Urban Cyberspace Policy Initiative in Manchester.pdf

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Urban Cyberspace Policy Initiatives in

Manchester UK 1989-1999

Vassilys Fo urk as

As the world i s becoming both d ig i tal and urban, cyb erspace advancem ents pose a

ser ious cha l lenge to the s tudy of mo dern c i t ies ' dev e lopment . This research wo rk

st resses the importance o f invest iga t ing the in te rvent ion and effec t iveness of pub-

l ic pol ic ies and agencies that involve the de ve lopm ent of the cy berspace in urban

rest ruc tur ing . Thus, the present paper reviews and ana lyzes the deployment of

urban cyberspace policy init ia t ives in Manchester, during the 1989-1999 decade,

re f lec t ing c r i t ica l ly upon the quest ions ra ised f rom the l i te ra ture regarding the

cyberspace paradigm in urban pol icy and p lanning.

Introduction Cyberspace and Urb an Policy

C y b e r s p a c e , a te r m c o i n e d b y th e c y b e r p u n k A m e r i c a n w r i t e r W i l l i a m G i b s o n

i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 8 0 s , i s a l i v i n g v i r tu a l s p a c e b a c k e d b y t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s

i n f ra s t ru c t u re a n d d e v e l o p e d m a i n l y o v e r t h e n e t w o r k o f I n t e r n e t an d t h e W o r l d

W i d e W e b , t h e I n t e r n e t ' s m a i n m u l t i m e d i a b a c k b o n e . I t i s c o n c e i v e d a s a l i v -

i n g v i r t u al s p a c e b e c a u s e a l t h o u g h i t i s a c c e s s i b l e a n d o p e r a t e s o n l y o n s c r e e n

i n t e r f ac e s at th e s a m e t i m e i t i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h a c t u a l i n f o r m a t i o n , c o m m u n i -

c a t i o n , an d v a r i o u s t y p e s o f i n t e r a c t io n a s w e l l w i t h t h e d i v e r s i t y o f p e r s o n a l

i n te r es t s a n d v a lu e s . I t i s a b l e to e m b r a c e a n d i n t e g r a t e m a n y f o r m s o f h u m a n

a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o r e a l p l a c e s a n d p h y s i c a l p r o x i m i t y / m o v e m e n t ( i . e . , s h o p -

p i n g a n d b a n k in g ) . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c y b e r s p a c e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s a h i g h l y

u r b a n p h e n o m e n o n ; c y b e r s p a c e d o e s n o t d i s s o l v e c i ti e s b u t i t i s r e c u r s i v e l y

Vassilys Fourkas graduated in Civil Engineering from the Aristotle U niversity of Thessalonica in

1993 and he then followed a post-graduate research program in the area of computer-simulation

techniques in urban planning, at the University of Venice-Dept. of Architecture-DAEST/Italy. He is

currently working at the Egnatia Odos SA, as the Head o f the Observatory U nit which is conc erned

with the measurement, evaluation and study of spatial impacts caused by the Egnatia m otorw ay (a

TEN, EU-funded project). His academic and research interest focuses on the issues o f virtual geogra-

phy, urban cyberspace planning and virtual cities in relation to m ode m urban regeneration strategies

and plans in European Union. In September 2003 he received a post-doctorate grant from the G reek

government (Greek State Scholarship Foundation) to carry out a research projec t regarding the devel-

opment o f Greek cities ove r cyberspace.

Knowledge, Technology, Policy,

Spring 2005, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 86-111.



U r b a n C y b e r s p a c e P o l ic y I n i ti a t iv e s i n M a n c h e s t e r U K 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 9 8 7

l i n k e d w i t h t h e m . I t i s b a s e d o n a n u r b a n n o d a l i t y a s c i t i e s c o n c e n t r a t e t h e

I n t e r n e t ' s n e t w o r k h u b s a n d n o d e s a s w e l l a s m o s t o f r e g i s t e r e d I n t e r n e t c o n -

n e c t i o n s / u s e r s ( M o s s a n d T o w n s e n d , 1 9 9 8 ; Z o o k , 2 0 0 0 ; T e l e G e o g r a p h y , 2 0 0 3 ) .

T h e l o c a t io n a l p a t te r n o f u s a g e a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e I n t e r n e t i n c i ti e s is

m a r k e d b y c e r t a i n s o c i a l d i v i s i o n s t h a t h a v e g e o g r a p h i c a l e x p r e s s i o n s , a n d

t h u s a r e r e f l e c t i n g a c t u a l g e o g r a p h i c a l s e g m e n t a t i o n s a n d s o c i a l i n e q u a l i t i e s .

T h e r e f o r e , a l t h o u g h w e t e n d t o t h i n k o f c y b e r s p a c e a s a s p a c e t h a t is c h a r a c -

t e r i z e d b y e q u i t y , o b v i o u s l y , h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h e p o o r a r e s t r o n g l y

c o r r e l a te d w i t h l o w e r d e n s i ti e s o f th o s e w i t h I n t e r n e t a c c e ss w h e r e a s h i g h e r

d e n s i t i e s o f t h e r i c h a r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h m o r e w i r e d c o m m u n i t i e s .

U r b a n g o v e r n m e n t h a s h is to r ic a l ly t e n d e d t o b e d i v o r c e d f r o m t e l e c o m m u -

n i c a ti o n s p o l ic y a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , w h i c h w a s u n t i l r e ce n t l y s u p p o r t e d b y a

n a t io n a l h e g e m o n y a n d th e n b y m a r k e t h e g e m o n y . N o w a d a y s , h o w e v e r , t h e

d e v e l o p m e n t o f c y b e r s p a c e is s e e n a s a k e y - m e a n s f o r t h e s o c ia l , c u l tu r a l , a n d

e c o n o m i c re g e n e r a t i o n a n d t h a t i s b e i n g g r a s p e d b y m a n y c i t ie s i n t e r n a t i o n -

a ll y. A s a r e s u l t, a nd w i t h i n t he i n f o r m a t i on s oc i e t y c on t e x t , m a ny c i ty gov -

e r n m e n t s h a v e i n t r o d u c e d v a ri o u s i n i ti a ti v e s i n v o l v i n g c y b e r s p a c e w i t h i n u r b a n

p o l i c y . T h e c u r r e n t b u r g e o n i n g i m p o r t a n c e o f c y b e r s p a c e , w h i c h h a s b e c o m e

m u c h m o r e v i s u a l iz a b l e a n d t a n g i b le t h r o u g h t h e m u l t i m e d i a in t e r f a c es o f t h e

I n t e rn e t a n d th e W e b, f u n d a m e n t a l l y c h a l l e n g e s t h e m o d e r n p a r a d i g m s u n -

d e r p i n n i n g u r b a n p l a n n i n g a n d p o l i c y m a k i n g . T h e r e f o r e , th e s h i ft in t e r m s o f

u r b a n p o l i c y a n d p l a n n i n g i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f a c t t h a t i t i s n o l o n g e r r e a -

s o n a b l e f o r l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , p o l i c y m a k e r s a n d p l a n n e r s t o i g n o r e c y b e r s p a c e ,

a s t h e y d i d i n t h e p a s t w i t h t e l e p h o n y a n d e a r l y I n f o r m a t i o n a n d C o m m u n i c a -

t io n T e c h n o l o g i e s ( IC T s ) n e t w o r k s . A f a s t - g r o w i n g w a v e o f u r b a n e x p e r i m e n -

t a ti o n w i th c y b e r s p a c e h a s b e e n e m e r g e d in t h e 1 9 9 0 s, w h i c h p r o m i s e s t o

h a v e m a j o r p r a c t i c a l a n d t h e o r e t i c a l i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r h o w w e m i g h t c o n s i d e r

t h e f u t u r e o f c i ti e s, u r b a n p o l i c y a n d p l a n n i n g ( G r a h a m , 1 9 9 9 : 1 0 ).

T h e E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n h a s c o n s i d e r e d u r ba n a n d r e g i o n a l a u th o r i ti e s

a s k e y p l a y e r s f o r t h e f u tu r e d e v e l o p m e n t o f th e I n f o r m a t i o n S o c i e t y i n E u -

r o p e f o r a n u m b e r o f re a s o n s ( C E C , 1 9 9 8 ). F i r st , it i s a r g u e d t h a t , th r o u g h

t he i r s he e r s c a l e , c i t i e s a nd r e g i ons r e p r e s e n t a m a j o r c l i e n t f o r I CT s de ve l op -

e rs . S e c o n d , w i t h a u n i q u e o v e r v i e w o f s o c i e t y a s a w h o l e , w i t h i n t h e i r j u r i s -

d i c t io n s , c it ie s a n d r e g i o n s h a v e a k e y r o l e i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n t e g r a te d

a p p l ic a ti o n s a n d i n e n s u r in g t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f I C T s f o r s e c to r s o f t h e p o p u -

l a t i o n t h a t t h e m a r k e t i s r e l u c t a n t o r s l o w t o a d d r e s s . T h i r d , b e c a u s e t h e y a r e

d e m o c r a t i c a l l y a c c o u n t a b l e a n d h a v e f o r m a l p o w e r s , c i t i e s a n d r e g i o n s g e n -

e r a t e a ve r y s pe c i f i c s e t o f t e c hn i c a l , o r ga n i z a t i ona l , a nd r e gu l a t o r y i s s ue s f o r

I C T s d e v e l o p m e n t . F o u r t h , c it ie s a n d r e g i o n s h a v e a k e y r o l e i n t h e r e g u l a t io n

a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f i n f ra s t ru c t u r e , a l t h o u g h t h i s v a r ie s f r o m c o u n t r y t o c o u n -

t r y a n d c i t y t o c i t y , w h e t h e r a s d i r e c t i n f r a s t r u c t u r e p r o v i d e r s , o r m o r e c o m -

m o n l y t h r o u g h a r o l e f o r p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s i n t h e r e g u l a t o r y p r o c e s s .

H o w e v e r , t h e r e v i e w a n d s u r v e y o f t h e E u r o p e a n e x p e r i e n c e p r o v e t h a t n o

s i n g le m o d e l f o r d e p l o y i n g c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y i n i t ia t iv e s e x i st s f o r E u r o p e a n

c it ie s , a n d s h o w s t he i m p o r t a n c e o f th e v a r i o u s a p p r o a c h e s b y g e o g r a p h i c

l o c a t i o n , d e v e l o p m e n t p o l i c y p r i o r i t ie s a n d c i t y s iz e a n d p r o f i l e . D i f f e r e n t

a s s u m p t i o n s a n d o b j e c t i v e s a c c o r d i n g t o g e o g r a p h i c a l a n d s o c i o e c o n o m i c



8 8 K n o w l e d g e , T e c h n o l o g y , P o l i c y / S p r i n g 2 0 0 5

p o s i t i o n i n g i n t h e E u r o p e a n e c o n o m y a r e l i k e l y t o a f f e c t t h e s e i n i t i a t i v e s a n d

l e a d to a v a r ie t y o f p o l i c y s t a n c e s a n d c o r r e s p o n d i n g a p p l i c a t io n a r e a s. T h e

m a i n o b j e c t i v e s c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d a s :

E c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , w h e r e it is b e l i e v e d t h a t c y b e r s p a c e p l a y s a c ri ti c al

r o l e i n c r e a t in g c o m p e t i t i v e a d v a n t a g e a n d r e g e n e r a t i n g t h e l o c a l e c o n o m y ,

t h r o u g h t h e p r o m o t i o n o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c r e a t iv e c i ty . T h e i n f o r m a -

t i o n c i t y c o n c e p t li e s o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d a v a i l a b i l it y o f a d v a n c e d I C T s

n e t w o r k i n g i n f r a s t r u c t u r e a n d a n i n t e n s e a t t r a c t i o n o f r e l a t e d e c o n o m i c a c t i v i -

t ie s . T h e c r e a t i v e c i t y c o n c e p t l ie s o n t h e u p g r a d e d r o l e o f l o c a l , c u l t u r a l ,

a nd c r e a t i ve i ndus t r i e s ( S M E s a c t i va t e d i n t he f i e l d s o f v i s ua l a r t s , pe r f o r m i ng

a r t s , f i l m , T V , I n t e r n e t a n d m u l t i m e d i a , p u b l i s h i n g , d e s i g n a n d f a s h i o n , m u -

s ic , n ig h t - t i m e e c o n o m y , t o u r i s m ) , w h i c h h a v e b e e n d r a w n i n t o th e h e a r t o f

t h e e n tr e p r e n e u ri a l s h if t i n u r b a n m a n a g e m e n t a n d d e v e l o p m e n t ( se e V e r w i j n en ,

1 9 9 8 ) .

S e c o n d , c o m m u n i t y c o h e s i o n a n d d e v e l o p m e n t , w h e r e lo c a l a u t h o ri t i e s

de a l w i t h t he d i g i t a l d i v i de t ha t i s c on s i de r e d a s a m a i n t h r e a t f o r t he f u r t he r

f r a g m e n t a t i o n a n d d u a l i t y w i t h i n p o s t - i n d u s t r i a l c it i es . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

C o m m u n i t y In f o r m a t i o n N e t w o r k s ( C I N s ) c o n s i d e r e d o f g r e a t s i g n i f i ca n c e

t o w a r d s t h e p r o v i s i o n o f a n e w u r b a n p u b l i c s p a c e o v e r t h e I n t e r n e t . C I N s a r e

g e a r e d t h e r e f o r e t o w a r d s a l o c a l a u d i e n c e w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f e n r i c h i n g c o m -

m u n i t y li fe a n d p r o m o t i n g u n i v e r sa l a c c e s s a n d p a r t i c ip a t i o n t o t h e d e v e l o p -

m e n t o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s o c i e t y .

T h i r d , u r b a n g o v e r n a n c e , m a n a g e m e n t , a n d p l a n n i n g , a i m i n g a t t h e m o d -

e r n iz a ti o n , i m p r o v e m e n t , a n d d e m o c r a t i z a ti o n o f p u b l i c s e r v i c e s p r o v i s i o n ,

p l a n n i n g p r o c e s s a n d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g s y s t e m t h r o u g h t h e I n t e rn e t /W e b . I t is

g e n e ra l ly a g r e ed t h a t t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n

s y s t e m s m a y i m p r o v e p u b l i c a u t h o r i t i e s ' p r o d u c t i v i t y , d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , m a n -

a g e m e n t o f u r b a n i n f r a st r u c tu r e s , as w e l l a s t o a u g m e n t t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n

c h a n n e l s b e t w e e n t h e m a n d c i t i z e n s u s i n g v a r i o u s I C T s a p p l i c a t i o n s s u c h a s

t o u c h s c r e e n s , i n f o - k i o s k s , s m a r t c a r d s , v i d e o t e x t t e r m i n a l s , f r e e t e l e p h o n e

l i ne s , w e b s i t e s , a nd s o on .

F i na l ly , w e s hou l d h i gh l i gh t t he ho l i s t i c a pp r oa c h a s i t i nc l ude s a nd c oo r -

d i na t e s u r ba n c ybe r s pa c e po l i c y i n i t i a t i ve s i n a l l t he a bove a r e a s . I n t h i s c a s e ,

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f st r at e g ic v i e w i s b a s e d o n c l e a r p o l i t ic a l o b j e c t iv e s , i n -

v o l v e m e n t o f al l s ec t o r s a n d a c t o rs , s t r o n g p r i v a t e - p u b l i c p a r t n e r s h i p s , p r o p e r

e v a l u a t i o n o f p i l o t p r o j e c t r e s u l t s , c o m p l i m e n t a r y t r a i n i n g , a n d a w a r e n e s s r i s -

i n g . T h i s p o l i c y s t an c e is a c t u a ll y c o n c e r n e d w i t h a s m a l l n u m b e r o f c a s e s

w he r e a l l s e c t o r i a l a nd f oc us e d p r o j e c t s a r e i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n a s i ng l e , s t r a t e -

g i c , p o l i c y p r o g r a m .

I n g e n e r a l , t h e k e y f e a t u r e s o f s u c c e s s f u l u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y e x p e r i -

m e n t a t io n in E U h a v e b e e n s u m m a r i z e d b y C o r n f o r d a n d N a y l o r ( 1 9 98 : i v -v i )

a s fo l l o w s : F ir s t, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f e x p l i c i t p o l i c y p r o g r a m s i s o f t e n d e v e l -

o p e d o n t h e b a s is o f e a r ly p r o j e c t s a n d t h e i r t r a n s fe r f r o m t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l

s t a g e t o t h e f u l l s c a l e d e p l o y m e n t s t ag e . S e c o n d , c y b e r s p a c e is i n c o r p o -

r a t e d w i t h i n t he w i de r c on t e x t o f t he i r ge ne r a l s t r a t e g i e s i n f i e l d s s uc h a s i n t e r -

n a l o rg a n i z a ti o n , e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t , d e m o c r a c y , a n d s e r v ic e d e l iv e r y .

O f p a r t i c u la r i m p o r t a n c e , is t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f o n l i n e a p p l i c a t i o n s i n c o n j u n c -



Urb an Cyb erspace Policy Initiatives in M anchester UK 1989-1999 89

t i o n w i t h w i d e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a n d c u l t u r a l c h a n g e s i n t h e p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a -

t i o n , t h e r e - e n g i n e e r i n g o f s e r v i c e d e l i v e r y f u n c t i o n s a n d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f

ne w s t r uc t u r e s s uc h a s de c e n t r a l i z e d o f f i c e s i n ne i ghbo r hoods . T h i r d , t he s t r a t -

e g i e s o f s u c c e s s f u l c i t i e s h a v e t h e e x p l i c i t b a c k i n g o f t h e l e a d i n g p o l i t i c a l

a c t o r s , o f t e n t he m a yor bu t a l s o o t he r l e a d i ng po l i t i c i a ns . F ou r t h , t he s e s t r a t e -

g i e s h a v e b e e n a l s o d e v e l o p e d i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a s p e c i a l i s t IC T s i n s t i t u t e ,

u n i t, o r c o m m i t t e e th a t c a n p r o v i d e a n i n s ti t u ti o n a l d r iv e r f o r c y b e r s p a c e w i t h i n

t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . F i f t h , t h e s e n e w i n s t i t u t i o n s a r e o f t e n s e m i - a u t o n o m o u s

f r o m t h e m u n i c i p a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , e n a b l i n g t h e m t o b r i n g i n n e w s k i l l s a n d

a t t i t u d e s , t o b r e a k w i t h t h e b u r e a u c r a t i c t r a d i t i o n s o f p u b l i c a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s

a n d t h u s t o f o r m e f f e c t i v e p a r tn e r s h i p s w i t h t h e p r i v a te s e c t o r b a s e d o n c l e a r l y

u n d e r s t o o d m u t u a l b e n e f i ts a n d a s h a r e d v i s i o n o f t h e c e n t r a l a i m s o f a p r o j e c t.

S i x th , s u c c e s s f u l d e v e l o p m e n t is a s s o c i a te d w i t h h a v i n g a c r i ti c a l m a s s o f

r e s e a rc h p r o j e c ts f u n d e d b y t h e E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n a n d n a t i o n a l g o v e r n -

m e n t s . S e v e n t h , h o l i s t i c p o l i c y f r a m e w o r k s a r e a c t i v e l y p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n E u r o -

p e a n i n t e r - u r b a n n e t w o r k s s u c h a s T e l e c i t i e s , I b y s e e k i n g o u t p a r t n e r s f o r

p r o j e ct s , a n d e s t a b li s h in g a g e n u i n e d i v i s io n o f d o m a i n s b e t w e e n p a r t n e r s .

E i g h t h , i n t h e m o s t s u c c e s s f u l c a s e s o f c i ti e s t h e r e is a n i n c r e a s i n g f o c u s o n

t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f a p p l i c a t i o n s f r o m d i f f e r e n t a r e a s t o p r o v i d e a s i n g l e , i n t e -

g r a t ed i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n e n v i r o n m e n t f o r c it iz e n s , l o c al b u s i -

n e s s c o m m u n i t i e s ( in p a r t i c u l a r S M E s ) a n d f u n c t i o n a r i e s w i t h i n t h e

a d m i n i s tr a t io n . I n te r m s o f t e c h n o l o g y t h e s e s y s t e m s a r e ' o p e n ' t h at m e a n s

t h e y a v o i d g e t t i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s t i e d i n t o a s i n g l e s u p p l i e r a n d f a c i l i t a t e

f u r t h e r d e v e l o p m e n t a n d i n t e g r a ti o n o f a p p l i ca t i o n s .

B a s e d o n t h e a b o v e c o n t e x t , t h e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s p a p e r r e s e a r c h w o r k i s

a m b i t i o u s t o p r o v i d e a n a n a l y t i c a l r e v i e w o f u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y i n i t i a -

t i v e s t h r o u g h o u t 1 9 9 0 s i n a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c d e - i n d u s t r i a l i z e d E u r o p e a n c i t y :

M a n c h e s t e r , U K . I t m a y b e s o o n t o e v a l u a t e t h e u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y

f r a m e w o r k i n th e c i ty o f M a n c h e s t e r o n i ts v a r i o u s l o n g - t e r m g o a l s , b u t i t

i s c e r t a i n l y a p p r o p r i a t e to m o n i t o r a n d a s s e s s i ts p r o g r e s s t o w a r d s t h e s e

g o a l s . T h e p a p e r c o n c l u d e s b y d i s c u s s i n g t h e b a s i c i s s u e s r e su l t e d f r o m

t h i s r e v i e w a n d b y p o i n t i n g o u t t h e u r b a n p o l i c y a s p e c t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e v i r -

t u a l / r e a l c i t y i n t e r p l a y o n t h e b a s i s o f i d e n t i f i e d c o n t r a d i c t i o n s t h a t c o n d i t i o n

t h i s i n t e r p l a y .

R e s e a r c h M e t h o d o l o g y

S i n c e t h i s s t u d y i s a n a t t e m p t t o e x p l o r e a n d e x p l a i n t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f

u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y b y f i n d i n g o u t , d e s c r i b i n g , a n d a n a l y z i n g a t t i t u d e s ,

f e a t u r e s a n d c o n d i t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n t h e fi e l d , P a s s i v e O b s e r v a t i o n i n i n f o r m a -

t i o n s y s t e m s a p p e a r s t o b e t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e m e t h o d t o a d o p t . R e m e n y i

a nd W i l l i a m s ( 1995 : 192 ) po i n t ou t t ha t t he P a s s i ve O bs e r va t i on i s be i ng u s e d

w h e n t h e r e s e a r c h e r d o e s n o t c o n d u c t a n e x p e r i m e n t a n d h a s t o r e l y o n e x i s t -

i n g e v i d e n c e , u s i n g i n t e r v i e w s , w r i t t e n r e p o r t s / d o c u m e n t a r y s o u r c e s , q u e s -

t i onna i r e s , s t a ti s ti c a l da t a , e t c. F u r t he r , t h r ou gh t he s e l e c t i on o f a c a s e - s t ud y ,

t h e re s e ar c h s e ek s t o e x a m i n e i f, w h y a n d h o w t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n

c y b e r s p a c e a p p l i c a t i o n s a r e i n t e r re l a t e d t o u r b a n p o l i c y . A s Y i n p o i n t s o u t ,



90 Know ledge, Technology, Pol icy / Spring 2005

c a s e s t u d ie s a r e t h e p r e f e r re d s t ra t eg y w h e n h o w a n d w h y q u e s t i o n s a r e

b e i n g p o s e d , w h e n t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r h a s l i tt le c o n t r o l o v e r e v e n t s , a n d w h e n

t h e f o c u s i s o n c o n t e m p o r a r y p h e n o m e n o n w i t h in s o m e r e a l- li fe c o n t e x t ( Y in ,

1994: 1) .

F o l l o w i n g t h e s e s u g g e s t i o n s , t h e r e s e a r c h o n M a n c h e s t e r u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e

c a s e s t u d y i n v o l v e s t h r e e r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s : ( 1 ) n a v i g a t i o n o n , a n d r e t r i e v -

i n g i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m , lo c a l w e b s it e s; ( 2 ) d o c u m e n t a r y a n a l y s i s ; ( 3) s e m i -

s t r u c t u r e d q u a l i t a t i v e i n t e r v i e w s w i t h 3 0 p e o p l e i n v o l v e d i n k e y o r g a n i z a t i o n s

a n d k e y p r o j e c t s . T h e p r i n c i p a l q u e s t i o n s w h i c h c o n s t i t u t e d t h e m a i n i n t e r -

v i e w s c h e d u l e a n d e l i c i t e d o p e n - e n d e d r e s p o n s e s , w e r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h : ( 1 )

d e s c r i p t i o n o f e a c h p r o j e c t h i s t o r y , c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k , e c o n o m i c s , r e l a -

t i on t o o t he r s i m i l a r i n i t i a t i ve s , a c t i v i t i e s a nd de m ons t r a t i ons , a s w e l l a s p r ob -

l e m s a n d f u t u r e p la n s ; ( 2) c r it i c a l v i e w o n t h e v i r t u a l c i t y ' s d e v e l o p m e n t s o

f a r , i n r e l a t i o n t o l o c a l c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s ; ( 3 ) t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n

v i r t ua l c i t y a nd u r ba n r e s t r uc t u r i ng ; ( 4 ) t he i s s ue s o f c oo r d i na t i on be t w e e n a l l

t h e d i f f e r e n t a c t o r s a n d t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o f a l l d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t s .

T h e a n a l y ti c a l r e v i e w i s d i v i d e d i n t w o p h a s e s : 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 3 a n d 1 9 9 4 - 1 9 9 9 .

T h e e m e r g e n c e o f t h e W e b i n 1 9 9 3 r e m a r k s t h i s c h r o n o l o g i c a l d i v i si o n , c o n -

s i d e r i n g i t s w i d e s p r e a d u s e c r u c i a l f o r t h e e x c e p t i o n a l l y f a s t d i f f u s i o n a n d

p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e I n t e rn e t . B a s e d o n t h i s d i v i s i o n , t h e p a p e r r e p o r t s t h e r e-

s e a r c h r e s u l t s by g i v i ng t w o a c c oun t s . T he f i r s t i s c onc e r ne d w i t h t he i de n t i f i -

c a t i o n o f t h e b a s i c f e a t u r e s a n d t h e c o n c e p t u a l i s a t i o n o f t h e s h i f t s th a t

c h a r a c te r i z e th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y i n th e s e t w o p h a s e s .

T h e s e c o n d a c c o u n t c o n c e r n s t h e a n a l y t i c a l r e v i e w o f t h e m a i n c y b e r s p a c e

i n i t i a t i ve s i n t he c i t y du r i ng t he t w o pha s e s , a s w e l l a s , i n c a s e s t ha t a c c u r a t e

d a t a w e r e a v a i l a b l e , t h e d e t e c t i o n o f c r it ic a l o r i n e f f e c t i v e o p e r a t i o n . B o t h

a c c o u n t s i n c l u d e t h e m a p p i n g o u t o f t h e p o l i c y l e v e l s a n d k e y b o d i e s t h a t a r e

i n v o l v e d .

T h e C a s e o f M a n c h e s t e r , U K , 1 9 8 9 - 19 9 9

T h e o v e r a l l t a rg e t o f u r b a n r e s t r u c t u r i n g in M a n c h e s t e r d u r i n g t h e 1 9 9 0 s

w a s t o e s t a b l i s h a s t a b l e ba s e f o r e c onom i c r e s t r uc t u r i ng , t o r e s t o r e t he phys i -

c a l a p p e a r a n c e , a n d e n c o u r a g e t h e r e h a b i t a t i o n o f t h e in n e r - c i t y a re a , a n d

e v e n t u a l l y p r o m o t e t h e c i t y i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y . T o c o p e w i t h t h e i s s u e s o f c o m -

p e t i ti v e n e s s a n d e f f e c ti v e n e s s , lo c a l g o v e r n m e n t h a s d e p l o y e d a n e n t r e p r e -

n e u r i a l c o n c e p t , w h i c h i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y c l o s e p a r t n e r s h i p s w i t h p r i v a t e

d e v e l o p e r s / i n v e s t o r s a n d l o c a l a c to r s ( m u s i c i a n s , m e d i a , l o c a l e n t r e p r e n e u r s ) .

S t r a t e g i c a nd w i de e n t r e p r e ne u r i a l pa r t ne r s h i p s a nd i n t e r - a ge nc y w or k i ng , a l e r t

a n d s u p e r v i s o r y l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s , a n d e f f e c t i v e c i t y m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i e s h a v e

b e e n c o n s i d e r e d a s c r i ti c a l p r o c e s s e s f o r s u c c e s s . T h e a s p e c t s o f t h e u r b a n

r e s t r u c t u r i n g p r o c e s s h a s b e e n a l s o a d d r e s s e d i n t e r m s o f a d v a n c e d I C T s n e t -

w o r k i n g i n f r a s tr u c t u r e , m u l t i m e d i a p r o d u c t i o n a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n , o n - l i n e i n fo r -

m a t i o n , c i t y - r e l a t e d W e b p a g e s e t c . T h e c r u c i a l q u e s t i o n i s i f a n d h o w t h e s e

d e v e l o p m e n t s a r e in t e r r e la t e d a n d i n w h i c h d e g r e e t h e y a r e a s s o c i a t e d a n d

r e f l e c t t h e a b o v e d i s c u s s e d c i t y ' s p r o f i l e , t h e u r b a n r e s t r u c t u r i n g s t r a t e g y a n d

i ts i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o c e s s .



U r b a n C y b e r s p a c e P o l i c y I n i ti a ti v e s i n M a n c h e s t e r U K 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 9 9 1

T h e F ir s t W a v e o f I n i t i a t i v e s 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 4

Manchester's interest in cyberspace emerged in the late 1980s, reflecting

mainly an identified necessity to establish advanced ICT networks infrastruc-

ture in the city, so to gain competitive advantage in trying to address the so-

cioeconomic decline resulted by the strong de-industrialisation process during

the 1970s and 1980s. More precisely, the switch from more traditional prop-

erty-based initiatives to one which was technology-based came about because

key officials and politicians became convinced of the pervasive influence of

this technology across all sectors of the local economy (Gibbs and Leach,

1994: 212). The policy shift then took place considering that in some other

parts of Europe (like Germany, Holland and Scandinavian countries) there

were already innovative urban regeneration initiatives using ICTs--basically

online information and communications services, and public tele-centres. Such

as, the resulted initiatives were two: the establishment of a local ICT network --

the Manchester Host (or Host)--and, in parallel, the establishment of access

and training centres in the city area--the Electronic Village Halls (EVHs).

The Manchester Host (or simply Host) was a local ICT network developed

under a partnership between Manchester City Council, Manchester Metro-

politan University/Centre for Employment Research (CER)--now called

Manchester Institute for Telematics and Employment Research (MITER)-

and Poptel Ltd. The development of this partnership was the result of the

professional position that key-individuals had at the time in these three orga-

nizations, and who were already linked with each other through their involve-

ment in left-wing student groups in the 1976-1979 period. Manchester Host

was established and operated by Poptel based on the GeoNet system, an inter-

national user base originated in Germany, offering a range of services in a

text-based environment: e-mail (with Internet and X400 messaging), fax and

telex facilities, bulletin boards, access to local and external online databases

and networks but not all services that had been proposed from the study.

However, the Host was not capable of supporting more than 2,000 registered

users, while only 16 and eight simultaneous users could access the Host and

the database servers respectively (Graham, 1996: 114). The overall aim of the

Host was to offer low-cost, effective and wide-ranging information and com-

munication services to all those in the city who would be otherwise informa-

tional disadvantaged, particularly SMEs and non-profit organizations. A crucial

target was considered, to develop and then establish a critical mass of local

users, especially in terms of SMEs, so that the Host could be popular enough

in the region in order to attract more users. However, after two years of opera-

tion the Host's development failed to meet the above targets, especially in

terms of SMEs networking. As Table 1 shows, in a total number of 700 users

in February 1993 only 62 were firms.

Most importantly, due to bad evaluation and bad advice the Host system

was not compatible at the outset with the Internet. The technological limita-

tions of the system were the basic reason that early efforts for EC's funding

failed: in 1993 the Telecommunications Directorate (DGXII) considered Host

not broadband enough (Graham, 1996: 162). Besides, it was from the be-



92 Kn owled ge, Technology, Policy / Sprin g 2005

TABLE 1

Users of the Manchester H ost Com puter Ne twork, 1992-1993

Typ e of user 1992 1993 Chang e 1992-1993

No % No % No %

Voluntary Organizations

Education/Training

Local/Central Government

Firms

Individuals

Unions

Total

113 32.9 199 28.4 86 76 .0

61 17.8 104 14.9 43 70.5

50 14.6 130 18.6 80 160.0

47 13.7 62 8.9 15 32.0

40 11.7 161 23.0 121 302.5

32 9.3 44 6.2 12 37.5

343 100 700 I00 357 104.1

Source: Gibbs and Leach, 1994: 219

g i n n i n g m a d e c l e a r t h a t H o s t is n e v e r t o e n j o y s t a bl e, c o r e r e v e n u e i n c o m e

f r o m t h e C i t y C o u n c i l o r e l s e w h e r e , a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e s u b s c r i p t i o n - f e e s w o u l d

b e e n o u g h t o s e c u r e s e l f - f u n d e d a n d lo n g - t e r m o p e r a t i o n . I n 1 9 9 3 P o p t e l w a s

u n d e r i n c r e a s i n g p r e s s u r e f r o m u s e r s t o p r o v i d e m o r e a c c e s s t o t h e I n t e r n e t .

B u t a l t h o u g h th e i n it ia l p l a n s w a s to tr a n s f e r H o s t to a v i r t u a l c i t y o n t h e

W e b , c l o s e ly m o d e l e d o n t h e s y s t e m s d e v e l o p e d b y A m s t e r d a m ( D D S ) a n d

B o l o g n a ( I p e r b o l e ) , w h a t f i n a l l y h a p p e n e d w a s t h e H o s t ' s c o n v e r s i o n i n t o a n

I n t e r n e t S e r v i c e P r o v i d e r ( I S P) , b e i n g a n y m o r e s y n o n y m o u s t o P o p t e l. T h e r e -

f o r e , i n s u m m e r 1 9 9 5, M a n c h e s t e r H o s t s t a r te d t o o p e r a t e a s f u l l I S P o w n e d

a n d m a n a g e d b y P o p t el , h o s t in g m o s t o f lo c a l p u b li c o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d c o m -

m u n i t ie s w e b p a g e s , t h e C i t y C o u n c i l a n d t h e L a b o u r P a r t y w e b s i te s , a n d

h a v i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 , 0 0 0 s u b s c r i b e d u s e r s i n t h e w h o l e .

G r a h a m h a s a r g u e d t h a t H o s t i s t h e f i rs t m u n i c i p a l e f f o r t in t h e U n i t e d K i n g -

d o m t o a p p ly t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f q u a s i - p u b l i c p r o v i s i o n , s o f a m i l i a r i n u r b a n

t r a n s p o r t i n f ra s t r u c t u r e t o t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f l o c a l e l e c t r o n i c i n f r a s t r u c t u r e

( G r a h a m , 1 99 2: 7 7 6 ) . F u r t h er , h e c h a r a c t e r iz e s t h e M a n c h e s t e r H o s t p r o j e c t

a s o n e a m o n g s t t h e m o s t i n f lu e n t i a l u rb a n d e v e l o p m e n t p r o j e c t s i n 1 9 9 0 s

B r i t a in ( G r a h a m , 1 9 9 6: 1 0 9) . H o w e v e r , t h e p r e v i o u s l y p r e s e n t e d f in d i n g s p r o -

v i d e e v i d e n c e s t h a t t h e s e e n t h u s i a s t i c v i e w s a r e r a t h e r c h a l l e n g i n g : t h e H o s t

d i d n o t a c h i e v e to o v e r c o m e t h e s y m b o l i c le v e l a n d t o p r o v i d e t h e b a si s f o r a

w i d e a n d i n c lu s iv e d e v e l o p m e n t o f M a n c h e s t e r o v e r c y b e r s p a c e . B a s ic r ea -

s o n s f o r t h at w e r e t h e w r o n g s e le c t io n i n t e r m s o f t e c h n o l o g y a p p l i e d a n d t h e

d e p e n d e n c e o n sh o r t - te r m f u n d in g . H e n c e , w h i l e th e H o s t m i g h t b e c o n c e i v e d

a s a p i o n e e r i n g p r o j e c t , i t s o v e r a l l a s s e s s m e n t p r o v e s i t s f a i l u r e t o m e e t t h e

t a rg e t s o f t h e i n i t i a l i d e a a n d p l a n .

O n t h e o t h e r si d e, t h e E l e c t ro n i c V i ll a g e H a i ls ( E V H ) a r e c o m m u n i t y c e n -

t r e s t h a t p r o v i d e a c c e s s a n d t r a i n i n g t o I C T s , o r i g i n a t e d i n S c a n d i n a v i a i n t h e

m i d 1 9 8 0s a s a m e a n s o f o v e r c o m i n g t h e i so l a ti o n o f s p a r se l y p o p u l a t e d r u r a l

a r ea s. I n M a n c h e s t e r , th e C e n t r e f o r E m p l o y m e n t R e s e a r c h p r o p o s e d t h e e s-

t a b l is h m e n t o f E V H s i n 1 99 1 s o t o p r o v i d e a l o c a l w i n d o w t o t h e H o s t a n d

s u b s e q u e n t IC T s n e t w o r k s . I n 1 9 9 2 t h r e e E V H s w e r e o f f i c i a l ly l a u n c h e d , f o -

c u s i n g i n s u p p o r t i n g g r o u p s f a c i n g s o c i a l e x c l u s i o n a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n i n t h e

l a b o u r m a r k e t a n d lo c a l S M E s : t h e W o m e n ' s E V H ; t h e M a n c h e s t e r B a n g l a d e s h i



Urban Cyberspaee Policy Initiatives in Manchester UK 1989-1999 93

A s s o c i a t i o n E V H ; a n d t h e C h o r l t o n W o r k s h o p E V H . T h e r e f o r e , t h e E V H s

star ted to opera te as a soc ia l ly complementary in i t ia t ive to Manchester Host ,

to give access to ICTs for ci t izens who do not have a PC (or a telephone) and

to provide t ra in ing courses to ICTs. Al though the Host Pro jec t was essen t ia l ly

d ism isse d in 1995, EVH s co nt in ued to opera te as bu ild ings-centres equippe d

with PCs (approximately 80 in all EVHs, August 1999), modems, scanners, print-

ers, faxes, a wide range of software, full- and part-time training staff, administra-

t ion s taf f , c rbche workers , c leaners and of some voluntary workers . Al though

each EVH is broadly l inked by a shared history they operate independently and

have their own individual br iefs and objectives, as well as separate web si tes.

The fu l l assessment of the i r opera t ion in te rms of ob jec t ives and outcomes,

eff iciency and effectiveness requires specif ic research that is outside the remit

of th is research . Besides , v is i t s f rom researchers a re res t r ic ted and da ta re-

garding stat ist ical records of trainees are not given, as a matter of policy. Based

on the key f indings and pinpoints f rom three evaluation reports (Basker , 1992;

Ducate l and Halfpenny , 1993; IBM, 1997) , as wel l as on da ta co l lec ted f rom

our interviews i t could be br ief ly argued that similar ly to Manchester Host , the

main EVHs' p roblem is concerned wi th the absence of long-per iod funding so

t o c o n f r o n t p r o b l e m s r e g a r d i n g b o t h c a p i t a l a n d r u n n i n g c o s t s . M o r e o v e r ,

desp i t e the dependence o f the EVHs on t echno logy , the re appea r s to be no

techno logy po l i cy a t any o f the in i t i a t ives . As a r e su l t , a l though the EVHs

have crea ted dem and a t a com mu ni ty-b ased level , they fa i led to de l iver be t te r

resu l ts as the i r hardware could no t keep pace wi th the advances of technology

and a lso the i r ac t iv i t ies could no t be p lanned for long te rm due to the unavai l -

ab i li ty of secured funding and fu l l - time s taff . Besides EV Hs have been cr i t ic ised

as p ro jec t s wh ich concen t r a t ed r e sou rces in to a f ew cen t r e s , wi thou t a p ro -

ac t ive work in o rde r to mee t g r ass - roo t needs wi th in the c i ty (Duca te l and

Halfpenny , 1993) . So the i r e f fec t iveness and response to the designed ta rge ts

w e r e f o u nd l i m it e d- -- e xc e p t o f th e W o m e n E V H ( W E V H ) - - b e c a u s e t h ey d i d

not achieve to ref lect f lexibly in local real i t ies and needs. The WEVH is con-

s idered as the most successfu l because , opera t ing in a profess ional basis , i t

l ooked fo r and ga ined a l t e rna t ive sou rces o f fund ing to make the in i t i a t ive

a lmos t se l f - suppor t ing .

Nevertheless, i t is widely recognized that the EVHs did try ini t ial ly to break

b a r ri e rs t h a t c o m m u n i t y g r o u p s , l ik e w o m e n a n d e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s , h a d t o

deal wi th in order to ga in access and t ra in ing in new technologies . With the i r

physica l p resence he lped to make ICTs pol icy more tangib le across the c i ty ,

suppor t ing a lso the d i f fus ion of the ICTs ' use among loca l g roups tha t o f fer -

ing them f ree access and t ra in ing . Besides , the M anche ster EV Hs in i t ia t ive

w a s i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y r e c o g n i z e d i n 1 9 9 6 w h e n i t w o n t h e B a n g e m a n n C h a l -

lenge Award in Stockholm and thus EVHs ac tua l ly const i tu te one of the f lag-

sh ip p ro jec t s o f the u rban cybe r space po l i cy deve loped in Manches te r .

The Second Wave of Urba n Cyberspa ce Pol icy Ini t iatives 1995-1999

While the in t roduct ion of u rban cyberspace po l icy in Manchester in 1989 ,

and the f i r s t wave o f in i t i a t ives were c l ea r enough , focus ing on two in te r -




r e l a t e d p r o j e c t s , t h e s e c o n d w a v e i s b y f a r m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d . A c t u a l l y , i n

1 9 9 4 - 1 9 9 9 p e r i o d t h e r e w a s n o t s i m p l y a w a v e o f IC T s i n i t ia t i v e s b u t r a t h e r

c o n t i n u o u s w a v e s o f i n it ia t i v es , w i t h t h e i n v o l v e m e n t o f m a n y n e w b o d i e s

a n d i n d i v i d u a l s , m a k i n g t h e r e s e a r c h f i e l d m o r e c o m p l e x a n d b r o a d e r . D u e t o

t h e m u l t i p l i c it y o f i n it ia t iv e s , s e v e r a l a c r o n y m s t h a t a r e a c c o r d i n g l y u s e d f o r

b r e v i t y ' s s a k e w i t h i n t h e t e x t a r e e x p l a i n e d i n t h e a b b r e v i a t i o n s p r o v i d e d a t

t h e e n d o f t h e a r t i c l e .

I d e n t i f y i n g t h e B a s i c P o l i c y S h i f t s

D u r i n g e a r l y 1 9 9 0 s , c o l o s s a l a d v a n c e s o c c u r r e d i n t h e g l o b a l I C T s f i e l d a s

t h e I n t e r n e t d o m i n a t e s o v e r a ll o t h e r p u b l ic n e t w o r k s ( l i k e t h e F r e n c h M i n i t e l

a n d t h e i n te r n a t io n a l G e o N e t ) a n d a g r e a t e r te c h n o l o g i c a l c o n v e r g e n c e is d e -

v e l o p e d o v e r t h e w e b , w h i c h i s g r a d u a l l y b e c o m i n g t h e m o s t p o p u l a r v i r t u a l

e n v i r o n m e n t w o r l d w i d e . U n d o u b t e d l y , t h e M a n c h e s t e r H o s t p r o j e c t s t r i k e s

v e r y l i tt le i n f r o n t o f t h e g l o b a l I n t e r n e t / W e b p r o j e c t s , s o m e t h i n g t h a t w a s

p r a c t i c a l l y d e m o n s t r a t e d t h r o u g h i t s f a i l u r e t o m e e t p o l i c y a i m s a n d i t s f i n a l

a b o l i s h m e n t . B e s i d e s , in r e v i e w i n g th e l o c a l e c o n o m y ' s t r e n d s in 1 9 9 4 - 1 9 9 5 ,

i t w a s c l e a r t h a t a c t u a l l y t h e r e w a s i n d e e d a n e c o n o m i c r e a n i m a t i o n i n t h e c i t y

b u t i t h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e c y b e r s p a c e i n i t i a t i v e s d e v e l o p e d i n t h e p r e v i -

o u s p e r io d . T h e e v i d e n c e o f n e w s t a r t -u p f i r m s t h a t w e r e h a p p e n i n g i n th e

C i ty h a d n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h t h e H o s t a n d t h e E V H s . T h e r e w a s e v i d e n c e o f

n e w jo b s a n d b u s i n e s s es e m e r g i n g , b u t th e s e w e r e m o r e r e l a t e d to c u l tu r a l

i n d u s t ri e s s u c h a s m u s i c , n ig h t l i f e , m u l t i m e d i a d e s i g n , a n d f a s h i o n .

O f p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h i s p o l i c y s h i f t w a s t h e v i s i t o f a M a n c h e s t e r

C i t y C o u n c i l ' s s t u d y g r o u p i n N e w Y o r k i n s u m m e r 1 9 9 6 . M a n c h e s t e r ' s r e p -

r e s e n t a t i v e s w e r e s p e c i f i c a l l y u p d a t e d f o r t h e c l o s e c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n l o -

c a l a u t h o ri ti e s a n d t h e N e w Y o r k ' s N e w M e d i a A s s o c i a t io n 2 i n d e v e l o p i n g t h e

S i l i co n A l l e y , a s p e c i a l i z e d m u l t i m e d i a d i s t r i c t i n t h e c o r e o f t h e c i t y ' s c e n -

t r e w h e r e m o r e t h a n 7 0 0 m i c r o a n d s m a l l I C T s a n d c u l t u r a l f i r m s a r e l o c a t e d

g i v i n g a c o n s i d e r a b l e b o o s t i n l o c a l d e v e l o p m e n t ( s e e G r a h a m a n d M a r v i n ,

1 9 9 9 ) . T h u s , b y t h i s w a y , t h e N e w Y o r k ' s S i l i c o n A l l e y m o d e l w a s s e e n a s a

p o s s ib l e m o d e l f o r M a n c h e s t e r a n d i t w a s d e c i d e d t o c o p y s o m e e l e m e n t s o f i t

o n t h e b a si s o f f o u r m a i n p o i n t s: t h e g r o w t h o f m u l t i m e d i a m i c r o - b u s i n e s s e s ;

t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f n e w p e r ip h e r al I n t e r n e t E x c h a n g e C e n t r e s a n d M e t r o p o li -

t an N e t w o r k s ; t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f l o c al e - c o m m e r c e a p p l ic a t io n s ; a n d m o s t

i m p o r ta n t ly , t h e m a r r i a g e o f t h e s e t e c h n o l o g y - d r i v e n d e v e l o p m e n t s w i th c u l -

t u r a l g r o w t h . T h i s p o l i c y c o n c e p t i n p r a c t i c e i s t r a n s l a t e d a s t h e p r o v i s i o n o f a

s u p p o r ti v e f r a m e w o r k - - a n e t w o r k o f c o l l a b o r a t i v e b u s in e s s a n d a g e n c i e s as

w e l l a s t h e n e c e s s a r y t e c h n i c a l i n f r a s t r u c t u r e - - t o s m a l l c r e a t i v e e n t e r p r i s e s .

I n t e c h n o l o g y t e r m s , t h e r e w a s a n a d m i s s i o n o f f a i l u r e i n t h e i n i t i a l a d o p t i o n

o f n o - I n t e r n e t te c h n o l o g y . M o r e o v e r , a s a l r e a d y e x a m i n e d , t h e r a p i d d i f f u s i o n

o f t h e I n te r n e t /W e b , p o s e d s t r es s o n t h e d i r e c t io n o f t h e H o s t . E v e n t u a l l y t h e

H o s t is p u t o u t o f c o n t e s t i n 19 9 5 a n d t h e I n t e r n e t / W e b p l a t f o r m w a s a d o p t e d

a s t h e m a i n t e c h n o l o g y .

O n t h e w h o l e , t h e b a s i c p o l i c y s h i f t s c a n b e s u m m a r i z e d a r o u n d t h e f o l l o w -

i n g p o in t s: ( 1) e x t e n d i n g p a r t n e rs h i p s ; ( 2 ) E u r o p e a n n e t w o r k i n g ; ( 3 ) f o c u s o n



Ur ban Cyberspace Pol icy Initiatives in M anchester UK 1989-1999 95

c r e a t i v e S M E s ; ( 4 ) e x p a n d i n g a c c e s s a n d t r a i n i n g p r o j e c t s ; a n d ( 5 ) a d a p t i n g

I n t e r n e t / W e b t e c h n o l o g y . O n t h i s b a s i s , i n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n s t h e p a p e r w i l l

e x a m i n e t h e a c tu a l p o l i c y m a k i n g p r o c e s s b e y o n d t h e p o li t i c a l rh e t o r ic a n d

t h r o u g h t h e c r i t i c a l r e v i e w o f r e s u l t e d i n i t i a t i v e s a n d p r o j e c t s .

A n a l y z i n g t h e B a s i c P o l i c y I n i t i a t i v e s

I n c o m p a r i s o n t o t h e f i r s t p h a s e , t h e r e s e a r c h m e t c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f f i c u l t i e s

to c o m p r e h e n d a nd m a p o u t t h e w h o l e c o n t e x t o f u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y

d e p l o y e d i n t h e s e c o n d p h a s e . T h i s h a p p e n e d b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e n u m b e r o f

i n i t i a t i v e s a n d p r o j e c t s i n w h i c h m a n y l o c a l , p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e b o d i e s w e r e

i n v o l v e d i n t h e f i e l d i n o r d e r t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f a v a i l a b l e f u n d i n g a n d t o

de v e l op p r o j e c t s s u i t a b l e to t he i r s pe c i f i c in t e r e s t . M or e o ve r , t he r e a r e no f e a -

s ib i li ty s t u d i e s a n d e v a l u a t i o n r e p o r ts , a s w e l l a s i n d e p e n d e n t a s s e s s m e n t s f o r

t h i s p e r i o d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e s e a r c h l o c a t e d a n d i n v e s t i g a t e d 2 2 i n i t i a t i v e s ,

w h i c h a r e b r i e f l y p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 2 . S e v e r a l p r o j e c t s w e r e e x c l u d e d s i n c e

t h e y w e r e c o v e r e d b y t h e a c t iv i ti e s o f l a r g e r a n d t h u s f i n a n c i a l ly m o r e s i g n if i -

c a n t i n i t i a t i v e s o r b e c a u s e t h e r e w a s n o i n d i c a t i o n f o r a n y k i n d o f i n v o l v e -

m e n t i n t h e M a n c h e s t e r ' s u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y a g e n d a .

H e n c e , T a b le 2 m a p s o u t th e d e p l o y m e n t o f u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y m a k i n g

t h r ough t he c l a s s i f i c a t i on o f t he r e s u l t e d i n i t i a t i ve s a nd p r o j e c t s a c c o r d i ng t o a

c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d er , p o i n t in g o u t a l s o t h e t o ta l a m o u n t o f f i n a n c ia l i n p u t ( f u n d -

i ng ) . T he t a b l e i nc l ude s a c he c k l i s t on t he r i gh t s i de t ha t i nd i c a t e s t he c ha r a c -

t er o f e a c h i n it ia t iv e r e g a r d in g t h e f o u r m a j o r a r e a s o f u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y

a p p l i c a t i o n s a s i d e n t i f i e d e a rl ie r . I n s u m m a r y , m o r e t h a n s m i l l i o n m a t c h -

i n g fu n d i n g f r o m t h e E u r o p e a n U n i o n , th e B r i t is h g o v e r n m e n t a n d p r iv a t e

r e s o u r c e s h a v e b e e n i n v e s t e d , w h i l e m o r e t h a n 5 0 p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e b o d i e s

h a v e b e e n i n v o l v e d i n th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e s e i n i ti a ti v e s , w h i c h i n t h e ir

m a j o r i ty a r e e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t d r i v en . I n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a c r i ti c al a n d

o n a c o m p a r a b l e b a s i s r e v i e w , t h e n e x t s e c t i o n s d i s c u s s f u r t h e r , b u t b r i e f l y ,

t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s i n M a n c h e s t e r a c c o r d -

i ng t o t he f ou r m a j o r a pp l i c a t i on a r e a s , a s p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r i n t h i s pa pe r .

A r e a 1 : E c o n o m i c D e v e l o p m e n t

I t is o f t e n a r g u e d t h a t a s th e s h i p c a n a l - - t h e b i g g e s t c i v il e n g i n e e r i n g p r o j e c t

i n t he c i t y du r i ng t he n i ne t e e n t h c e n t u r y - - - c ha nge d t he s oc i a l a nd s pa t i a l s t r uc -

t u r e o f t h e c i t y , s i m i l a r l y t h e c o m p u t e r n e t w o r k s w i l l s h a p e t h e M a n c h e s t e r ' s

f u t u r e in t he i n f o r m a t i on a ge ( i .e ., M a nc he s t e r C i t y Co unc i l , 1999 ) . T he i n i ti a -

t i v e t h a t i s m o s t l y d i s c u s s e d u n d e r t h i s v i e w i s t h e G r e a t e r M a n c h e s t e r I n f o r -

m a t i o n N e t w o r k G r o u p o r G - M I N G . T h e G - M I N G p r o j e c t o r i g i n a t e d i n 1 9 9 3

w h e n a f e a s i b il it y s t u d y w a s f u n d e d b y t h e s ix l o c a l H i g h e r E d u c a t i o n a l I n s t i-

t u t e s ( H E I s ) t o e x a m i n e t h e s c o p e a n d p o t e n t i a l f o r a h i g h s p e e d M e t r o p o l i t a n

A r e a N e t w o r k . G r a d u a l l y t h e M a n c h e s t e r C i t y C o u n c i l r e c o g n i z e d t h e p o t e n -

t i a l o f G - M I N G , g e t t i n g i n v o l v e d i n t h e p r o j e c t a n d s u p p o r t i n g i t s f u r t h e r d e -

v e l o p m e n t . T h e a r g u m e n t w a s t h a t i n o r d e r t o p r o m o t e M a n c h e s t e r a s

E u r o p e a n r e g i o n a l c e n t re i t w o u l d b e v e r y i m p o r t a n t t o b u i l d n e t w o r k s , t o



96 Kn ow ledge, Technology, Policy / Spring 2005

Table 2

M apping O ut the Urban Cyberspace Policy Init iatives in Manchester, 1994-1999

I n i t i a ti v e s P r o j e c t s

Elec t ron i c Vi l l age Ha l l s EV Hs)

D e v e l o p M a n c h e s t e r a s a C e n t r e o f

E x c e l l e n c e i n I C T s 1 9 9 4 )

M a n c h e s t e r T e l em a t i c s a n d T e l e w o r k i n g

P a r t n e r s h i p M T T P )

M a n c h e s t e r T e c h n o lo g y M a n a g e m e n t

C e n t r e M T M C )

M a n c h e s t e r C o m m u n i t y I n fo r m a t i o n

N e t w o r k M C I N )

G r e a t e r M a n c h e s t e r I n fo r m a t i o n

N e t w o r k G r o u p G - M I N G )

N o r t h e r n Q u a r t e r N e t w o r k N Q N )

Info rm a t ion Soc i e ty In i t i a ti ve Loca l

S u p p o r t C e n t r e M a n c h e s t e r

M a n c h e s t e r M u l t i m e d i a C e n t r e

and

N e t w o r k M M C N )

I n n o v a t i o n i n D i g i t a l and Elec t ron i c Ar t s

I D E A ) - G e t t i n g O n l i n e G O )

M a n c h e s t e r T e c h n o p o l e

I n f o r m a t i o n S o c i e ty A w a r e n e s s I S A )

M a n c h e s t e r N e t w o r k A c c e s s P o i n t

M a N A P )

I N F O C I T I E S

T e l e m a t i c s f o r M i c r o a n d S m a l l

En te rp r i se s

C y b e r s c h o o l

Cen t re o f Expe r t i se i n e l ec t ron i c

C o m m e r c e C E e C )

Te leCi ty

M anche s t e r C i ty Counc i l In t r ane t -

Ex t rane t

C e n t r e o f E x c e l le n c e i n I T

ski l l s

N o r t h W e s t N e w M e d i a N e t w o r k

N W N M N )

Cultural I n d u s t r ie s D e v e l o p m e n t S e r v i c e

Y e a r o f F u n d s U r b a n C y b e r s p a c e P o l ic y

L a u n c h A p p l i c a ti o n A r e a s

1 2 3 4

1992 s ? ?

1994 ?

1994 s ?

1995 s ?

1995 s ? ?

1995 s ? ?

1995 s ?

1996 s ?

1996 s ? ? ?

19 96 s .9 ?

1997 ?

1997 s ? ?

1997 s ?

1997 s ?

1997 s ?

1998 s 1 ,000,000 ?

1998 s ?

1998 s ?

1998 s ?

1999 ?

1999 s ?

1999 s ?

p u t in t h e p h y s i c a l c o n n e c t io n s , t o in v e s t in r e a l in f r a s t r u c t u r e . B y A u g u s t

2001 G-MING has reached a to ta l o f 32 s i t es most ly in the centra l and south

part o f the c i ty , serv ing a number o f impo rtant pub l ic b u i ld ings such as the

Town Hall , hospita ls , l ibraries , and clusters of high technology at the Manches-

t er Sc ience Park , but be ing s t i l l f ar f rom the target to serve the who le metro -

politan area .

On the o ther hand, the promot ion o f e -bus iness in Manches ter i s ex tremely

heterogeneous as there i s a var ie ty o f government , loca l author i ty , and o ther

agen cies providing a wi de range o f related servic es to loca l enterprises. Tho ugh ,

i t i s in t h e ar e a o f l o c a l e c o n o m y /ma r k e t t ha t o n e c a n id e n t i f y t h e s t r o n g e s t



U r b a n C y b e r s p a c e P o l i c y I n i ti a ti v e s i n M a n c h e s t e r U K 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 9 9 7

o v e r l a p i n t h e o b j e c t i v e s a n d a c t iv i t ie s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t I C T s i n i ti a t iv e s a n d

i n v o l v e d a g e n c i e s i n M a n c h e s t e r . O n t h e o n e h a n d a g e n c i e s l i k e M a n c h e s t e r

T E C a n d M a n c h e s t e r B u s i n e s s L i n k h a v e b e e n i n v o l v e d i n t h e f i e l d s i n c e

e a r ly 1 9 9 6 t h r o u g h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f g o v e r n m e n t a l p r o g r a m s , s u c h a s t h e

s m i l l i o n I n f o r m a t i o n S o c i e t y I n i ti a ti v e ( IS I ) a n d t h e s m i l l i o n I C T L e a r n -

i n g C e n t r e s . T h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s ' I C T s p o l i c y i n t e r v e n t i o n h a s m o s t l y f o -

c u s e d o n M a n c h e s t e r ' s c u lt u ra l a n d c re a t iv e S M E s , w i t h M a n c h e s t e r T e c h n o l o g y

M a n a g e m e n t C e n t r e a n d t h e M a n c h e s t e r M u l t i m e d i a C e n t r e a n d N e t w o r k a s

t h e p r i m a r y i n i t i a t i v e s . B o t h a r e j o i n t i n i t i a t i v e s b e t w e e n t h e a l r e a d y p a r t n e r s

i n t h e H o s t , t h e r e f o r e t h e M a n c h e s t e r C i t y C o u n c i l a n d t h e M a n c h e s t e r I n s t i -

t ut e f o r T e le m a t ic s an d E m p l o y m e n t R e s e a r c h ( M I T E R ) a t M a n c h e s t e r M e t ro -

p o l i t a n U n i v e r s i t y . T h e M T M C i s o p e r a t i n g a s a b u s i n e s s c o n s u l t a n c y t h a t

a i m s t o p r o v i d e f r e e -o f - c h a r g e s e r v ic e s f o r d e v e l o p i n g a n d s u p p o r t i n g p r o -

c e s s es o f i n n o v a t i o n , te c h n o l o g y t r a n s fe r a n d s p i n o f f. A l t h o u g h o f f i c i al r e c o r d s

a r e n o t y e t a v a i l a b l e , f r o m J a n u a r y I 9 9 6 t i l l S e p t e m b e r 1 9 9 9 n o m o r e t h a n 8 0

l o c a l e n t e r p r i s e s h a v e c o n t a c t e d t h e M T M C f o r v a r i o u s k i n d s o f c o n s u l t a n c y

a n d s u p p o r t f o r d e v e l o p i n g e -b u s i n e s s a p p l i c a ti o n s s u c h a s c o m m e r c i a l W e b

s i t e s . I n e a r l y 2 0 0 0 M T M C w a s v i r t u a l l y t r a n s f o r m e d i n a n e w p r o j e c t , t h e

N o r t h W e s t N e w M e d i a N e t w o r k ( N W N M N ) . F u n d e d w i t h s b y t h e

E R D F th e N W N M N , a i m s t o r e c r e a t e o r r e p l ic a t e t h e p r e - d i g i ta l i n d u s t r y

s u p p l y c h a i n s w i t h i n a d i g i t a l n e t w o r k . I t c o m p r i s e s 8 0 c r e a t i v e c o m p a n i e s i n

t h e p r i n t i n g , p u b l i s h i n g , m e d i a b r o a d c a s t i n g , w e b d e s i g n , m u s i c , a d v e r t i s i n g

a n d m a r k e t i n g , a r c h i t e c t u r e , g r a p h i c d e s i g n , e n t e r t a i n m e n t , e d u c a t i o n , a n i m a -

t ion , a nd m u l t i m e d i a s e c to r s . O n t he o t he r ha nd , a s it s na m e i nd i c a t e s , M a nc he s -

t e r M u l t i m e d i a C e n t r e a n d N e t w o r k i s a t w o f o l d i n it ia t iv e : F i rs t, M M C N o p e r a t e s

a h i g h - b a n d w i d t h (A T M ) n e t w o r k a s a l o c al I n t r a n e t ( w i t h in t h e M M C N ' s m e d i a

l ab s ) a n d in a w i d e r c o n t e x t a s a m a j o r A T M h u b o n t h e G - M I N G M e t r o p o l i t a n

A r e a N e t w o r k . S e c o n d , M M C N i s a p h y s i c a l c e n t re , p a rt o f t h e M a n c h e s t e r

I n s ti tu t e f o r T e le m a t i c s a n d E m p l o y m e n t R e s e a r c h ( M I T E R ) , w i th i n t h e G e o f f r e y

M a n t o n B u i l d i n g ( S o c ia l an d H u m a n i t i e s S t u d i es ) o f M M U . T h e M u l t i m e d i a

C e n t r e c o m p r i s e s a s m a l l t r a i n i n g l a b b u t i t d o e s n o t p r o v i d e f o r m a l i z e d t r a i n -

i n g c o u r s e s . T h o u g h , i t m a y i n c l u d e t r a i n i n g a s p a r t o f i t s a c t i v i t i e s , i n c o l -

l a b o r a t i o n w i t h o t h e r i n i t i a t i v e s . I n a d d i t i o n , w h i l e M a n c h e s t e r T e c h n o l o g y

M a n a g e m e n t C e n t r e i s o f f e r i n g a c c e s s to s p e c i a l i s t s ' c o n s u l t a n c y , n o t c a s h ,

t h e M M C N d i f f e r s i n t h a t i t i s a c a p i t a l a n d r e v e n u e p r o j e c t a n d i t i s a b l e t o

p r o v i d e c a p i t a l g r a n t s . F o r i n s t a n c e , i n 1 9 9 7 , t h e M M C N a w a r d e d a s m a l l

n u m b e r ( 1 2 ) o f l o c a l s m a l l c o m p a n i e s w i t h g r a n t s o f s t o s t o

p r o v i d e m u l t i m e d i a e q u i p m e n t f o r s m a ll i n n o v a t i v e c o m p a n i e s a n d o t h e r o r -

ga n i z a t i ons i n a s e r i e s o f t w o c a l l s f o r p r o j e c t p r opos a l s .

B e s i d e s M T M C a n d M M C N , a n o t h e r t w o i n i ti a ti v e s h a v e b e e n e s t a b li s h e d

t o p r o m o t e th e u s e a n d e x p l o r a ti o n o f I C T s b y l o c a l c u l tu r a l S M E s : t h e N o r t h -

e r n Q u a r t e r N e t w o r k ( N Q N ) a n d t h e I n n o v a t i o n i n D i g i t a l a n d E l e c t r o n i c A r t s

( I D E A ) . T h e N o r t h e r n Q u a r t e r N e t w o r k ( N Q N ) i n i t i a t i v e w a s l a u n c h e d b y

M a n c h e s t e r I n s t i t u t e f o r P o p u l a r C u l t u r e ( M a n c h e s t e r M e t r o p o l i t a n U n i v e r -

s it y ) in o r d e r t o p r o v i d e s u p p o r t a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s fo r c u l t u r a l

S M E s l o c a t e d i n t h e N o r t h e r n Q u a r t e r A r e a o f M a n c h e s t e r C i t y c e n t r e . A t t h e

b e g i n n i n g t h e C i ty C o u n c i l w a s n o t e n t h u s i a st i c a b o u t t h e i d e a a s i ts i n t e n t i o n




was to focus on the built environment, but it was finally convinced due to the

enthusiasm that the association of businesses in the area showed for the project.

Therefore, while the emphasis of local authorities was on built environment

and hard regeneration projects, the NQN initiative focused on the exploitation

of the Internet so to develop and manage a 'virtual workspace without walls'

that would foster the networking between SMEs and promote their activities

and products across the world. As the project evolved and gathered feedback

on its work, it posed new issues for policy and action. This has resulted in a

set of 'spin-off' projects, which emerged out of the NQN work program and

the conclusions drawn from it (see Blanchard, 1999). By November 1999 the

Northern Quarter Network was even tuall y absorbed by its spin-o ff but

citywide Cultural Industries Development Service (CIDS) initiative as a cul-

tural business support agency over and off the Internet. On the whole, al-

though the NQN was a local scale pilot project, with only two persons as staff,

a very limited budget, and a relative brief time horizon in which to maneuver,

it delivered pioneering work regarding the marriage of cyberspace and cul-

ture-led urban regeneration policy.

The collaboration between the City Council and MMU on the particular

field encompasses also Innovation in Digital and Electronic Arts (IDEA) ini-

tiative. IDEA was established to put together ICTs applications, training, and

support for small creative industries, to give that sector the skills that may

need to use the Internet. IDEA was established to put together ICTs applica-

tions, training, and support for small creative industries, to give that sector the

skills that may need to use the Internet. In addition, IDEA provides a modular

multimedia-training course for beginners, improvers, and specialists, consti-

tuted by two sessions of five weeks each, which requires registration fees of

s Furthermore, and similarly to the CIDS' Showcase project, the IDEA

Web site demonstrates various digital arts projects produced in IDEA's work-

shops. On the whole, the contribution of IDEA to human resource capacity of

Manchester's creative industry would appear to be significant, especially in

terms of the quality and relevance of training to industry needs.

A r e a 2: C o m m u n i t y C o h e s i o n a n d D e v e l o p m e n t

Along with the central issue-aim of economic development, the urban

cyberspace policy in Manchester in the 1994-1999 period has also maintained

the aim to overcome the problem of social exclusion from technologically

advanced islands within the city area. Despite the policy rhetoric however,

as Table 2 indicates, the range of initiatives in this area of urban cyberspace

policy interest is limited compared to the range of economic development

driven initiatives. In general, the main focus here is concerned with develop-

ing a network of local ICTs access and training centres around the city linked

to the Multimedia Centre and Network (MMCN), promoting these initiatives

through the 'Information Society Awareness' project, and developing the

Manchester Community Information Network. Apart from these, worth men-

tioning are the related activities of Workers Educational Association (WEA)

and the Getting Online (GO) and Cyberschool initiatives. WEA and GO pro-



U r b a n C y b e r s p a c e P o l i c y I n i ti a t iv e s i n M a n c h e s t e r U K 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 9 9 9

vide free or at low-cost access and training to multimedia and Internet/Web

technologies to citizens, while the Cyberschool aims to provide correspond-

ing services to Manchester's schools.

The most important project in this area is the Manchester Community Infor

mation Network

(MCIN). It was established in April 1995 after a competition,

launched by the Manchester offices of Management Consultants KPMG, as a

non-profit-making company limited by guarantee, aiming to bring together

public and community information providers in order to develop an integrated

and free-of-charge community information database. The MCIN Board, which

was set up immediately after the launch of the project, comprised of informa-

tion providers from the voluntary sector, the City Council, Manchester Metro-

politan University, North Manchester Healthcare NHS Trust, the public library

service, the Poptel and, of course, the Management Consultants KPMG. The

MCIN

offices are located in Moston, North Manchester, unlike most ICTs

related organizations that are located within City Centre-Universities-Science

Park area. Since its inception in 1996, staffing levels of MCIN have varied

depending on circumstances and funding availability. On the other hand, Web

space and technical support have been provided by Poptel/Host (Internet Pro-

viders) and equipment donated by KPMG. In September 1999 information

providers include twelve public organizations from the Greater Manchester

Area. The MCIN has been active in two key areas of work: public access to

computer terminals and information kiosks, and a community information

network web site, upgraded, and renamed as 'mymanchester in summer

1998. Regarding the first area of MCIN's work, it has located ten computer

terminals in six different sites in North Manchester in a variety of public set-

tings. According to the evaluation report by SEMA Group (1998), a total of

68,115 information transactions were logged over the aggregate total of 554

days (November 1996--June 1998) that the six kiosks were available. The

overall trend, though, shows that kiosk usage has been decreasing over time.

Moreover, the process for user account creation has proved to be highly unre-

liable; of a total of 1693 registration attempts, 809 (48 percent) were unsuc-

cessful. Average user session duration was approximately 35 seconds. This

indicates that a typical user would use the kiosk either out of curiosity or to

satisfy a single specific information need.

On the other hand, the MyManches ter web site launched in 1998 as a

community-portal site, which would inter-link and eventually integrate a wide

range of Web sites that offer information and communication services to local

comm uni ty over the Internet. Spawned from the MCI N's web site at

www.mcin.net and thus exclusively managed by the MCIN, MyManchester

(www.mymanchester.net) is primarily targeted at Manchest er's citizens and

secondarily at its visitors. The web site does not offer exclusive content to

users but mostly links to organizations and agencies related with the sub-

sections' topics provided from the developers of the site but also from other

individuals that can add a link to the site. The breakdown of these links by the

11

sub-sections indicates that the issues of Advice and Support, Commu-

nity, and Leisure have the largest concentration . In discussion forums

provided, one of the main sections of the site, users can find a list of all gen-



100 K now ledge, Technology, & Policy / Sprin g 2005

eral discussion forum and bulletin board topics that involve training and vol-

unteer opportunities, local events, funding/grants, community notices, jobs

computer issues/licenses, healthy living networks and the web site itself.

No statistics on the Web site's operation were available as a matter of policy.

They will be released on a forthcoming evaluation report from MCIN. How-

ever, through observing and participating in User Forums, we found out

that their use is limited and most of the contributors are staff and volunteers

from MCIN who usually update various news and events. More specifically,

only 32 users are registered and the statistics on threads (discussion subjects)

and postings in July 2001, shown in Table 3, indicates that the Local Events

forum is the most popular, followed by Community Notices. These results

are in line with the large concentration of links observed in the Advice and

Support, and Community subsections discussed earlier.

In July 1998 MCIN secured s matching funding for the next three

years from the ERDF and the Lottery (Manchester City Council, 1998: 13),

but the estimated amount of money needed to meet the MCIN's Board target

to establish 300-500 kiosks by 2002 was s163 million. Overall, MCIN op-

eration is very much based upon the availability of funding, having similar

therefore problems to EVHs' operation, particularly in terms of staffing and

technology upgrading issues.

A r e a 3: U r b a n G o v e r n a n c e , M a n a g e m e n t , a n d P l a n n in g

This area of policy interest and intervention is mostly related with the de-

velopment and operation of various Web sites. Approximately 50 Manchester

based public organizations have developed Web sites through which some-

TABLE 4

MyM anchester W eb Site: Statistics on Thr eads and Posts in User Foru m s for

July 2001

Commun i t y B u l l e ti n B oard T h r e a d s P o s t s

32 43

raining & Volunteer Opps

Local Events

Funding/Grants

Community Notices

62 76

36 43

41 48

Jobs 18 25

Communi ty i s c u s s i o n F o r u m s

18

ave Your Say

Computer Issues/Licenses

Healthy Living Networks

M ymanch ester n et

What Do You Think of Our Site? 3 8

Add a Site 17 43



U r b a n C y b e r s p a c e P o l i c y I n i ti a ti v e s i n M a n c h e s t e r U K 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 9 1 0 1

o n e c a n g e t a c c e s s t o i n f o r m a t i o n s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d b y t h e s e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I n

a d d it io n , M C I N a l t h o u g h i t w a s e x a m i n e d u n d e r t h e t h e m e o f c o m m u n i t y

n e t w o r k i n g i s a l so h i g h l y r e la t e d t o t h e p r e s e n t a r e a s i n c e it s f u n c t i o n i s

a i m i n g t o i n t e g r a te v a r i o u s i n f o r m a t i o n re s o u r c e s i n t h e M a n c h e s t e r a r e a. F u r -

t h e r m o r e , t h e c i t y c o u n c i l t h r o u g h i t s w e b s i t e i s a i m i n g t o m o d e r n i z e a n d

d e m o c r a t i z e t h e p u b l i c s e r v i c e s p r o v i s i o n p r o c e s s a n d t o i m p r o v e t h e c o m -

m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n l o c a l a u t h o r i t ie s a n d c i t i z e n s .

T h e c i ty c o u n c i l ' s w e b s it e ( w w w . m a n c h e s t e r . g o v . u k ) i s p r i m a r i l y a i m e d t o

o f f e r f r e e , e f f e c t i v e a n d w i d e - r a n g i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e r -

v i c e s to r e s i d e n t s a n d n o n - r e s i d e n t s o f M a n c h e s t e r . T h e r a n g e o f o b j e c t i v e s

i n c lu d e , a m o n g o t h e rs , h i g h l y a m b i t i o u s r h e to r i c s u c h a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

a W e b s i t e a t t he l e a d i ng e dge o f d i g i t a l pub l i s h i ng , a nd t he a b i l i t y o f u s e r s t o

p a r ti c ip a t e i n t h e p la n n i n g a n d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s . A s t h e p r o f e s s i o n

o f s it e 's o w n e r s / m a n a g e r s in d i c a t e s , th e c o n t e n t s a n d s e r v i c e s a re p r e d o m i -

n a n t l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h a w i d e r a n g e o f i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e M a n c h e s t e r

C i t y Counc i l ' s s t r uc t u r e , a c t i v i t i e s , a nd s e r v i c e s . I t i nc l ude s on l i ne ve r s i ons o f

t h e c o u n c i l ' s a g e n d a s , r e p o r t s , c a l e n d a r , a n d m i n u t e s o f m e e t i n g s , p r o v i d i n g

a l so i n f o r m a t i o n o n e le c t o r a l s e r v i c e s, p l a n n i n g t e r m s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s , t h e

d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e ss , c o u n c i l o r s a n d l o c a l M P s . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e

C o u n c i l S e r v i c e s p a r t o f th e w e b s it e b a s ic a l ly p r o v i d e s d e s c r i p t i v e i n fo r -

m a t i o n o n t h e c o u n c i l 's v a r i o u s d e p a r t m e n t s / o f f ic e s r e g a r d i n g t h e r a n g e o f

s e r v i c e s , a r e a s o f li a b i li t ie s , t e r m s a n d c o n d i t i o n s , a n d c o n t a c t d e t a i l s . I t i s

s u b d i v i d e d in t o s ix s e c t i o n s th a t ar e m a n a g e d a n d r e g u l a r l y u p d a t e d b y t h e

c o r r e s p o n d i n g c o u n c i l ' s d e p a r t m e n t s / o f f i c e s : h o u s i n g , m u n i c i p a l l i b r a r i e s ,

e d u c a t i o n , l e i s u r e , s o c i a l s e r v i c e s , a n d a d v i c e . T h e w e b s i t e ' s m a n a g e r s h a v e

no t de a l ye t w i t h t he s t a t i s t i c s o f t he w e b s i t e , a l t hough i t w a s s c he du l e d t ha t

b y t h e e n d o f 1 9 9 8 t h e y w o u l d p r o d u c e a p r o g r e s s r e p o r t a n d s u m m a r i z e t h e

s i te ' s g r o w t h . T h i s n e v e r h a p p e n e d f ir s t b e c a u s e o f th e f o c u s o n t h e s i t e ' s

i n f o r m a t i o n b a se a n d t h e I n t r a n e t p r o j e c t a n d , s e c o n d b e c a u s e o f th e i n a d -

e q u a t e I n t e r n e t se r v i c e s p r o v i d e d b y P o p t e l . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e r e s e a r c h m a n -

a g e d t o a c c e s s a l i m i t e d r a n g e o f w e b s i t e 's s t a t i st i c a l d a t a f o r t h e p e r i o d

F e b r u a r y - M a y 1 9 9 9. A c c o r d i n g to t h e se , th e a v e r a g e o f w e e k l y r e q u e s t s is

4 3 , 8 9 5 c o r r e s p o n d i n g to 6 ,4 5 6 u s e r s , f a r s m a l l e r f i g u r e s c o m p a r e d t o t h o s e o f

t h e V i r t u a l M a n c h e s t e r W e b s it e ( w w w . m a n c h e s t e r . c o m ) , w h i c h i s a c l e a r ly

p r i va t e i n i t i a t i ve . I n t e r m s o f w he r e f r om us e r s a c c e s s t he s i t e , t he w e b s t a t i s -

t i c s i nd i c a t e t ha t 42 pe r c e n t o f t he u s e r s a c c e s s t he s i t e f r om t he U n i t e d K i ng -

d o m , 4 4 p e r c e n t f r o m o t h e r c o u n t r i e s ( 2 0 p e r c e n t f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ) , a n d

t h e r e s t 1 4 p e r c e n t is o f u n k n o w n o r i g i n .

A c l o s e l y r e l a t e d , i f n o t t w i n p r o j e c t i s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e C o u n c i l ' s

I n t r a ne t / E x t r a ne t s y s t e m . A s F i gu r e 1 i l l u s t r a t e s , t ha nks t o t he I n t r a ne t / E x t r a ne t

t h e C o u n c i l ' s v a r i o u s o f f i c e s c a n g e t g r a d u a l l y F T P a c c e s s t o t h e w e b s e r v e r .

T o b e m o r e p r e c i s e , t h e I n t r a n e t / E x t r a n e t p r o j e c t s t a r t e d i n a u t u m n 1 9 9 8

a n d i s c o n s i d e r e d s t r a t e g i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n m a n a g i n g p u b l i c i n f o r m a t i o n s e r -

v i c e s w i t h i n t h e T o w n H a l l a n d i t s a s s o c i a t e s , a n d r e s p o n d i n g t o c e n t r a l g o v -

e r n m e n t a l e x h o r t a t i o n s to h a v e 2 5 p e r c e n t o f p u b l i c s e r v i c e s o n l i n e b y t h e

y e a r 2 0 0 5 . B e s i d e s , th e E x t r a n e t s y s t e m w i l l i n te g r a t e th e c i t y c o u n c i l ' s I n t r a n e t

w i t h a w i d e r c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k t h a t i n c l u d e s o t h e r lo c a l i n f o r m a t i o n



102

K n o w l e d g e , T e c h n o l o g y , & P o l i c y / S p r i n g 2 0 0 5

F I G U R E 1

P r o c e s s o f D e v e l o p in g t h e M a n c h e s t e r C i t y C o u n c i l ' s W e b S i t e t h r o u g h t h e I n t r a n e t /

E x t r a n e t S y s t e m

I Info~rnatl ~ s placed

I n tem et / I n t rane t by D o p o r l n o n l

o r C o rp o r at e ~ r n a s t e r

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W IZ AR D o r D ~ 3 a r l l T ~ t a l

WeD maste~ to inpu t

o n t o

Internet / ln l ranet , L lalses wl t r~ Vvlzard

for cof l :x:~ate Issues

I W z a rd a g r e e s t r a t e g ~ d e c L ~ io n

which ma y af fect co rporate

cl l rect ;on of Internet / lnt ranef .

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n e c e s s o ~ s u b m l t r o p o s a ls t

reporls ~o CO GII or II

W oadnc j Po t t y

[ D ~ r t m e r T r O l L R vlT 's e c k l e o n

c o n t e n t or the Intefnet /Intranet or

receive p roposals r o m ~ l ~ b m a s t e r

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puts roposals o e p o r l m e n t a l

Managerr~ n ts I ~ a m s f o r opptovol .

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t o requ i rea fo rm of f o r a . llDrn l~ lon to

InternetAntronet.Dependingon r~ t t .~e

o f I n f o f l ~ a t lo n W l Z AR D o g r e e c n e n t

r n a y b e n e c e s s a r y

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po~lio4e Infofrnotlon for

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P o p t e l / M C C i ~ l

, I nt er ne t I N T R A N E T ~

O E P R E N T L

I P ~ W E B M A S T E R S

b. ] D E P A R T M E N T A L U NI T S

r j USERS I

p r o v id e r s s u c h a s t h e M a n c h e s t er C o m m u n i t y I n f o r m a t i o n N e t w o r k , t h e M u l -

t i m e d i a C e n t r e, th e T o u r i st I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t r e, e tc . C o u n c i l ' s e m p l o y e e s w i l l

a l s o b e i n a b e t te r p o s i t i o n , w o r k i n g t o g e t h e r c o r p o r a t e l y a n d r e s p o n d i n g t o

e n q u i r i e s m o r e e f fe c t i v e l y . O n t h e o th e r h a n d , a n d b y g e n e r a l c o n s e n t , t h e

I n t ra n e t /E x t r a n e t s y s t e m s h o u l d b e d e v e l o p e d m u c h e a r li er , a s t h e f o u n d a t i o n

f o r I n te r n e t/ W e b a p p l i c a ti o n s , s o m e t h i n g t h at h a p p e n e d in m o s t o f b e s t e x -

a m p l e s i n t he E u r o p e a n U n i o n l ik e A n t w e r p a n d B o l o g n a . T h i s d i d n o t h a p -

p e n b a s i c a l ly b e c a u s e t h e c i ty c o u n c i l ' s I C T n e t w o r k p l a tf o r m w a s b a s e d o n

M a n c h e s t e r H o s t t e c h n o l o g y t h a t w a s i n a d e q u a t e .

H o l i s t i c a n d S t r a t e g i c A p p r o a c h

D u r i n g 1 9 9 4 t h e M a n c h e s t e r H o s t i n i t i a t i v e h a d t h e l a s t c h a n c e t o k e e p i t s

c e n t r a l r o l e i n M a n c h e s t e r ' s I C T s p o l i c y f i e l d t h r o u g h t h e i n t e g r a t i o n o v e r i t

o f a ll 4 0 s m a l l s e c to r i a l a n d o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o j e c t s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d t h e

M a n c h e s te r 's A r t s - B u s in e s s -C o m m u n i ty N e t w o r k . A l t h o u g h t h is a tt em p t w a s

n o t s u c c e s s f u l , i t e v e n t u a l l y h a d a s h a r e i n t h e i n c l u s i o n o f a s t r a t e g i c i n i t i a -

t iv e n a m e d D e v e l o p M a n c h e s t e r a s a C e n t r e o f E x c e l l e n c e i n I C T s a m o n g

t h e 4 2 u r b a n r e g e n e r a t i o n s t r a t e g i c p r o j e c t s i n t h e C i t y P r i d e A r e a ( M a n c h e s -

te r, S a l f o r d , a n d T r a f f o r d ). H o w e v e r , t h e i n i t i a t i v e b e c a m e q u i c k l y i n o p e r a -

t iv e . N e v e r t h e l e s s , it c o n f i r m e d t h e p o l i c y s h i f t t o w a r d s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f

w i d e r a n d s t r o n g e r p a r t n e r s h i p s , s o t o b u i l d u p , a s s t r o n g a s p o s s i b l e , a c u l t u r e




of awareness and use of ICTs by as wide a cross-section of society as pos-

sible.

This policy commitment lead to the establishment of another strategic ini-

tiative in the same year (1994), the Manchester Telematics and Teleworking

Partnership (MTTP). The MTTP was established as a joint initiative between

the initiators of Manchester Host in order to bring together a wide range of

local agencies to discuss, explore and exploit the potential of ICTs in local

development. MTTP was established in order to support and coordinate the

necessary local partnerships that the EC considers important fact to subsidize

an ICT project. The element of central coordination of funding permitted the

initiators of MTTP to claim for the first true attempt to develop a holistic urban

cyberspace policy approach. However, to the extent that the partnership is

operating without a formal structure and frequency of meetings, and an inte-

grated management plan, but rather as a kind of group of people who arrange

the funding bids, serious problems have been caused in terms of developing a

truly holistic framework for policy action. Nevertheless, MTTP has being ac-

tive during the whole 1994-1999 period, receiving and administering more

than s million funds from EU and UK government.

Its importance was acknowledged by the city council when in 1997 was

considered as the main backbone of the Manchester Technopole strategic

initiative, in the contex t of the second City Pride urban regenera tion strat-

egy. But like its similar predecessor Develop Manchester as a Centre of Ex-

cellence in ICTs initiative of 1994, the Manchester Technopole reflected

hype of political rhetoric and the need to include ICTs in the overall urban

regeneration strategic planning. Hence, the Manchester Technopole, except

its literary inclusion among the strategic projects of the City Pride 2 pro-

spectus, in practice was never active. It should be noted that during the 1997-

1998 period MTTP was somehow set aside due to the operation of Manchester

INFOCITIES initiative.

Following on from the official launch of the project at a European wide

level in The Hague in March 1997, the Manchester-INFOCITIES project was

launched on 26 June 1997 by 15 local partners. Therefore, the INFOCITIES

importance is based on the fact that around it a formal grouping of initiatives

and organizations, a wider group outside MTTP, has gathered, to create a new

local virtual city partnership. This shift is strongly promoted by some bod-

ies like the city council and the Multimedia Centre, arguing for instance that

INFOCITIES group is becoming quite powerful and seeks to organize and

coordinate various future plans for EU effective funding and to make the

relation between basic actors more serious, so new projects to begin to spin

out of it. However, the function of Manchester-INFOCITIES as a central coor-

dinating body that would develop a holistic urban cyberspace development

approach has not been yet achieved properly. The basic reason for this failure

was that the INFOCITIES has focused on seeking and biding for funds avail-

able from the EC's programs, rather on shaping a strategic view on how to co-

ordinate and eventually integrate the various initiatives. Similarly to previous

initiatives, therefore, the INFOCITIES' operation has been characterized by a

basic problem: the overlapping fields of various initiatives combined with the



104 Know ledge, Technology, Po l icy / Spring 2005

c o n t i n u o u s n e e d f o r s e c u r i n g f u n d i n g , as m o s t o f t h e p ro j e c t s a re d e p e n d e n t

o n s h o r t - t e r m f u n d s , h as r e s u l te d a n o p p o r t u n i s t ic a n d c o m p e t i t i v e e n v i r o n -

m e n t , a l t h o u g h p r o m o t e d a s a s t r a t e g i c a n d c o l l a b o r a t i v e o n e . E v e n t u a l l y t h e

I N F O C I T I E S h a s in d e e d e n a b l ed M a n c h e s t e r to b u il d n e w p r o je c ts a n d a c -

q u i r e n e w f u n d i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h e f i e l d o f I C T s a n d c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e ,

t h o u g h i t h a s c a u s e d c o n f u s i o n a n d l o w e f f e c t i v e n e s s in t e rm s o f d e v e l o p i n g

a h o li s ti c u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p l a n n i n g f r a m e w o r k .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e c r u c i a l is s u e w i t h r e f e r e n c e to t h e i n e x i s t e n c e o f a s t r a t e g i c

i n i t i a t i v e t h a t w o u l d t r u l y p r o v i d e t h e b a s i s f o r a h o l i s t i c I C T s p o l i c y f r a m e -

w o r k h as b e e n a c t u a l ly c o n f e s s e d in th e c i t y c o u n c i l ' s la t e st M a n c h e s t e r ' s

T e l e m a t i c S t r a t e g y c o n s u l t a ti v e r e p o r t (M a n c h e s t e r C i t y C o u n c i l, 1 9 98 ), c o n -

d u c t e d b y t h e E c o n o m i c I n it i at i v e s G r o u p . T h e r e p o r t d o e s n o t a n a l y z e t h e

n a t u r e a n d d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t s o f t h e p r o b l e m b u t i t s ta t e s t h at :

Whils t there has been a great deal of ac t ivi ty , however, there is less evidence of a

coordinated approach, of adequa te l inkages be twe en projects , or o f local ben efi t accru-

ing to res idents as a resul t of this ac tivity . The purpose of a n ew ICTs s t ra tegy should b e

to establish a polic y frame w ork within w hich: (a) existing initiatives can be loc ated

and l inkages e s tab l ished be tween them to m in imise dupl ica t ion or co mp e t i t ion and

maxirnise value to the c i ty; (b) ne w proposals can be appraised; (c) future deman ds for

resources can be evaluated; (d) local benefi t can be an expl ic it , and wh ereve r poss ible ,

quant i f ied output, wh ether mea sured in terms of jobs or in broader impro vem ents in the

econ om ic and socia l prospects of local people ; (e) the C i ty Cou nci l ' s role in re la tion to

the develop men t of the ICTs sector can be bet ter defined and c lar i f ied ( ibid: 5) .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h i s r e p o r t , f o r f i r s t t i m e , b r o u g h t d o w n t o e a r t h t h e g r e a t e x -

p e c t a ti o n s f o r m i r a c u l o u s p o t e n ti a l o f I C T s o n lo c a l e c o n o m i c r e s t ru c t u r i n g ,

p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t e l e m a t i c s c a n n o t s i m p l y b e r e g a r d e d a s

a l w a y s a n d n a t u r a l l y b e n e f i c i a l t o t h e e c o n o m y a s e c o n o m i c p h e n o m e n a s u c h

a s ' d o w n s i z i n g ' a n d ' jo b l e s s g r o w t h ' a r e a l s o m a d e p o s s ib l e b y t h e s e n e w

t e c h n o l o g i e s ( ib id : 3- 4 ). T h e f u n d a m e n t a l o u t c o m e o f t h is re p o r t w a s t h e

p r o p o s a l o f a n i n t e g r a t e d a c t i o n p l a n , w h i l e f o r e v a l u a t i n g p r o g r e s s a n d

a s s e ss i n g o u t c o m e s s ix k e y i n d i c a t o r s h a v e b e e n d e t e r m i n e d a s f o ll o w s : ( 1 )

i n v e s t m e n t ; ( 2 ) j o b s c r e a t e d a n d / o r s a f e g u a r d e d ; ( 3 ) t r a in i n g f a c i li t ie s a n d r e -

s u it s; ( 4 ) c o n t e n t p r o d u c t i o n ; ( 5 ) n u m b e r o f l o c al u s e r s; ( 6 ) w i d e r e c o n o m i c ,

s o c i a l, a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s .

S y n o p s i s a n d C o n c l u d i n g R e m a r k s

T h e m u c h w i d e r , c o m p a r e d t o th e f ir st , s e c o n d w a v e o f u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e

p o l i c y i n it ia t iv e s in M a n c h e s t e r is c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y t h e i n c r e a s i n g n u m b e r o f

n e w b o d i e s i n v o l v e d . T h i s i s c l e a r l y d e m o n s t r a t e d b y c o m p a r i n g F i g u r e 2 ,

w h i c h o u t li n e s s c h e m a t i c a l l y t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y

i n i t i a t i v e s i n t h e 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 4 p e r i o d w i t h , t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g f o r t h e 1 9 9 4 - 2 0 0 1

p e r i o d F i g u r e 3 .

F i g u r e 2 o u t l in e s s c h e m a t i c a l ly th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y

i n M a n c h e s t e r i n th e 1 9 8 9- 1 99 4 t i m e p e ri o d . T h e M a n c h e s t e r C i t y C o u n c i l ' s




E c o n o m i c In i ti a ti v e s G r o u p , a l o n g w i t h t h e C e n t r e f o r E m p l o y m e n t R e s e a r c h

a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f S o c i a l a n d H u m a n i t i e s S t u d i e s - M a n c h e s t e r M e t r o p o l i t a n

U n i v e r s it y , a n d t h e S o f t S o l u t i o n - P o p t e l L t d c o n s t i t u t e th e g r o u p o f c o r e p l a y -

e r s . O f g r e a t s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h i s p a r t n e r s h i p w a s t h e p r e - e x i s t e n c e o f s o c i a l

a n d p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n k e y i n d i v i d u a l s i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e o r g a n i -

z a t i o n s . E x p l o i t i n g t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l p o s i t i o n s i n t h e t h r e e c e n t r a l o r g a n i z a -

t i ons t he y e ve n t ua l l y a c h i e ve d f i na nc i a l a nd po l i t i c a l s uppo r t f r om bo t h c e n t r a l

g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e c i ty c o u n c i l . T h e i n f l u e n c e o f B r it i sh n a t i o n a l u r b a n a n d

t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s p o l i c y s e e m s t o h a v e b e e n l es s i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e s o c ia l

a n d p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s e s o f p r o b l e m a t i z a t i o n , i n i n f l u e n c i n g t h e d e s i g n , i n i t ia -

t io n , a n d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e H o s t ( G r a h a m , 1 9 9 6: 8 ). O n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,

b o t h r e g i o n a l a n d E u r o p e a n p o l i c y l e v e ls w e r e n o t e s se n t i a ll y i n v o l v e d p o l it i-

c a l l y , i n s t i t u t i ona l l y , o r f i na nc i a l l y i n t h i s f i r s t pe r i od .

A s s h o w n i n F i g u r e 3 r e g a r d i n g t h e s e c o n d p h a s e , t h e s h i f t i n p o l i c y m a k i n g

t o w a r d s e x t e n s i v e p a r t n e r s h i p s , n e c e s s a r y f o r f u n d i n g r e a s o n s , b r o u g h t i n t o

t h e p i c t u r e a l l l o c a l e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d s e v e r a l p r i v a t e c o m p a n i e s

a l o n g w i t h o t h e r u r b a n a n d r e g i o n a l a g e n c i e s l i k e t h e M a n c h e s t e r T E C , N o r t h

W e s t A r t s B o a r d , t h e S a l f o r d C i t y C o u n c i l , t h e M u s e u m o f S c i e n c e a n d I n d u s -

t ry a nd t w o l oc a l h i gh s c hoo l s . A no t i c e a b l e c ha ng e i s a ls o t ha t a ll l oc a l c om -

p u t i n g c e n t r e s a n d d e p a r t m e n t s f r o m l o c a l u n i v e r s i t i e s h a v e b e e n g r a d u a l l y

i n v o l v e d , e s p e c ia l ly t h r o u g h i n f r as t r u c tu r e p r o j e c t s l ik e G - M I N G , M a N A P ,

a n d C E e C .

T h e c o r e p l a y e r s g r o u p , h o w e v e r , c o n s i s t s o f t h e p a r t n e r s h i p a r o u n d t h e

H o s t i n i t i a t i o n : t h e C i t y C o u n c i l ' s E c o n o m i c I n i t i a t i v e s G r o u p ( E I G - M C C ) ,

t h e M a n c h e s t e r I n s t i t u t e f o r T e l e m a t i c s a n d T e l e w o r k i n g P a r t n e r s h i p a t

M a n c h e s t e r M e t r o p o l i t a n U n i v e r s i t y ( M I T E R - M M U ) a n d P o p t e l L td . T h u s ,

i n i t i a t i v e s s u c h a s t h e M u l t i m e d i a C e n t r e a n d N e t w o r k ( M M C N ) , t h e T e c h n o l -

o g y M a n a g e m e n t C e n tr e ( M T M C ) , t h e M a n c h e s t e r T e l e m a ti c s a n d T e l e w o r k i n g

P a r t n e r s h i p ( M T T P ) h a v e b e e n r e s u l ts o f th e p a r t n e r s h i p a n d c o n s t i t u t e th e

m o s t p r o m o t e d i n i t i a t i v e s . T h e c r u c i a l r o l e o f t h e C i t y C o u n c i l i n g e t t i n g a c -

c e s s t o f u n d i n g r e s o u r c e s r e s u l t e d t h o u g h a r e m a r k a b l e c h a n g e i n t h e m a p .

M a n c h e s t e r C i t y C o u n c i l , t h r o u g h t h e E c o n o m i c I n i t i a t i v e s G r o u p ( E I G ) , i s

v i r t ua l l y a n i nne r - c o r e p l a ye r , t ha nks t o i t s po l i t i c a l pow e r t o m a na ge t he m a i n

f u n d i n g r e so u r c e s f ro m t he E U a n d g o v e r n m e n t a l p r o g r a m s a n d b e i n g t h e

l in k b e t w e e n t h e v a r io u s i n i t ia t iv e s a n d c o n s o r t i u m s . A r o u n d P o p t e l , a l so , a

n e t w o r k o f l o c a l I n t e r n e t a n d a d v e r t i s in g c o m p a n i e s ( li k e M i l la e r - S c h il le r , W e b

P r o m o t e a n d M a n c h e s t e r N e t ) h a v e b e e n a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d i n s e v e r a l i n it ia -

t i v e s b u t w i t h c l e a r p r o f i t - s e e k i n g p u r p o s e s .

T h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f p r o j e c t s a n d p a r t n e r s h i p s , i n v o l v i n g p u b l i c a n d p r i v a t e

l o c a l b o d i e s i s a p o s i t i v e e v o l u t i o n i n t e r m s o f p o l i c y m a k i n g . E s p e c i a l l y , t h e

i n v o l v e m e n t o f al l l o c a l e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s , se v e r a l s c h o o l s , d e v e l o p -

m e n t a g e n c ie s l ik e M a n c h e s t e r T E C , M a n c h e s t e r A i r p o r t a s w e l l a s o f b i g

I C T s c o m p a n i e s l i k e S E M A a n d I C L c a n b e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s p o l i c y a c h i e v e -

m e n t . T h e f a c t t h a t t h e re w a s a n e f f e c t i v e i n v o l v e m e n t in u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e

p r o g r a m s l a u n c h e d f r o m r e g i o n a l , n a t i o n a l a s w e l l a s E u r o p e a n a u t h o r i t i e s

c a n a l s o b e c o n s i d e r e d a s p o l i c y a c h i e v e m e n t . T h e s e c t o r t h a t h a s m o s t l y

i n v o l v e d i n t h is s u p p o r t i v e f r a m e w o r k is r e l a t e d t o c r e a t i v e i n d u s t r i e s , e s -



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1 0 8 K n o w l e d g e , T e c h n o l o g y , P o l i c y / S p r i n g 2 0 0 5

p e c i a l l y s m a l l m u l t i m e d i a , a r t s a n d m u s i c e n t e r p r i s e s t h a t a r e l o c a t e d i n t h e

c i ty cen te r .

O n t he o t he r ha nd , t he p r e v i ous l y r e po r t e d c r i t i c a l r e v i e w o f t he m a i n i n i t i a -

t iv e s d e m o n s t r a t e d a s t ro n g f u n d i n g - s e e k i n g a p p r o a c h r a t h er a c o m p r e h e n -

s iv e s t r a t e g y f o r d e v e l o p i n g u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e a p p l i c a t i o n s . T h u s , t h e

f u n d a m e n t a l c r it ic a l p o i n t o n p o l i c y a p p r o a c h d e v e l o p e d b y t h e c o r e p l a y e r s

i s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f o c u s o n g e t t i n g s u c c e s s f u l f u n d i n g b a s e d o n a t a c t i c a l

o p p o r t u n i s m a n d n o t i n a s t r a te g i c p l a n n i n g . D e s p i t e t h e i n t e n s io n t o i n t e g r a t e

t h e w h o l e r a n g e o f i n it ia t iv e s , t h e f u n d i n g - s e e k i n g a p p r o a c h is w o r k i n g in

f a v o u r o f d e v e l o p i n g a c o m p e t i t i v e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n v a r i o u s i n i t i a t i v e s , e s p e -

c i a l l y t h o s e w i t h o v e r l a p p i n g i n t e r e s t s , i n s t e a d o f p r o m o t i n g t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n

b e t w e e n t h e m . I t c a n b e a r g u e d t h a t t h e f u n d i n g - s e e k i n g a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d

b y t h e c o r e a c t o r s t e n d s t o p r o d u c e , w i t h o u t m a l i c e , a c l i e n t e l e s y s t e m .

I t w a s e v i d e n t t h a t , d u e t o a p a r t i c u l a r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f f u n d i n g b o d i e s a n d

o f I C T s, a s m a l l g r o u p o f p e o p l e a r o u n d t h e c o r e p l a y e r s h a d t h e a b i li ty t o

w o r k u p o n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f p r o j e ct s o u t s id e t h e u s u a l f r a m e w o r k o f p u b l ic

a c c o u n t a b i l i t y - - w o r k i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y a s p o l i c y m a k e r s , f u n d i n g p r o d u c -

e r s a n d o v e r - s e e r s o f p r o j e c t d e l i v e r y ( H a r v e y , G r e e n , a n d A g a r , 2 0 0 0 : 1 3 ).

I t s e e m s t h a t th e d e v e l o p m e n t o f u r b a n c y b e r s p a c e i n it ia t iv e s , o r t h e s o - c a l l e d

v i r t u a l c i ty , g e n e r a t e s a l a y e r o f e x p e r t d e v e l o p e r s a n d i n t e r m e d i a r i e s b o t h

w i t h i n p u b l i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d i n i t i a t iv e s , a s w e l l in t h e th r i v i n g c r e a t i v e

i n d u s t r i e s s e c t o r o f c u l t u ra l , a r ts , m u l t i m e d i a a n d I n t e r n e t c o m p a n i e s . M o r e -

ove r , i t b e c a m e a ppa r e n t t ha t , a s m uc h a s a ny t h i ng e l s e , i t i s t he pa c e o f t e c h -

n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e , i n p a r t i cu l a r r e g a r d i n g t h e I n t e r n e t / w e b g r o w t h t h a t a b s o r b e d

o r d i s p l a c e d m o s t o t h e r f o r m s o f c y b e r s p a c e . T h i s e x p l a i n s t h e f a i lu r e o f

M a n c h e s t e r ' s b r a v e p i o n e e r i n g e ff o r ts a t a m u n i c i p a l - d r i v e n c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y

a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t f l o u r i s h i n g o f p r i v a t e s e c t o r i n i t i a t i v e s .

T h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s s h o w a l s o t h a t M a n c h e s t e r C i t y C o u n c i l n e v e r t o o k

f u l l ow ne r s h i p o f I CT s po l i c y i n i t i a t i ve s be c a us e i t d i d no t r e a l l y ha ve a p r ope r

s t r a t e g y b e y o n d s e c u r i n g p i e c e m e a l f u n d i n g , e s p e c i a l l y f r o m E C ' s p r o g r a m s .

T h e M T T P ' s r o l e to o p e r a t e a s a n in c l u s i v e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n h a s

n o t w o r k e d y e t , w h i l e t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e I N F O C I T I E S g r o u p i s m o s t l y c h a r -

a c te r iz e d b y a p r o c e s s o f b u i l d i n g u p p r o p o s a l s f o r n e w p r o j e c t s / fu n d i n g . T h i s

p o l i t i c a l i n a d e q u a c y , a l o n g w i t h t h e i n h e r e n t i n t a n g i b i l i t y a n d l o c a l / g l o b a l

g r o u n d s o f I C T s i n i t i a t i v e s , c o n s t i t u t e t h e b a s i c r e a s o n t h a t l o c a l p o l i t i c i a n s

a r e no t ye t c onv i nc e d o f t he po t e n t i a l i m pa c t o f t he s e i n i t i a t i ve s i n l oc a l de ve l -

o p m e n t . B e s i d e s, t h e at t e m p t b y a t e a m w i t h in t h e C i ty C o u n c i l ' s E c o n o m i c

I n i t i a t i v e s G r o u p t o d e v e l o p a n i n t e g r a t e d , s t r a t e g i c p o l i c y f r a m e w o r k i s a c t u -

a ll y a i m e d t o c o v e r a n d m o n i t o r th e w h o l e r a n g e o f i n i ti a ti v e s, d e t e r m i n i n g

c ohe r e n t a nd t a ng i b l e c r i t e r i a f o r a s s e s s i ng t he i r e f f e c t i ve ne s s i n t e r m s o f l oc a l

d e v e l o p m e n t . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a n d w i t h t h e b e n e f i t o f h i n d s i g h t i t h a s t o b e

m e n t i o n e d t h a t p o l i c y i n i ti a ti v e s b a s ed s o l e ly o n t h e u s e o f a d v a n c e d m u l t i-

m e d i a t e c h n o l o g i e s w e r e r e al ly a w a s te o f p u b l ic m o n e y , s u c h as th e M a d f o r

I T W e b s it e. O n t h e w h o l e , it w a s p r o v e d th a t M a n c h e s t e r i s a p r o p e r c a s e

s t u d y i n o r d e r t o d r a w l e s s o n s f r o m b o t h p o s i t i v e a n d n e g a t i v e a s p e c t s , a s

w e l l c ru c i a l d e t a il s f o r t h e d i s c u s s i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e d e p l o y m e n t o f u r b a n

c y b e r s p a c e p o l i c y i n i t i a t i v e s a n d v i r t u a l c i t i e s .



U r b a n C y b e r s p a c e P o l i c y I n i ti a t iv e s i n M a n c h e s t e r U K 1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 9 1 0 9

F i na l l y , w e s hou l d be a w a r e t ha t t he v i r t ua l c i t y d i f f e r s t o t he a c t ua l one i n

t e r m s o f f o u r b a s i c a s p e c t s : F i r s t , i t c o m p r i s e s a r e a l b u t v i r t u a l p l a c e a c c e s -

s i b l e o n l y b y I n t e r n e t u s e r s i r r e s p e c t i v e o f l o c a t i o n ; t h u s c o m p a r e d t o t h e

a c t u a l c i t y i t i s f a r l e s s s o c i a l l y i n c l u s i v e a n d s p a t i a l l y d e f i n i t e . S e c o n d , t h e

e f f e c t s o f v i rt u a l c i t y ' s d e v e l o p m e n t o n t h e r e al c i t y a re h a r d l y t a n g i b l e a n d

v i s i b l e , a nd t hus d i f f i c u l t t o m e a s u r e a nd a s s e s s . T h i r d , i n c on t r a s t t o w ha t i s

h a p p e n i n g i n t e r m s o f t h e re a l c i ty ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s c a n n o t

t a k e t h e o v e r a l l c o n t r o l o f t h e v i rt u a l c i t y ' s d e v e l o p m e n t . F o u r t h , i t i s o b -

s e r v e d t h a t t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f v i r tu a l c i ty , e s p e c i a l l y i n r e l a t io n t o u r b a n

p o l i c y , i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y s e r i o u s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s . O n t h e o n e h a n d i t p r o -

m o t e s t h e c o l l a b o r a t i o n b e t w e e n c i t i e s , a s w e l l b e t w e e n l o c a l b o d i e s a n d s p e -

c i f i c p r o je c t s , t h e d e - c e n t r a l i s a t i o n o f d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g s y s t e m a n d t h e

m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f p u b l i c s e r v i c e s ' p r o v i s i o n . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t c a u s e s c o m -

pe t i ti on be t w e e n c i ti e s as w e l l be t w e e n l oc a l a ge nc i e s a nd p r o j e c ts i n b i dd i ng f o r

g o v e r n m e n t a l a n d E u r o p e a n f u n d i n g p r o g r a m s . I t fu r t h e r p r o d u c e s a c o n c e n t r a -

t io n o f p o w e r a n d d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g sy s t e m a r o u n d t h e g r o u p o f l o ca l b o d i e s a n d

i n d i v i d u a ls t h a t h a v e a cc e s s t o a n d m a k e u s e o f t h e v i r t u a l c it y . T h e s a m e i s

v a l i d i n t h e d o m a i n o f p u b l i c s e r v i c e s w h e r e c o m p u t e r i l l i t e r a t e c i t i z e n s c a n -

n o t t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e m o d e r n i z e d , o n l i n e , d e l i v e r y o f s e r v i c e s . A s D u c a t e l

a n d H a l f p e n n y ( 1 9 9 3 : 3 6 7 ) a r g u e , p o l i c i e s w h i c h c o n c e n t r a t e r e s o u r c e s i n t o

a f e w c e n t r e s a r e a n t i t h e t i c a l t o t h e s p i r i t o f i n f o r m a t i o n n e t w o r k f o r m a t i o n ,

a n d c r e a t e b a rr ie r s t o fu t u r e d e v e l o p m e n t i n i n f o r m a t i o n f l o w s .

ppendix

A b b r e v i a t i o n s

B T

C A B

C e e C

C E R - - M M U

C I D S

D D S

D o E

D T I

E C

E I G - - M C C

E R D F

E S F

E V H

E U

G - M I N G

I C T

I D E A

I R I S I

M A G I C

B r i t i s h T e l e c o m

C i t i z e n s A d v i c e B u r e a u

C e n t r e o f E x p e r t i s e in e l e c tr o n i c C o m m e r c e

C e n tr e fo r E m p l o y m e n t R e s e a r c h - - M a n c h e s t e r M e t ro p o l i ta n

U n i v e r s i t y

C u l t u r a l I n d u s t r i e s D e v e l o p m e n t S e r v i c e

D e D i g i t a l e S t a n t ( D i g i t a l C i t y A m s t e r d a m )

D e p a r t m e n t o f E n v i r o n m e n t

D e p a r t m e n t o f T r a d e a n d I n d u s t r y

E u r o p e a n C o m m i s s i o n

E c o n o m i c I n i t i a t i v e s G r o u p - - M a n c h e s t e r C i t y C o u n c i l

E u r o p e a n R e g i o n a l D e v e l o p m e n t F u n d s

E u r o p e a n S t r u c t u r a l F u n d s

E l e c t r o n i c V i l l a g e H a l l s

E u r o p e a n U n i o n

G r e a t e r M a n c h e s t e r I n f o r m a t i o n N e t w o r k G r o u p

I n f o rm a t i o n an d C o m m u n i c a t i o n T e c h n o l o g y

I n n o v a t i o n i n D i g i t al a n d E l e c t r o n i c A r t s

I n t e r -R e g i o n a l I n f o r m a t i o n S o c i e t y I n i ti a ti v e ( E U )

M a n c h e s t e r G a t e w a y t o I n f o r m a t io n fo r th e C o m m u n i t y



110 K n ow l edge , Technol ogy , Po l i cy / Spr i ng 2005

M A N

M a N A P

M C C

M C I N

M I P C

M I T E R

M M C N

M M U

M T T P

M U W I C

N Q N

N W N M N

S M E s

U C P

M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a N e t w o r k

M a n c h e s t e r N e t w o r k A c c e s s P o i n t

M a n c h e s t e r C i t y C o u n c i l

M a n c h e s t e r C o m m u n i t y I n f o r m a t i o n N e t w o r k

M a n c h e s t e r I n s t it u t e f o r P o p u l a r C u l t u r e M a n c h e s t e r M e t r o -

p o l i t a n U n i v e r s i t y )

M a n c h e s t e r I n s t i t u t e f o r T e l e m a t i c s a n d E m p l o y m e n t R e s e a r c h

f o r m e r C E R ; M a n c h e s t e r M e t ro p o l i ta n U n i v e r s it y )

M a n c h e s t e r M u l t i m e d i a C e n t r e a n d N e t w o r k

M a n c h e s t e r M e t r o p o l i t a n U n i v e r s i t y

M a n c h e s t e r T e l e m a t ic s a n d T e l e w o r k i n g P a r t n e rs h i p

M u l t i m e d i a f o r W o m e n i n t h e C u l t u r a l I n d u s t r i e s

N o r t h e r n Q u a r t e r N e t w o r k

N o r t h W e s t N e w M e d i a N e t w o r k

S m a l l a n d M e d i u m E n t e r p r i s e s

U r b a n C y b e r s p a c e P l a n n i n g

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