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UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

MUHAMMAD NOH BIN HAMZAH

FK 2015 50

DISTINCT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLOUD-TO-GROUND LIGHTNING ELECTRIC FIELDS GENERATED IN MALAYSIA

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DISTINCT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLOUD-TO-GROUND

LIGHTNING ELECTRIC FIELDS GENERATED IN MALAYSIA

By

MUHAMMAD NOH BIN HAMZAH

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra

Malaysia, in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of

Science

June 2015

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All material contained within the thesis, including without limitation text, logos, icons,

photographs and all other artwork, is copyright material of Universiti Putra Malaysia

unless otherwise stated. Use may be made of any material contained within the thesis

for non-commercial purposes from the copyright holder. Commercial use of material

may only be made with the express, prior, written permission of Universiti Putra

Malaysia.

Copyright © Universiti Putra Malaysia

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I dedicate this thesis to Allah, his messenger Muhammad S.A.W. and my beloved family

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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of

the requirement for the degree of Master of Science

DISTINCT CHARACTERISTICS OF CLOUD-TO-GROUND LIGHTNING

ELECTRIC FIELDS GENERATED IN MALAYSIA

By

MUHAMMAD NOH HAMZAH

June 2015

Chair: Mohd Zainal Abidin bin Ab. Kadir, PhD

Faculty: Engineering

Lightning generates electric fields that propagate through the vicinity of the atmosphere

that have negative consequences especially to power, electronic and communications

systems. Knowledge to the types of lightning and their characteristics must be acquired

to fulfil the task of mitigating lightning problems. Most studies regarding the topic

were done in temperate and sub-tropic regions. Thus, this study seeks to uncover better

understanding of the lightning generated electric fields of cloud-to-ground lightning

flashes observed in Malaysia in the tropics. Measurements of the generated fields were

done using parallel plate antenna coupled with a recording system during the months of

May, June and October 2013 at the premises of Universiti Putra Malaysia. The

measurement site has a geographical coordinate of 2°59'19.9"N latitude and

101°43'29.8"E longitude, situated in Serdang, Selangor area. Malaysia generally has a

tropical climate with maximum monsoon rain occurring from October due to southwest

monsoon and intermonsoon period which affects the Selangor. The locations of some

of the flashes were obtained from the Tenaga Nasional Berhad Research which is a

research centre for the largest local power utility company, Tenaga Nasional Berhad

using their Fault Analysis and Lightning Location System.

This thesis presents the characteristics of lightning generated vertical electric field

waveforms recorded in Malaysia. A total of 115 negative lightning and 57 positive

lightning found with preliminary breakdown pulses, return strokes and chaotic pulse

trains were present and analysed. The main findings of this study include

characteristics of preliminary breakdown pulses, unusually long duration return strokes

lasting more than 1 ms per stroke, occurrence of positive lightning and chaotic pulse

trains in Malaysia with average durations of 335.12 µs for both negative and positive

lightning combined, high multiplicity of positive lightning return strokes having an

average multiplicity of 3.86, short interstroke intervals of positive lightning with an

arithmetic mean of 25.03 ms, occurrence of chaotic pulse trains in positive lightning

and unusual occurrences of chaotic pulse trains in terms of their placement in both

types of lightning. In conclusion, the findings of the electric field generated in Malaysia

were found to be distinct in many ways that adds to new knowledge from the findings

previously mentioned. This is important as the kind of lightning activity affects the way

in which protection systems are made.

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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai

memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Master Sains

CIRI-CIRI BERBEZA MEDAN ELEKTRIK KILAT AWAN-KE-TANAH

YANG DIJANA DI MALAYSIA

Oleh

MUHAMMAD NOH HAMZAH

Jun 2015

Pengerusi : Mohd Zainal Abidin bin Ab. Kadir, PhD

Fakulti : Kejuruteraan

Kilat menjana medan elektrik yang disebarkan melalui atmosfera mempunyai kesan

negatif terutamanya kepada sistem kuasa, elektronik dan komunikasi. Pengetahuan

mengenai jenis kilat dan ciri-cirinya mesti dipelajari untuk memenuhi tugas

mengurangkan masalah-masalah berkenaan kilat. Kebanyakan kajian mengenai topik

ini telah pun dilakukan di kawasan iklim sederhana dan sub-tropika. Oleh itu, kajian ini

bertujuan untuk mendedahkan pemahaman yang lebih baik tentang medan elektrik

yang dihasilkan oleh pancaran kilat awan-ke-tanah yang diperhatikan di Malaysia di

kawasan tropika. Pengukuran medan elektrik yang dihasilkan dalam kajian ini telah

dilakukan dengan menggunakan antena plat selari bersama dengan sistem rakaman

pada bulan Mei, Jun dan Oktober 2013 di premis Universiti Putra Malaysia. Tapak

pengukuran berada pada kedudukan geografi dengan latitud 2°59'19.9"U dan longitud

101°43'29.8"T yang terletak di kawasan Serdang, Selangor. Malaysia secara amnya

mempunyai iklim tropika dengan hujan maksimum berlaku pada bulan Oktober oleh

monsun barat daya dan musim pertukaran monsun yang melibatkan kawasan Selangor.

Lokasi beberapa kilat diperolehi dari TNBR yang merupakan pusat penyelidikan bagi

syarikat utiliti tenaga tempatan terbesar, TNB menggunakan system analisis kerosakan

dan lokasi kilat mereka.

Tesis ini membentangkan ciri-ciri gelombang medan elektrik tegak yang dijana kilat

direkodkan di Malaysia. Sejumlah 115 kilat negatif dan 57 kilat positif didapati dengan

denyut pecahan awal, panahan balik dan rangkaian denyut camuk didapati hadir dan

dianalisis. Dapatan utama kajian ini termasuk keputusan ciri-ciri denyut pecahan awal,

tempoh luar biasa panjang panahan balik yang memakan masa lebih dari 1 ms setiap

panahan, berlakunya kilat positif dan rangkaian denyut camuk di Malaysia dengan

purata masa 335.12 µs untuk kilat negatif dan positif digabungkan, purata gandaan

tinggi panahan balik kilat positif dengan purata gandaan 3.86, selang pendek antara

panahan balik kilat positif dengan purata aritmetik 25.03 ms, berlakunya rangkaian

denyut camuk dalam kilat positif dan kejadian luar biasa rangkaian denyut camuk dari

segi kedudukan mereka dalam kilat positif. Kesimpulannya, penemuan medan elektrik

yang dihasilkan di Malaysia didapati berbeza dalam banyak cara yang menambah

pengetahuan baru mengenai penemuan yang dinyatakan sebelum ini. Ini penting kerana

jenis aktiviti kilat menjejaskan cara di mana sistem-sistem perlindungan dibuat.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the Name of ALLAH, the Entirely Merciful, the Especially Merciful

I would like to express my full gratitude and praise to Allah who has guided me along

the journey of completing this thesis study. For without His help and guidance, I would

have never been able to achieve what I have accomplished now. Every person and

detail that has come along of this work is a result of His blessings. My family,

especially my parents, Hamzah Abdul Rahman and Aishah Rouny Haroun have

supported me along the way with their forbearance and countless efforts to get me

through this undertaking such as providing me advices, financial support and much

more that cannot be written down in a single page. I am forever indebted to them. They

deserve my gratitude after God and His Messenger.

It is my duty and obligation to thank my two supervisors, Prof. Dr. Mohd. Zainal

Abidin Ab. Kadir and Prof. Dr. Chandima Gomes. They have been very patient and

encouraging in finishing my thesis work. I also wish to acknowledge and commend the

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering staffs and technicians who have

provided me with the place and equipment to do the study. My thanks also go to Dr.

Zikri Abadi Baharudin, for providing me with his data to familiarize myself with the

analysis of lightning generated electric fields. My friends have also helped me along

the way in their own unique ways. They also deserve my gratitude for providing good

companionship. Finally, I take this opportunity to thank all the people that I might have

missed mentioning in this section for your time and support in producing this work.

Thank you to everyone for being there for me, your support will never be forgotten and

shall be recompensed by God on the day of debt.

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I certify that an Examination Committee has met on date of viva voce to conduct the

final examination of Muhammad Noh Bin Hamzah on his thesis entitled "Distinct

Characteristics of Cloud-to-Ground Lightning Electric Fields Generated in Malaysia"

in accordance with the Universities and University College Act 1971 and the

Constitution of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U.(A) 106] 15 March 1998. The

Committee recommends that the student be awarded the Master of Science.

Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows:

Wan Zuha Wan Hasan, PhD

Associate Professor

Faculty of Engineering

Universiti Putra Malaysia

(Chairman)

Noor Izzri Abdul Wahab, PhD

Senior Lecturer



(Internal Examiner)

Wan Fatinhamamah Wan Ahmad, PhD

Senior Lecturer



(Internal Examiner)

Prof. Dr. Zulkurnain Abdul Malek, PhD

Professor


Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

Malaysia

(External Examiner)

______________________

NORITAH OMAR, PhD

Associate Professor and Deputy

Dean

School of Graduate Studies


Date:

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been

accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Science. The

members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows:

Mohd. Zainal Abidin bin Ab. Kadir, PhD

Professor, Ir



(Chairman)

Gorakanage Arosha Chandima Gomes, PhD

Professor



(Member)

_____________________________

BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD

Professor and Dean

School of Graduate Studies


Date:

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Declaration by Graduate Student

I hereby confirm that:

this thesis is my original work;

quotations, illustrations and citations have been duly referenced;

this thesis has not been submitted previously or concurrently for any other degree at

any other institutions;

intellectual property from the thesis and copyright of thesis are fully-owned by

Universiti Putra Malaysia, as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)

Rules 2012;

written permission must be obtained from supervisor and the office of Deputy Vice-

Chancellor (Research and Innovation) before thesis is published (in the form of

written, printed or in electronic form) including books, journals, modules,

proceedings, popular writings, seminar papers, manuscripts, posters, reports, lecture

notes, learning modules or any other materials as stated in the Universiti Putra

Malaysia (Research) Rules 2012;

there is no plagiarism or data falsification/fabrication in the thesis, and scholarly

integrity is upheld as according to the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate Studies)

Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) and the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Research)

Rules 2012. The thesis has undergone plagiarism detection software.

Signature: _______________________ Date: __________________

Name and Matric No.: Muhammad Noh Bin Hamzah, GS30863

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Declaration by Members of Supervisor Committee

This is to confirm that:

the research conducted and the writing of this thesis was under our supervision;

supervision responsibilities as stated in the Universiti Putra Malaysia (Graduate

Studies) Rules 2003 (Revision 2012-2013) are adhered to.

Signature: _________________

Name of

Chairman of

Supervisory

Committee: Mohd. Zainal Abidin bin Ab. Kadir, PhD

Signature: _________________

Name of

Member of

Supervisory

Committee: Gorakanage Arosha Chandima Gomes, PhD

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ABSTRACT i

ABSTRAK ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

APPROVAL iv

DECLARATION vi

LIST OF TABLES x

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xx

LIST OF NOTATIONS xxii

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Problem Statement 5

1.3 Aim and Objectives 6

1.4 Scope and Limitations 6

1.5 Thesis Outline 6

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8

2.1 Introduction 8

2.2 Electric Field Measurement 8

2.3 Events of a Lightning Flash 9

2.4 Parameter Analysis of Preliminary Breakdown 17

Pulse and Return Stroke

2.5 Chaotic Pulse Trains 29

2.6 Summary 33

3 METHODOLOGY 35

3.1 Introduction 35

3.2 Experimental Setup Development at Measurement 36

Site

3.3 Circuitry 41

3.4 Real Lightning Electric Field Measurement 43

3.5 Collection of Data 45

3.6 Distinguishing Flashes 46

3.7 Characterization of Lightning Electric Field 47

Events

3.8 Analysis of Lightning Generated Electric Field 50

3.9 Flash Locations from TNBR 62

3.10 Summary 63

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4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 65

4.1 Introduction 65

4.2 Preliminary Breakdown Pulses and their 65

Temporal Positions

4.2.1 Preliminary Breakdown Pulses in 65

Negative Lightning

4.2.2 Preliminary Breakdown Pulses in 69

Positive Lightning

4.2.3 Dual Preliminary Breakdown Pulses 75

4.2.4 Closure for Preliminary Breakdown 77

Pulses in Relation to Return Strokes

4.3 Unusual Features of Some Negative Return 77

Strokes

4.4 Unique Features of Some Positive Return 85

Strokes

4.4.1 Average Multiplicity 85

4.4.2 Interstroke Intervals 87

4.4.3 Very Low Duration Interstroke 97

Intervals of Positive Return Stroke

4.5 Chaotic Pulse Trains and their Temporal 98

Positions

4.5.1 Chaotic Pulse Trains in Relation to 98

Other Lightning Activity

4.5.2 Chaotic Pulse Train Duration 108

4.5.3 Observations of Chaotic Pulse Trains 111

in Positive Lightning

4.6 Summary 115

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 117

5.1 Contribution 117

5.2 Conclusions 118

5.3 Future Works and Recommendations 119

REFERENCES 121

APPENDICES 132

BIODATA OF STUDENT 175

LIST OF PUBBLICATIONS 176

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

2.1 Comparison of Different Parameters of NBP and RS 11

2.2 Comparison of Peak Normalized to 100 km from Various

Studies

19

2.3 Comparison of Zero to Peak Risetime from Various Studies 20

2.4 Comparison of 10% to 90% Risetime from Various Studies 22

2.5 Comparison of PBP-RS of Negative and Positive Lightning 23

2.6 Comparison of Zero Crossings of Return Strokes from Various

Studies

25

2.7 Comparison of Interstroke Intervals for Negative and Positive

Lightning

26

2.8 Comparison of Stroke Multiplicity for Negative Lightning 27

2.9 Comparison of Stroke Multiplicity for Positive Lightning 29

3.1 Location of Unusually Long Duration RSs 63

4.1 Comparison of RPBP/RS of Negative Lightning from Various

Studies

67

4.2 Comparison of TPBP-RS of Negative Lightning from Various

Studies

68

4.3 Comparison of RPBP/RS of Positive Lightning from Various

Studies

70

4.4 Comparison of TPBP-RS of Positive Lightning from Various

Studies

72

4.5 Comparison of TPBP of Positive Lightning from Various Studies 74

4.6 Values of the Zero Crossing Return Stroke Duration 79

4.7 Comparison of TZC from Various Studies 82

4.8 Comparison of Occurrence of Positive Return Strokes in

Flashes and MAVG of Numerous Studies

85

4.9 Interstroke Intervals of the Orders of Positive RSs 88

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4.10 Comparison of Numerous Studies that has been done in the Past

on Interstroke Intervals of Positive Lightning

89

4.11 MAVG and TII of Negative and Positive Lightning 92

4.12 CPTs Accompanied with Preliminary Breakdown Pulses 99

4.13 CPT Accompanied with PBPs 101

4.14 CPT Accompanied with Negative Return Strokes 102

4.15 CPT Accompanied with Negative Return Strokes 104

4.16 CPTs Accompanied with Positive Lightning 105

4.17 CPT Accompanied with Positive Return Strokes 108

4.18 TCPT for CG Lightning 108

4.19 TCPT for Negative Lightning 109

4.20 TCPT for Positive Lightning 111

D1 Negative Lightning Flash ID, Date and Time 148

D2 Positive Lightning Flash ID, Date and Time 151

D3 PBP-RS durations, TPBP-RS and PBP/RS ratio, RPBP/RS of

Negative Lightning

154

D4 Statistical Analysis of PBP-RS durations, TPBP-RS and PBP/RS

Ratio, RPBP/RS of Negative Lightning

156

D5

PBP duration, TPBP, PBP-RS durations, TPBP-RS and PBP/RS

ratio, RPBP/RS and SS of their respective PBPs of Positive

Lightning

157

D6

Statistical Analysis of PBP duration, TPBP, PBP-RS durations,

TPBP-RS and PBP/RS Ratio, RPBP/RS of Positive Lightning

159

D7 Zero Crossing, TZC of Negative Lightning 160

D8 Statistical Analysis of Zero Crossing, TZC of Negative Lightning 165

D9 Number of Return Strokes of Positive Lightning 165

D10 Interstroke Intervals of Positive Lightning 168

D11 Statistical Analysis of Interstroke Intervals of Positive

Lightning

170

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D12

Relation of CPT to Other Events in Flashes and their Respective

Durations

171

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1.1 The Most Common Types of Lightning 1

1.2 Types of Lightning 2

1.3 Statistics of Activities Done by Victims and Their Respective

Numbers

3

1.4 ECMWF Forecast for November-December 2012-January 2013 5

2.1 An Illustration of the Lightning Electric Field Measurement 9

2.2 NBE or CID Occurring before PBP 9

2.3 NBP Pulses of Both Polarities and Characteristics a) subsidiary

peak at rising edge, b) hump at the overshoot, c) hump after the

overshoot, d) superimposed peak at decaying edge and

e) multiple peaks

10

2.4 A Flash That Fits the BIL Model 12

2.5

Negative and Positive Return Stroke Electric Field Change

Waveforms

13

2.6 A Negative Flash with SSs 13

2.7 Multiple Positive Return Strokes 14

2.8 Negative and Positive Return Stroke in a Single Flash 14

2.9

Typical Electric Field Waveform for Distances Denoted by D,

of 10 km, 15km, 50km and 200km with the Solid Lines Being

First Return Strokes and Dashed Lines Being Subsequent

Strokes

15

2.10

Zero Crossing for Positive Return Stroke. S represents the

possible arrived time of ionospheric reflections

16

2.11

Zero Crossing Definition of another Study. EP (intial peak) and

EOS (opposite polarity overshoot) are also illustrated

16

2.12

Slow Front and Fast Transition of (a) First Return Stroke (b) A

Subsequent Stroke with Dart Stepped Leader (c) A Subsequent

Stroke with Dart Leader

18

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2.13

Zero to Peak Risetime Denoted by TR. EP, T1, T2, EOS and Eref

Represents the Initial Electric Field Peak, Zero Crossing

Duration, Opposite Polarity Overshoot Duration, Opposite

Polarity Overshoot Peak and Reference Electric Field Level

with Respect to the Zero Level

20

2.14 Rise Time Definitions of the Initial Section of a RS 21

2.15 PBP-RS Definition Denoted by Tp-ri 22

2.16 PBP of Type b Having Two Regions 24

2.17 Definition of Interstroke Interval 26

2.18 a) Cloud Flash CPT b) Fine Structure of the CPT 30

2.19 Occurrences of CPT in a CG Flash near RSs a) CPT-b b) CPT-c

c) CPT-i and d) CPT-a

31

2.20 SL and CPTs Preceding RS a) a SL b) a CPT prior to a

subsequent RS c) another CPT prior to a subsequent RS and d) a

finer structured CPT from b)

32

2.21 a) CPT that Occurs About 1 ms before a RS b) The fine

structure of the CPT in a)

33

3.1 Flow Chart of the Methodology 35

3.2 Parallel Plate Antenna Situated at the Measurement Site 37

3.3 Rough Upper View of Measurement Site and Setup 38

3.4 Schematic Diagram of the Measurement Setup 39

3.5 Tektronix MSO 4032 Mixed Signal Oscilloscope 39

3.6 Grounding of the Parallel Plate Antenna 40

3.7 Part of the Coaxial Cable with the Shielding Wire 40

3.8 Grounding Rod of the Parallel Plate Antenna 41

3.9 a) Schematic Diagram of the Buffer Amplifier Circuit

b) Components of the Circuit.

42

3.10 Settings on the Oscilloscope 43

3.11 Triggering of Flash TEK0202 at a Timeframe of 20 ms per

Division

44

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3.12 Clipped Electric Field Change Waveform of Flash TEK0041 at

a Timeframe of 200 µs per Division

45

3.13 A CG Lightning Electric Field Change That Occurred from

Flash TEK0076 at a Timeframe of 20 ms per Division

46

3.14 Narrow Bipolar Event from Flash TEK0071 with a Timeframe

of 20 ms per Division

47

3.15 Close up view of the Narrow Bipolar Event 20 µs per Division 47

3.16 Cloud Flashes Similar to Signature Cloud Flashes from Flash

TEK0085 at a Timeframe of 20 ms per Division

47

3.17 Low intensity PBP from Flash TEK0076 with a Timeframe of

800 µs per Division

48

3.18 High intensity PBP from Flash TEK0068 with a Timeframe of


48

3.19

Example of NRS from Flash TEK0044 with a Timeframe of


49

3.20 Positive Return Stroke from Flash TEK0235 with a Timeframe

of 40 µs per Division

49

3.21 CPT Prior Positive RS from Flash TEK0233 with a Timeframe


49

3.22 TPBP of Flash TEK0214 at a Timeframe of 1 ms per Division 51

3.23 TPBP-RS of Flash TEK0065 at a Timeframe of 2 ms per Division 52

3.24 RPBP/RS of Flash TEK0076 at a Timeframe of 2 ms per Division 53

3.25 RPBP/RS of Flash TEK0214 at a Timeframe of 4 ms per Division 54

3.26 TZC of Flash TEK0065 at a Timeframe of 40 µs per Division 55

3.27 TZC of Flash TEK0072 at a Timeframe of 800 µs per Division 56

3.28 TII of Flash TEK0213 at a Timeframe of 8 ms per Division 57

3.29 MAVG of Flash TEK0231 at a Timeframe of 20 ms per Division 58

3.30 TPBP-CPT of Flash TEK0216 at a Timeframe of 4 ms per Division 59

3.31 No Interval of TCPT-RS of Flash TEK0233 at a Timeframe of 100

µs per Division

60

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3.32 TCPT of Flash TEK0202 at a Timeframe of 200 µs per Division 61

3.33 CPT after Positive RS of Flash TEK0211 at a Timeframe 40 µs

per Division

61

3.34 CPT prior Positive RS of Flash TEK0211 at a Timeframe 200

µs per Division

62

4.1 Histogram of Negative Lightning RPBP/RS 66

4.2 Scatter Plot of TPBP-RS versus RPBP/RS of Negative Lightning 68

4.3 Histogram of Positive Lightning RPBP/RS 69

4.4 Scatter Plot of TPBP-RS versus RPBP/RS of Positive Lightning 71

4.5 Scatter Plot of TPBP-RS versus SS of Positive Lightning 73

4.6 Scatter Plot of TPBP versus TPBP-RS of Positive Lightning 74

4.7 PBPs from Flash TEK0219 at a Timeframe of 20 ms per

Division

76

4.8 1st PBP from Flash TEK0219 at a Timeframe of 4 ms per

Division with the Close up View of the BIL Segments

76

4.9

2nd PBP from Flash TEK0219 at a Timeframe of 10 ms per

Division with the Close up View of the BIL Segments

77

4.10 Definition of RS parameters. EP, T1, T2, EOS and Eref Represent

the Initial Electric Field Peak, Zero Crossing Duration, Opposite

Polarity Overshoot Duration, Opposite Polarity Overshoot Peak

and Reference Electric Field Level Respectively

78

4.11 Unusually Long Duration RS with a Timeframe of 0.8 ms per

Division

79

4.12

The Electric Field Return Stroke Waveform of Flash TEK0073

with an Extended Timeframe of 40 μs per Division

80

4.13

The Electric Field Return Stroke Waveform of Flash TEK0067

with a Timeframe of 2 ms per Division

81

4.14 The Electric Field Return Stroke Waveform of Flash TEK0223

with a Timeframe of 20ms

86

4.15 The Electric Field Return Stroke Waveform of Flash TEK0211

with an Extended Timeframe of 4ms

87

4.16 Positive Flash with 10 RSs of Flash TEK0214 with a

Timeframe of 20 ms per Division

93

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4.17 1st Positive Flash with 10 RSs of Flash TEK0214 with a


94

4.18

2nd Positive RS of Flash TEK0214 with a Timeframe of 0.1 ms

per Division

94

4.19

3rd Positive RS of Flash TEK0214 with a Timeframe of 0.2 ms

per Division

95

4.20 4th Positive RS of Flash TEK0214 with a Timeframe of 0.1 ms

per Division

95

4.21

5th and 6th Positive RS of Flash TEK0214 with a Timeframe of

0.1 ms per Division

96

4.22

7th, 8th and 9th Positive RS of Flash TEK0214 with a Timeframe

of 0.1 ms per Division

96

4.23 10th Positive RS of Flash TEK0214 with a Timeframe of 0.1 ms

per Division

97

4.24 Very Short Duration Positive RSs from Flash TEK0206 at a

Timeframe of 40 µs per Division

98

4.25 Embedded CPTs of Flash ID TEK0072 with a Timeframe of 40

µs per Division

109

4.26 Negative Lightning CPT from Flash TEK0052 with a


110

4.27 CPT of Flash TEK0052 with a Timeframe of 10 µs per Division 110

4.28 Positive Lightning CPT of Flash TEK0213 at a Timeframe of


111

4.29 2nd PBP from Flash TEK0219 at a Timeframe of 10 ms per

Division

111

4.30

Observations of CPT prior to Positive RS from Flash TEK0202

at a Timeframe of 400 µs per Division

112

4.31 Fine Structure of CPT from Flash TEK0202 at a Timeframe of

40 µs per Division

112

4.32 a) High Intensity CPT from Flash TEK0212 at a Timeframe of

1 ms per Division b) Fine Structure of the CPT at a Timeframe


113

4.33 Pulse Bursts after Positive RS 114

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4.34 a) Multiple Peak Positive RS with CPT of Flash TEK0211

b) Multiple Peak Positive RS with CPT of Flash TEK0207

c) Normal Positive RS of Flash TEK0223

115

A Datasheet of the Buffer Amplifier 132

B1 Parallel Plate Antenna with the Vertical Antenna that was

Initially Planned to be a part of the Experiment

135

B2 Continuity Check of a Coaxial Cable 136

B3 An Oscilloscope, Signal Generator and the Buffer Amplifier

Circuit on a Signal Check

136

B4 Continuity check of Antenna to the Circuit 137

B5 Signal Check of the Coaxial Cable 138

B6 Top Part of Unburied Grounding 138

C1 TPBP with Breakdown, Intermediate and Leader sections of Flash

ID TEK0217

139

C2 TPBP with Breakdown Section only of Flash ID TEK0230 139

C3 TPBP-RS of Negative Lightning of Flash ID TEK0133 140

C4 TPBP-RS of Positive Lightning of Flash ID TEK0206 140

C5 RPBP/RS of Positive Lightning of Flash ID TEK0068 141

C6 RPBP/RS of Positive Lightning of Flash ID TEK0216 141

C7 TZC of Positive Lightning of Flash ID TEK0042 142

C8 TZC of Positive Lightning of Flash ID TEK0041 142

C9 Long TII of Flash ID TEK0232 143

C10 Short TII of Flash ID TEK0214 143

C11 2-Stroke Positive Lightning of Flash ID TEK0232 144

C12 7-Stroke Positive Lightning of Flash ID TEK0236 144

C13 TCPT-RS, CPT Prior Negative RS of Flash ID TEK0072 145

C14 TRS-CPT, CPT in between Positive RSs of Flash ID TEK0214 145

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C15 Long Duration CPT from Negative Lightning of Flash ID

TEK0072

146

C16 Very High Intensity CPT from Positive Lightning of Flash ID

TEK0212

146

C17 Very Short Interval of Positive RSs of Flash ID TEK0206 147

C18 2nd PBP detected in Positive Lightning of Flash ID TEK0217 147

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AM Arithmetic Mean

BIL Breakdown, Intermediete and Leader

BL Breakdown and Leader

BS British Standard

CA Cloud-to-Air

CC Cloud-to-Cloud

CELP Centre for Electromagnetic and Lightning Protection Research

CG Cloud-to-Ground

CID Compact Intracloud Discharge

CL Chaotic Leader

CPT Chaotic Pulse Trains

CPV Concentrating Photovoltaics

DSL Dart Stepped Leader

ECMWF European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts

FALLS Fault Analysis and Lightning Location System

GC Ground-to-Cloud

GM Geometric Mean

IEC International Electrotechnical Commission

KSC Kennedy Space Center

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

NBE Narrow Bipolar Event

NBP Narrow Bipolar Pulse

NBP Narrow Bipolar Pulses

NNBP Narrow Negative Bipolar Pulse

NPBP Narrow Positive Bipolar Pulse

PB Pulse Burst

PBP Preliminary Breakdown Pulses

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RS Return Stroke

SL Stepped Leader

SS Subsequent Strokes

TNB Tenaga Nasional Berhad

TNBR Tenaga Nasional Berhad Research

UPM Universiti Putra Malaysia

VHF Very High Frequency

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LIST OF NOTATIONS

∆T1 10% to 90% Risetime

∆T2 0% to 100% Risetime

∆TZC Zero Crossing Time

C Attachment Circuit Capacitor

Cb Buffer Capacitor

Cc Coaxial Cable Capacitance

Cg Parallel Plate Antenna Capacitance

CPT-a Chaotic Pulse Trains that occurs after last Return Stroke

CPT-b Chaotic Pulse Trains that occurs before a First Return Stroke

CPT-c Chaotic Pulse Trains that occurs before a Succeeding Return Stroke

CPT-i Chaotic Pulse Trains that occurs Between Return Strokes

Cv Variable Tail Capacitor

D Distance of Other Peaks

EN European Standard

Ep Zero to Peak Risetime

F Slow Front

L Leader Pulses

LH0033 Buffer Amplifier

MAVG Average Multiplicity

N Total Number of Negative Cloud-to-Ground Flash

PBP-RS Preliminary Breakdown Pulse to Return Stroke

R Decay Time Constant Resistor

r Distance in which a Cloud-to-Ground Flash is Terminated

R Fast Transition

R0 Tail Resistor

R1 Entrance Resistor

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T1 Zero Crossing Duration Definition

TCPT Chaotic Pulse Train Duration

TCPT-PBP Chaotic Pulse Train to Preliminary Breakdown Pulse Duration

TCPT-RS Chaotic Pulse Train to Return Stroke Duration

TEK Tektronix File

TII Interstroke Interval

TPBP Preliminary Breakdown Pulse Duration

TPBP-CPT Preliminary Breakdown Pulse to Chaotic Pulse Train Duration

TPBP-RS Preliminary Breakdown Pulse to Return Stroke Duration

Tp-ri Preliminary Breakdown Pulse to Return Stroke Time

TRS-CPT Return Stroke to Chaotic Pulse Train Duration

Tz Zero Crossing Time

TZC Zero Crossing Duration

τd Decay Time Constant

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Lightning phenomenon has been studied for decades with Simpson and Scrase [1] and

Simpson and Robinson [2] being some of the pioneers. Physical processes and

activities that happen within the clouds initiates lightning flashes from one point to

another when potential difference between opposite charges are significantly large. The

transfer of charges can occur to the cloud itself, air, another cloud-or ground [3]. Thus,

there are only 4 possible areas in which a flash can happen. In the context of cloud-to-

ground (CG) lightning, the electric fields that are produced by charge build-ups in the

cloud and on the ground results in an electrical breakdown which initiates a CG flash

[4].

The types of thunderstorms can be generalized as shown in Figure 1.1. The positive

and negative charges that are seen in the figure represent the tripolar electrostatic

structure for the thunderclouds with a group of positive charges located in the

uppermost part, a group of negative charges located in the middle part and a smaller

group of positive charges located in the lower part of the three types of thunderclouds.

This allows the thunderstorms to be divided into intra cloud (inside the cloud), CG and

air discharge or cloud-to-air (CA) types of lightning flashes depending on the

conditions in the cloud as can be seen in the figure. It should be noted that from the

figure, there is no charge situated on the ground which plays a significant role in the

type of flashes that are developed. There are more types of lightning discharges to be

explained in the next section.

Figure 1.1. The Most Common Types of Lightning [3]

Details on the charges in the clouds and types of flashes can be seen as in Figure 1.2. In

this figure, unlike the previous one, there is an involvement of positive and negative

charges on the ground which can produce two types of CG lightning. They are the

positive and negative CG flashes. Positive ground flash is defined when positive

charges are being lowered to the ground while negative ground flash is defined when

negative charges are being lowered to the ground by the cloud [5] Inter-cloud (between

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clouds) or cloud-to-cloud (CC) lightning is also introduced in Figure 1.2 in contrast to

intra cloud lightning from Figure 1.1.

Another type of lightning which is quite unusual, rare and commonly associated with

tall towers is the ground-to-cloud (GC) lightning or upward lightning [6, 7]. Air

discharge is shown to discharge in a different way in the figure which depicts the idea

of upward lightning that discharges from a low to a higher end. The various types of

lightning give a broader view of what lightning can do and shows that there is still

much to learn from the natural phenomena.

Figure 1.2. Types of Lightning [8]

Despite electrical systems, appliances and devices can be found almost everywhere

around the world where energy is; they are vulnerable to the lightning risk. The risk

involves flashes that occur from both cloud, and cloud-to-ground. Although cloud

flashes can have a significant impact to systems such as having an effect towards

aircrafts during its flight [9], this thesis focuses on flashes that discharge from cloud to

ground. This is because CG lightning are affecting the human society in many ways

and almost all of infrastructure of the human needs is stationed at the ground level [10].

Some of them are especially in causing damage from something as small as a sensitive

electronic circuit to death of human lives [11, 12]. Forest fires are also caused by

lightning that causes serious damage and must be dealt with quickly [13]. At sea levels,

lightning can also impose threats such as interfering with the system of naval crafts

[14]. On the contrary, new findings has proven that lightning can be put to use by

harvesting energy from it that can be a new source of renewable energy [15]. Thus, it is

clear and significant that the study of CG lightning is crucial for the safety and

betterment of the lives of the society at whole. More significant factors of the

importance this study will be seen in the next and latter sections.

The main concern of threat from CG lightning is towards human beings, animals and

electrical systems. Being indoors does not necessarily mean the person is safe from

being involved in a lightning accident; it only reduces the damage or probability. About

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51% of lightning accidents happen indoors in the United Kingdom [16]. Figure 1.3

shows lightning injuries and deaths in Malaysia from different activities of occurrences

[17]. Taking shelter from rain and lightning is on top of the list and this evidently

shows that there is lack of knowledge and awareness of taking actions against rain and

lightning from the majority of the community members. Animals have also been

reported to be killed as a result of step voltages from lightning [18]. As for electrical

system, electric field coupling is one of the ways lightning can damage electronic

equipment [19]. As a result, induced voltage and currents are introduced into the

system and can cause disruptions and damages.

Figure 1.3. Statistics of Activities Done by Victims and Their Respective Numbers

[17]

Inherently, there is no way that human beings can control the nature of lightning

because it is a natural phenomenon. In Malaysia, CG flashes happen about 25% of the

times compared to the other types of flashes [20]. The CG flashes can further be

categorized into positive and negative lightning with positive lightning being not as

frequent as the latter [21]. Nevertheless, positive lightning is more dangerous in nature

and poses a larger threat compared to negative lightning [22]. Lightning is seemingly

proving itself as a serious threat by the day. If the issue of lightning causing damage

and disruptions is not addressed soon enough, more damage will be done in time.

Lightning hazard warnings are developed by electromagnetic field measurements as a

means of protection against lightning using the motion of charges that travels within

the proximity of the atmosphere when there is a lightning discharge. One of the fields

that are being propagated is the electrostatic field component other than the induction

or radiation field of the lightning discharge [23]. This gives an example of a kind of

that serves as a basis for protection systems that is essential to warn against incoming

lightning in close proximity of the sensitive electrical device or appliance. Interactions

between lightning and the power system and devices will happen in areas that have a

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high density of lightning. Warning of incoming lightning can now be done before an

actual thunderstorm by acknowledging the electric field at ground level. However, of

course, there are many other methods to identify and minimize the lightning damage.

Thus, it is important to study the characteristics of lightning to develop and derive

standards for lightning protection systems accordingly from the measurements that

have been taken.

Nowadays, only the vertical components of the electric field of the flashes are the point

of interest of most studies due to its dominance over its horizontal counterpart. This is

due to its contaminating effect from the vertical electric field which is significantly

higher in magnitude making the horizontal counterpart difficult to measure [24].

Measured vertical lightning electric field shows that a typical CG lightning would

normally contain preliminary breakdown pulses (PBPs), stepped leaders (SLs), dart

stepped leaders (DSLs), negative and positive return strokes (RSs), subsequent strokes

(SSs) and at times, chaotic pulse trains (CPTs) before it is fully neutralized [25-28].

Other kinds of lightning activity that are those of cloud lightning that is not the main

focus of this thesis study but will be discussed to a certain extent due to their

importance in classifying the types of flash. The trend is the similar to other regions

over the world except in a few details that may vary.

Thunderstorms that happen due to the frequent rainfall in Malaysia make the study of

the lightning generated electric fields essential and necessary. Malaysia is positioned

along the equatorial line in the world making it a country that is high in terms of

lightning activity and thunderstorms [29]. The information obtained by the Malaysian

Meteorological Department tells that the rainfall and thunderstorm in Malaysia,

particularly in the Selangor area is frequent seasonally every year [30]. Thus, the

lightning flash that occurs during thunderstorms gives the opportunity to measure

lightning electric fields as it is almost impossible to ignore the study in the region. With

this, more data can be collected to improve the knowledge of lightning in Malaysia.

Obtaining information of rain forecast from outside of the country can help to predict

rain and thunderstorm activity. However, relying on the local forecasts only may prove

to be insufficient due to constraints that may exist in their system. Malaysian

Meteorological Department has acquired weather outlooks from the European Center

for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) which is an independent organization

body that does forecasts for countries around the world to obtain forecasts of seasonal

weathers annually as an external source of weather information [31]. Although it is

only a forecast, the model can give a good anticipation on when the rainfall and

thunderstorm will occur for preparations in advance to do the measurements of the

experiment. An example of a forecast done and used in this study can be seen in Figure

1.5. As can be seen in the figure, Malaysia has a good above average rainfall during

November 2012, December 2012 and January of 2013 where ECMWF forecast is used

for the 2012 and 2013 years. The forecast used for this study only uses some months

from the 2013 and 2014 years.

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Figure 1.4. ECMWF Forecast for November-December 2012-January 2013 [32]

1.2 Problem Statement

In temperate regions such as Denmark, Sweden and Finland and sub-tropic regions

such as Darwin, Florida and Oklahoma lightning vertical electric field are studied

extensively. However, analysis of such lightning features in the tropics is scarce. The

only countries with such studies are Sri Lanka and Malaysia. The studies done in the

two countries are not as comprehensive as what is done in temperate regions resulting

in a lack of knowledge in this field. This is a drawback in the development of models

for engineering applications and understanding physics of lightning. Few of the

outstanding gaps in knowledge with respect to tropical lightning are:

1) Detailed analysis of PBP and their temporal position.

2) Some unique and unusual features of negative and positive RS.

3) Temporal position (within the entire lightning flash) and characteristics of

CPT.

The study of lightning generated is needed in Malaysia since there is frequent lightning

activity present in the country. Studies in areas or states that are reasonably high in

frequency of lightning events should be encouraged and conducted. Most of the studies

are done on the analysis and statistics of the occurrences of PBPs and RSs with the

parameters that are associated to those lightning activities. More studies are also

needed for positive lightning and chaotic pulse trains and parameters that are

acquainted to those studies. This is due to the fact that they are rare in nature and little

is known of them so far. It is important to have an adequate knowledge of the lightning

parameters in broader terms to have a clearer understanding of lightning physics in

order to develop lightning protection systems.

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1.3 Aim and Objectives

The main aim for this study is to conduct an in depth analysis of the measured electric

fields obtained at the experimental site in Malaysia. PBPs, RSs and CPTs of flashes

will be the main focus of the analysis.

A detailed explanation of the objectives of this study is as follows:

1) Redevelopment of a comprehensive measuring system to capture fast field

vertical electric field due to lightning.

2) Record and analysis of PBP, RS (negative and positive) and CPT of CG

lightning for investigating their unique characteristics.

3) Comparison of features of Malaysian CG lightning with that in other regions.

1.4 Scope and Limitations

The work process begins with studying the related literature. This includes the cloud

and ground flashes of almost every type of lightning activity such as the PBPs, SLs,

DSLs, RSs, CPTs and a small number of cloud flashes like PBs and NBPs. Literature

regarding the time of rain is also studied mainly obtained from the meteorological

department for weather forecasts. After studying the literatures, the types of findings

are listed out. The types of study and literature are also influenced by the measurement

results as the study progresses. More research is needed for preliminary breakdown

pulses, negative lightning, positive lightning and chaotic pulse trains especially in

Malaysia as a tropical region since they scarce in number.

The next step is to develop the experimental setup at the site. Maintenance of the setup

is made to ensure the setup is working and accurate. It is crucial to make sure the setup

is working properly. A wrong setup may lead to incorrect and undesirable results. It is

done from time to time before any real measurements are done. A few test runs of the

measurements are completed to ensure the desired data can be obtained and confirm the

reliability of the setup. Measurements of lightning generated electric fields are recorded

every time a forecasted rain with thunderstorm from the meteorological department of

Malaysia is taken place. Data are then collected, distinguished, characterized, analysed

and compared to previous studies to complete the objective of the study. An estimated

time to complete the work process is about 5 to 10 months if everything goes well and

as planned. Finally, the lightning location data from TNBR using their FALLS are also

acquired to complete the study in order to determine whether a CG flash is from the

radiation field or otherwise.

1.5 Thesis Outline

The outlines of the thesis can be seen as follows.

Chapter 1 introduces the study by explaining the background, problem statement, aim,

objectives and outlines of the thesis study. This chapter provides a clear view of the

study and its scope.

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Chapter 2 defines and analyse the literature on lightning parameters. Studies regarding

lightning activities of past researchers are mentioned and presented in this chapter.

Some of the cloud flashes are brought up but most of the literature contains the

explanations of CG flashes. PBPs, RSs and CPTs are the main focus of the study along

with the explanation of their occurrences in CG flashes and analysis.

Chapter 3 explains the methodology of the whole study process. From the beginning of

the development of the experimental setup to the measurements and the approaches to

analyse the data, every step is carefully examined in detail.

Chapter 4 presents the results and findings of the measurements at the site. Detailed

analysis and explanations on the PBPs, RSs and CPTs are discussed in this section.

Chapter 5 concludes the thesis with limitations, constraints, recommendations for

improvements and possibility of future work. The contribution of the thesis to the

scientific community is also highlighted in this chapter.

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