe to

West after 1815 Rush-Bagot Agreement (1817)

Demilitarized the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain U.S. recognized Canada as British British agreed not to invade U.S.

Anglo-American Convention of 1818 Set the boundary between U.S. and Canada at the

49th parallel Joint occupation of Oregon

Rest of the continent held in part by the English, Spanish, and Indians

Expansion and Migration U.S. was successful in taking Spanish land in

Florida Secretary of State John Quincy Adams’ goal was

reduction of Spanish holdings West Florida annexed between 1810–1812

First Seminole War (1817-1818) Andrew Jackson occupied east Florida

Weakened Spain accepted Adams-Onis Treaty U.S. got all Florida U.S.-Spanish boundary expanded all the way to the

Pacific U.S. paid $5 million in Spanish debts to Americans

Military expeditions created impression that Plains were “great American desert” unfit for settlement

North America (1819)

Native Americans Under Pressure “Five Civilized Tribes” (60,000 strong)

controlled much of South Cherokee, Chickasaw, Choctaw, Creek, and

Seminole Adopted many ways of American population

Despite adapting, Native Americans seen as obstacles to settlement Whites were not interested in incorporating

natives into U.S. society Different Native American groups reacted

differently to white encroachment

Native Americans Under Pressure Cherokee largest of “Five Civilized Tribes”

John Ross led move to accommodate the tribe into American society

Became market economy farmers and plantation owners

Seminole smallest of “Five Civilized Tribes” Seminole Nation was made up of a combination of

Florida natives with Creeks and escaped slaves Adapted slavery but was designed as more

payment of tribute than ownership of humans Blacks played a key role in opposing Indian

Removal in Florida

Native Americans Under Pressure Second Seminole War (1835-1842)

An example of Seminole resistance against removal to the Creek reservation

War described as “a negro and not an Indian war” Government used a number of tactics to get

natives off their lands Federal government used deception, threats, and

bribery to get Native Americans to cede land State governments claimed jurisdiction over lands

given to Native Americans by treaty

Native Americans Under Pressure Black Hawk War (1831–1832)

Dispute was based on a treaty from 1804 where the Sauk and Fox leaders ceded all of their lands east of the Mississippi without tribal consent

Confederation of Sauk, Fox, and Kickapoo Indians under the leadership of Chief Black Hawk who refused to leave

Last stand of Native Americans north of Ohio River and east of Mississippi River

Were forcibly removed by federal troops By 1830s, Indian Removal to the west was the

dominant view Main argument even when tribes agreed to assimilate Went against Jefferson’s original ideal of native

assimilation

Chief Black Hawk (1767-1838)

Settlement to the Mississippi With the removal of the native populations

west of the Mississippi, white settlers migrated en masse west of the Appalachians In 1810, only 1/7th of the U.S. population lived

west of the Appalachians By 1840, that number increased to over 1/3rd

Land speculation was a popular investment Lasted until the financial panic of 1819 Price dropped on land from $2.00 an acre to $1.25

but must be paid in cash This meant only wealthy speculators could buy

good land

Settlement to the Mississippi Squatters began settling lands not yet surveyed

Set up claims associations to prevent having their farms bought out from under them

Sought the formal right of preemption which gave them the right of first purchase

In 1841, Congress approved permanent right of preemption

Speculators sold land parcels to settlers on credit

New settlers engaged in commercial farming Had to pay off debt Allowed them to buy consumer goods they did not

produce

Settlement to the Mississippi Many families moved out west from eastern

seaboard Wanted to escape overpopulation, rising land

prices, worn-out soil Settlers brought existing culture with them

Life was difficult at the beginning Had to build their lives from scratch Collective efforts amongst groups of families

helped aid in their setup and survival Myth: self-reliant family farms Reality: cooperation and community efforts

Settlement to the Mississippi Many families moved frequently in West

Abraham Lincoln’s family moved three times between 1816–1830

Many were quick to sell improved land at a profit and move to another area

Result was less attachment to land than other rural populations

Easterners saw West as untamed James Fennimore Cooper’s Leatherstocking Tales

whose main character, Natty Bumppo preferred living in the wilderness compared to the strains of civilization

Advances in Communication

Revolution in Transportation There were a number of factors that prevented

true national unity Country had primitive modes of travel Limited forms of communication Small central government

Primitive land transportation in the East was offset by shipping via the coastal waterways

After the War of 1812, political leaders recognized the need to improve the country’s transportation network National leaders like Madison and Calhoun called

for “internal improvements” Actual federal role less than anticipated in those

calls for internal improvements

Revolution in Transportation By the 1820s, improvements in transportation and

communication had begun to knit the nation together

There was a flurry of turnpike construction in northeastern states Turnpikes were privately-owned toll roads chartered by

states Though travel rarely reached 25 miles a day, by 1830

that amount doubled Congress in 1806 authorized construction of a

National Road Started in Cumberland, Maryland, and built west By 1818 it had reached Wheeling, reducing travel time

from 8 days to 3 Eventually extended to Vandalia, Illinois

Revolution in Transportation Roads useful for travelers, but too expensive for

transportation of bulk goods Water most efficient for bulk cargo transportation

By the early years of the century, the first steamboats appeared along the Atlantic coast and in the rivers

Steamboats revolutionized water transport within a few years

Network of rivers encouraged economic development Flatboats transported downriver in early times Steamboats transported upriver after 1811 Upriver capabilities reduced costs

Revolution in Transportation Rise of the steamboat

Catered to passengers with luxury hotel atmosphere Numerous steamboat accidents stimulated Ante-Bellum

Congressional effort to establish safety regulations This was also the period of massive canal building

They were needed to link West with coast Erie Canal (1825)

New York Governor Dewitt Clinton got state funding Canal linked New York City to Great Lakes at Buffalo,

through Albany Cut east-west transportation costs dramatically Stimulated commercial growth of New York City

Revolution in Transportation Other states followed until 1840s

At this point they were no longer profitable but still remained useful

Also affected by the depression of the late 1830s and early 1840s

Steamboats and canals played a vital role in the development of a market economy Cut shipping expenses for western farmers and

eastern manufacturers Steamboats on the rivers also reduced shipping

costs and stimulated commercial agriculture Between 1790 and 1830, there were also

significant breakthroughs occurred in print communication

Revolution in Communication By 1820, ratio of newspapers to people was

higher than in Britain By 1830, there were more than 1000 newspapers,

about 1/3 were dailies Demand for newspapers was fed by

Rising literacy rate A demand for information generated by expanding

market economy Democratic belief in the importance of an informed

citizenry and the growing importance of newspapers to party politics

American postal system expanded to 8500 post offices in 1820 The price of sending a letter declined by half

Steamboat Enterprise (c. 1814)

Beginning of Commercial Agriculture The new transportation system allowed for the

development of a new economic system Cheap, widely-available land and marketing

revolution spurred profitable commercial farming Lower transportation costs meant greater income

for the farmer Led to the development of an exchange network

that would help farmers move from diversified farming to staple crops

Sales to distant markets involved farmers in a complex system of credit It also allowed them to sell to distant markets

without being personally involved

Beginning of Commercial Agriculture Market stimulated specialization North produced wheat as its main cash crop

Central point was New York and Pennsylvania In New England, sheep raising became the main

staple South still focused on labor intensive crops

Rice in South Carolina Sugar in Louisiana Tobacco in the Upper South Cotton in the Lower South

Rise in the demand for cotton helped make it the “king” crop in the south

Beginning of Commercial Agriculture Number of reasons why cotton was so

successful: Increased cotton demand from New England

textile factories Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in 1793

making it cheaper and more marketable Availability of new, fertile land in old Southwest

(Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana) Slavery permitted large-scale operation Benefitted from the expansive transportation

system of navigable rivers

Eli Whitney (1765-1825)

Commerce and Banking Development of market economy had an

impact on commerce and farming Old style of commerce had the farmer sold crop

directly to customers New style had the farmer selling to a local

merchant who in turn to final market in major cities

System required farmers and local merchants to have credit Intermediaries would charge interest and fees Still cheaper than farmers doing their own

marketing

Commerce and Banking Use of credit stimulated banking

Large scale commerce required a lot of money However, the federal government did not issue

paper money in the early to mid-19th century and only small amounts of specie

Instead, private banks issued bank notes that were backed by specie

The post-war era became known as the “Era of Good Feeling” Credit was given out freely People were able to enjoy purchasing power

First Bank of the U.S.’s charter was not renewed in 1811 State banks took up the slack

Commerce and Banking Between 1815-1817, number of state banks

increased from 88 to 208 This led to a devaluation of bank notes as more and

more were being produced From 1811-1815, amount of specie available to

banks had decreased by 9.4% At the same time, paper bank notes increased by

87.2% In 1816, the Second Bank of the United States

Was designed to prevent a massive inflation However, they made matters much worse Bank loaned $41 million worth of gold promises and

$23 million in paper bank notes It was based on just $2.5 million worth of gold

Commerce and Banking Panic of 1819

Mainly due to the banks overextending credit Other contributors included over-speculation in

real estate and war debt Led to a recession from 1819 to 1821 In Philadelphia, unemployment got as high as 75%

with over 1,800 people imprisoned due to debt Americans began to question the entire

banking and credit system

“Ghost of a Dollar” (1813)

Early Industrialism Before 1815, manufacturing was done on a

small scale in households or small factories Putting-out System is where merchants delivered

raw materials to families who would make goods Merchants would then pay the families and

distribute the goods Done for simple goods such as shoes and hats Did not disrupt agricultural life patterns

After 1815, increased demand stimulated mass production People wanted access to more goods at cheaper

prices

Early Industrialism Factory system first developed in the textile

industry Used the technology developed in England such as

the power loom and spinning machines Allowed cloth to be made in a single factory Francis Cabot Lowell stole the designs to the power

loom and brought it back to the U.S. in 1813 Lowell set up the Boston Manufacturing

Company This was so successful that other mills were created

throughout eastern Massachusetts over the next decade

Early Industrialism Factories grew mainly in New England

Previously, New England urban economy rested on overseas trade

However, New England politicians made a shift from supporting export-favorable low tariffs to high protective tariffs

While highly successful, factories also made for poor working conditions During the late 1830s and 1840s, workers were

required to work long hours at little pay Led to the rise of labor organizations to help

improve working conditions and pay

Early Industrialism Other industries adopted factory model by

1840s and 1850s Included new methods of producing iron which led

to the rise of the iron industry in Pennsylvania West developed other forms of industrialization

Mainly focused on farm products such as gristmills and tanneries

Also a large demand for distilleries to produce whiskey

U.S. not yet an industrial country In 1840, 63.4% of the population was still

employed in agriculture while 8.8% worked in factories

It was evolving into a national market economy

Boston Manufacturing Company (c. 1816)

Post-War Politics Jeffersonian Republicans monopolized the

presidency and dominated Congress between 1800 and 1820 Federalist party languished By late 1820s, Jeffersonian-Federalist system was in

disarray and new political alignments began to appear

Following the War of 1812, the Federalists were plagued by accusations of disloyalty and tainted by their aristocratic image They continued to believe that political leadership

should be restricted to “the wise and the good,” causing the party to gradually collapse

Post-War Politics “Era of Good Feelings” (1816–1824)

Politics a one-party system as the Federalists lost popularity

Interest groups no longer took differences into the political arena

No public accountability or a need for popular approval

Public interest in politics declined Common theme of public policy in this period:

“awakening nationalism” Federalists died as national party after 1812

Republicans adopted some of their ideas

Post-War Politics Henry Clay’s American System (1816)

Designed to promote economic development by making the country as self-sufficient as possible

Called for an average of 25% tariffs to protect industries that sprang up during the embargo and war periods

Created the Second Bank of the U.S. Also wanted more federal aid for internal improvements

Aid for internal improvements controversial Sectional conflict over who benefited Madison, Monroe saw constitutional conflicts Believed that an amendment would be needed to grant

federal money for building of roads and canals

Election of 1816 Presidential election was between two

candidates: James Monroe from the Democrat-Republican party Rufus King from the Federalist party

Was a controversy over the votes from Indiana Indiana had only been admitted as a state on

December 11 Electoral votes had taken place on December 4 In the end, Indiana votes were counted

Monroe won with 68.2% of popular votes and 183 electoral votes King only received 30.9% and 34 electoral votes

Results of the 1816 Election

Monroe as President Madison picked fellow Virginian James Monroe

as his successor in 1816 Third Virginian to occupy the White House Monroe would go on to serve two full terms

His main effort was to maintain national harmony Key for the “era of good feelings” Was willing to accommodate or conciliate most of

the sectional and economic interests Wanted to focus more on the power of America in

the world field

Monroe as President Took no action in Panic of 1819

He believed the president was above such matters Provided no leadership in the controversy over

Missouri Left the matter instead in the hands of Congress

Election of 1820 illustrated that the American people were willing to accept Monroe’s view of leadership Monroe did not do any campaigning He ran essentially unopposed John Quincy Adams did receive one electoral vote from

William Plumer, a New Hampshire elector Some say he did it so that Washington would be the only

unanimous president Others say that he was pushing his friend Adams as a future

candidate

Results for the 1820 Election

The Missouri Compromise Despite the rampant nationalism following the

War of 1812, political unity in the nation was fragile

Most divisive was the issue of slavery in the vast, new territory west of the Mississippi River Concerned over the larger northern population,

Southerners insisted slavery had to expand In 1817, Missouri applied for statehood

As it already had 2,000-3,000 slaves, it was expected to enter as a slave state

This was only the second state to receive statehood from the Louisiana Purchase

Could affect the future of the territories west of the Mississippi

The Missouri Compromise Missouri’s status would aggravate sectional

differences Northerners believed South was over-represented in

House of Representatives This was despite their own decisive majority With the 3/5ths rule in place, they could give the

south more weight in the House South believed it was maintaining balance of

power The northern populations were increasing much

more rapidly than the south Also, it would maintain a balance between slave

states and free states in the Senate

The Missouri Compromise Tallmadge Amendment (February 1819)

Introduced by James Tallmadge of New York Called for gradual elimination of slavery in

Missouri it if was admitted Passes House but fails in the Senate

At the same time, Maine was applying for statehood Wanted to separate itself from Massachusetts This would provide the balancing act that

Congress would want

The Missouri Compromise Missouri Compromise (February 1820)

Missouri was admitted to the Union as a slave state Maine was admitted as a free state This would maintain a balance in the Senate A line was drawn west from 36º 30’ to the Rocky

Mountains with only lands south of the line open to slavery

Missouri was also forced to reassure Congress that a clause in its constitution prohibiting free blacks would not be used to abridge the rights of U.S. citizens

This controversy exposed deep rift between North and South Jefferson called it “a fire bell in the night”

Missouri Compromise (1820-1821)

Nationalism and the Supreme Court The Supreme Court was making a large

contribution to nationalism and the power of the federal government in the post-war era

John Marshall, Chief Justice (1801–1835) Federalist who dominated the Court Did not tolerate dissent and wanted unanimous

decisions Main contributions were clarifying the role of the Court

in the government Believed that liberty and property rights were above

attainment of political, social, and economic equality Also believed that the happiness of the American

people would be based on economic growth and the creation of new wealth

Nationalism and the Supreme Court To Marshall, the role of court was to enable

economic growth This was done by protecting individuals and

businesses from interference by state legislatures Court should also provide federal government

more power to encourage economic growth Over his tenure, he:

Limited the power of the state legislatures Strengthened the power of the federal

government Affirmed the court’s supremacy over the states

Nationalism and the Supreme Court Martin v. Hunter’s Lessee (1816)

After the Revolution, Virginia passed a law to confiscate Loyalists’ properties (Virginia Act of 1779)

Argument was over the legality of state laws In this case, land was the Northern Neck Proprietary

and had been held as part of a land grant by Lord Thomas Fairfax of Cameron and was transferred to his nephew, David Hunter, upon his death

Defendants argued that the Jay Treaty allowed the land to remain in the hands of the Fairfaxes

Virginia courts stated that they were sovereign in these affairs

Court decision stated that the Supreme Court trumped state courts in matters of federal law

Nationalism and the Supreme Court Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819)

Argument over whether the state of New Hampshire could change Dartmouth from a private university to a public one

Daniel Webster argued that the college’s original charter (1769) was still valid

Court opinion stated that charters granted by states are eternal contracts

This broad ruling would have an impact on businesses being incorporated by the state government

Basically weakens the ability of states to regulate business

This would allow for the development of the modern corporation with only limited public responsibility

Nationalism and the Supreme Court McCulloch v. Maryland (1819)

Argument over whether or not the state of Maryland could tax the Baltimore branch of the Bank of the United States

Specifically whether or not the state could tax banks not chartered in that state

Court opinion stated tax was unconstitutional Stated that the bank was legitimate in that Congress

had “implied powers” to create such an entity Also stated that states cannot tax or regulate federal

agencies Basically, the state may not interfere with

constitutional entities created by the Federal government

Nationalism and the Supreme Court Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)

Argument over whether or not a state can grant a steamboat monopoly

Thomas Gibbons owned a steamboat company that had been licensed by Congress

New York state gave a grant to Aaron Ogden, virtually giving him a monopoly on steamboat

Court opinion stated that federal regulation of interstate commerce trumps state regulation

Gave Congress more power to regulate interstate commerce

Nationalism and the Supreme Court Summary of Marshall’s Court actions

Broadened powers of federal government at the expense of states

Encouraged growth of a national economy Exemplified main nationalist trend of the

period Federal government should promote growth of

prosperous, nationwide capitalist economy

John Marshall Chief Justice of

the Supreme Court

(1801-1835)

The Monroe Doctrine Starting in 1808, a number of Latin American

began seeking independence U.S. sympathized with Latin American revolts as they

were following the U.S. lead At they same time, they were concerned about racially

mixed populations and history of colonial oppression After initial reluctance, President Monroe proposed

formal recognition of Latin American republics Recognized them after the Adams-Onis Treaty was

approved “Grand Alliance” of Europe saw Latin American

revolts as democratic challenges to authoritarianism

The Monroe Doctrine In November 1822, major European powers talked

of helping Spain regain its American empire Grand Alliance pushed Spain to re-claim colonies

This alarmed both the United States and Britain Britain wanted independent Latin American countries

with open markets Britain asked U.S. to cooperate to oppose Grand

Alliance schemes for Latin America Monroe decided to ignore a British offer of a joint

declaration He had been persuaded by John Quincy Adams in that

the U.S. alone must protect Latin American independence

The Monroe Doctrine Monroe Doctrine (1823)

North America was closed to new European colonization

The political systems of the Americas were separate from those of Europe

The United States would consider as dangerous to its peace and safety any attempts to extend Europe’s political influence to the Western Hemisphere

The United States would refrain from interference in established colonies in the New World or meddling in European affairs

Largely dismissed by Europeans Signified America’s new sense of independence

and self-confidence