Understanding Religious Militancy

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Understanding Religious Militancy and Terrorism in Bangladesh

Research Report(Submitted to the Social Science Research Council, Planning Division, Ministry of Planning,

Government of the Peoples Republic of Bangladesh)

Submitted by:

DHAKA INSTITUTE OF CULTURAL AFFAIRS(ICA BANGLADESH)

Mailing Address: GPO Box 972, Dhaka-1000, BangladeshDhaka Office: Mouchak Tower, Suit # 1513 (14 th Floor)

83/B New Circular Road, Malibag Moor, Dhaka - 1217, BangladeshTel: (+88) 06668242930/01817182610/084165719

Fax: (+88) 02-8322799, E-mail [email protected]: www.ica-bangladesh.org, www.ica-international.org


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Author Note

Mohammad Azizur Rahman, Assistant Professor, Department of Criminology and Police

Science, Mawlana Bhashani Science and Technology University &Chairperson, ICA Bangladeshand

Mohammed Bin Kashem, Associate Professor, Department of Sociology, National University, &Director, Centre for Criminological Research, Bangladesh (CCRB)

This research was supported by Social Science Research Council, Planning Commission,Government of Bangladesh Institutional Research Grant awarded to the Dhaka Institute ofCultural Affairs (ICA Bangladesh)

December 2011


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... iii LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... v

LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. v

LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................. vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ......................................................................................................... viii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ x

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY .......................................................... 1 1.1. Study problem ........................................................................................................................ 13 1.2. Objectives of the study........................................................................................................... 16 1.3. Rationale of the study ............................................................................................................ 17 1.4. Methods and data ................................................................................................................... 17 1.4.1. Data collection techniques .................................................................................................. 17

1.4.2. Sampling ............................................................................................................................. 18

1.5. Scope and limitations ............................................................................................................. 20 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................... 22 2.1. The concept of terrorism and militancy ................................................................................. 22 2.1.1. Terrorism............................................................................................................................. 22 2.1.2. Militancy ............................................................................................................................. 22 2.1.3. Explanations of terrorism .................................................................................................... 28 2.2. History of Religious militancy and terrorism ........................................................................ 31 2.3. Organized crime and terrorism .............................................................................................. 33 2.4. Islamist Terrorist groups, networks, tactics, and activities .................................................... 35 2.5. Global action against terrorism, and War on terror ............................................................... 39 2.6. The Current Study .................................................................................................................. 45 CHAPTER III: MILITANT OUTFITS AND TERRORIST ACTIVITIES ................................. 48 3.1. Number of Terrorist Groups .................................................................................................. 48 3.2. Nature of Terrorist Activities ................................................................................................. 51 3.3. Ideologies and Strengths of Islamist Militant Groups ........................................................... 57 3.4 Militant Networks, Tactics, and Strategies ............................................................................. 65 3.5. Terrorist Financing ................................................................................................................. 70 3.6. Factors and Causes of Islamist Militancy and Terrorism ...................................................... 72 CHAPTER IV: ANTI-TERRORISM MEASURES ..................................................................... 75 4.1. Laws, statues and conventions related to terrorism ............................................................... 75 4.2. Law enforcement measures against religious militancy and terrorism .................................. 77 4.3. Other Measures against militancy and terrorism ................................................................... 83 CHAPTER V: CASE STUDIES ON SELECTED ISLAMIST MILITANTS ............................. 87 5.1. Shaikh Abdur Rahman ........................................................................................................... 87 5.2. Mufti Abdul Hannan .............................................................................................................. 89 5.3. Siddiqul Islam ........................................................................................................................ 90 5.4. Asadullah Al Galib ................................................................................................................ 92 5.5. Zahidul Islam Sumon alias Boma Mizan ............................................................................... 93


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CHAPTER VI: FINDINGS OF KEY INFOMANT INTERVIEWS ........................................... 96 6.1. Public Perception ................................................................................................................... 96 6.2. Rise of Islamist Militancy ...................................................................................................... 97 6.3. Organization of Terrorist Groups ........................................................................................... 98

6.4. Terror Financing .................................................................................................................. 100

6.5. Preventing Religious Militancy ........................................................................................... 100 6.6. Impact of Terrorism ............................................................................................................. 103 CHAPTER VII: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION .............................................................. 104 7.1. Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 104 7.2. Conclusions .......................................................................................................................... 111 7.2.1. Enforcement ...................................................................................................................... 112 7.2.2. Intervention ....................................................................................................................... 114 7.2.3. Prevention ......................................................................................................................... 115 7.2.4. Other Recommendations ................................................................................................... 116 References ................................................................................................................................... 119

Appendices .................................................................................................................................. 125

LIST OF TABLES

Table: 3.1 Religious Militant Organizations in Bangladesh 37

Table: 3.2 Year wise Number of Terrorist Incidents and Persons Killed/Injured 39

Table: 3.2 Major Terrorist Activities in Bangladesh (1999-2010) 40

Table: 3.4 Strengths of the Major Terrorist Groups in Bangladesh 47

Table: 4.1 Year wise Number of Arrests by Militant Groups/Outfits (2003 2010) 66

Table: 4.2 No. of Convicts by Type of Sentences (2006-2010) 68

Table: 4.3 Year wise No. of Convicts and Type of Sentences (2006 2010) 70

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Research Instruments 112

Appendix 2. Analysis Coding Framework 116

Appendix 3 Year wise Number of Arrests (2003 2010) 118


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LIST OF ACRONYMS

ACHR Asian Centre for Human RightsAHAB Ahle Hadith Andolan (People of Hadith Movement)AL Awami League (Mass Peoples League)

AMLO Anti-Money Laundering OrdinanceAPG Asia Pacific GroupATO Anti-Terrorism OrdinanceASK Ain o Salish KendraBB Bangladesh BankBCL Bangladesh Chatra (student) LeagueBDR Bangladesh RiflesBGB Border Guard of BangladeshBIPS Bangladesh Institute for Peace and Security StudiesBIISS Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic StudiesBNP Bangladesh Nationalist Party

CHT Chittagong Hill TractsCHRI Commonwealth Human Rights InitiativesCID Criminal Investigation DepartmentCPB Communist Party of BangladeshCSIS Canadian Security Intelligence ServiceCTG Care Taker GovernmentDGFI Directorate General of Forces IntelligenceDB Detective BranchDU Dhaka UniversityGoB Government of BangladeshEU European UnionHUJI-B Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami (Movement for an Islamic Holy War)

BangladeshHT Hizbut Towhid (Party of Oneness of God)HuT Hizbut TahrirIBP Islami Biplob ParishadIBA Institute of Business AdministrationICA Institute of Cultural AffairsICM Institute of Conflict ManagementICS Islami Chhatra Shibir (Islamic Student Camp)IED Improved Explosive DeviceIGP Inspector General of PoliceIIF Islamic International FrontIISS International Institute for Strategic StudiesINTERPOL International Police OrganizationIOJ Islami Okiya Jote (United Islamic Front)ISI Inter Services Intelligence (Pakistan intelligence agency)JCD Jatiyabadia Chatra DalJMB Jamaat-ul Mujahidin Bangladesh (Party of Mujahidin Bangladesh)


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JMJB Jagrata Muslim Janata Bangladesh (Awakened Muslim Masses ofBangladesh)

JIB Jamaat-e-Islam (Party of Islam) BangladeshJS Tatiya Sangsad (National Parliament)KII Key Informant Interviews

KMO Kamtapuri Liberation OrganizationKNAB Khatme Nabuyat Andolon BangladeshLeT Lasker e - Tayeba

NDF National Democratic Front of Bodoland NGO Non -Governmental Organization NGOAB Non-Governmental Organizations Affairs Bureau NLFT National Liberation Front of Tripura NSI National Security IntelligenceMP Member of ParliamentPM Prime MinisterRAB Rapid Action Battalion

RAW Research and Analysis Wing (Indian intelligence agency)RIHS Revival of Islamic Heritage SocietyRPF Rohingya Patriotic FrontRSO Rohingya Solidarity OrganizationSAARC South Asian Association for Regional CooperationSATF South Asian Task ForceSATP South Asia Terrorism PortalSB Special BranchSF Security ForceSSHI Servants of Suffering Humanity InternationalSSRC Social Science Research CouncilTIB Transparency International BangladeshTRI Terrorism Risk IndexUAB Ulema Anjuman al-Baiyinaat (Clerics' Circle of Clear Understanding)ULFA United Liberation Front of AssamUNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for RefugeesUNICEF United Nations Children's FundUSDoS United States Department of StateUSAID United States Agency for International DevelopmentVDP Village Defence PoliceWMD Weapon of Mass Destruction


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Institute of Cultural Affairs (ICA) Bangladesh is thankful to the Social Science Research

Council (SSRC) of the Planning Division of the Government of Bangladesh for awarding the

Institutional Research Grant to carry out the timely and relevant study ``Understanding religious

militancy and terrorism in Bangladesh``.

ICA Bangladesh is very grateful to the authors of the report Mohammad Azizur

Rahman and Mohammed Bin Kashem for their brilliant work on complex and sensitive issues

like militancy and terrorism with limited access to the reliable data and appropriate subjects.

Deep appreciation should go to two research assistants (RAs) Muhammad Kamruzzaman andMd. Jahangir Alam for their extraordinary pulling over the media reports, content analysis of the

secondary sources, and conducting expert interviews.

We must acknowledge with high appreciation the key informant and experts from

different organizations including DU, TIB, BIISS, and ASK for their time given for the interview

despite their busy schedule. We express our high gratitude to three Bangladeshi repatriate

academic scholars in the USA and Canada whose research works are related to this study.

Md. Zakiul Islam deserves our special thanks for his important management role from

signing the contract and maintaining accounts through organizing meetings, interviews and

submitting necessary documents of the project to team members and respective authorities. We

also mention SSRC officers and staff for their administrative support and cooperation. ICA

Bangladesh also would like to name ICA staffs and silent supporters Md. Nurunnabi Milton,

Mujib Ahmed Patwari, and Masudur Rahman. We must acknowledge Mr. Md. Mafizul Islam for

guardian role in the project agreement process.


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We also would like to thank the Board and members of ICA Bangladesh for supporting

the team and staffs when needed to carry out the study project from time to time. Mr. Md.

Mohsin Ali is highly appreciated for his editorial assistance. Last but not the least, we

acknowledge the sacrifices of the spouses and children of the authors for giving time to

accomplish the project.


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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The main purpose of this study is to document and highlight the problem of Islamist

militancy and terrorism in Bangladesh. It examined the nature of various Islamist militant groups

and the extent of their terrorist activities in Bangladesh. This study also investigated the

underlying causes of militancy, the funding sources of militant groups, and the strategies and

techniques used by terrorist groups. Recommendations are made on how best to address the

menace of militancy and terrorism in Bangladesh. The study mainly used content analysis of

secondary sources and expert interviews. ICA Bangladesh conducted Understanding religious

militancy and terrorism in Bangladesh with a financial grant of the Social Science ResearchCouncil, Planning Ministry of the Government of Bangladesh.

While religious militancy and terrorism have become a serious socio-political concern of

Bangladesh for a long time, it is still one of the most debatable and underresearched issues. The

study revealed that Islamist extremism and militant activities rose from 1999 to 2005. However,

homegrown and internationally linked Islamist terrorist outfits and groups have continued to

emerge in Bangladesh since 1992. International pressures from some western countries, donors

and neighboring countries and the international media heavily influenced the Bangladesh

government to fight Islamist militancy and terrorism especially aftermath the 9/11 US attacks

and the subsequent global war on terror campaign. By this time, Bangladesh has signed most of

the UN anti-terrorism conventions and enacted a number of laws to address the menace of

terrorism. Since 2006, Bangladesh has not faced any devastating terrorist attacks with bombing

or grenade attacks due to different measures by different governments such as the BNP

government`s banning of some outlawed Islamist militant groups and prosecution of militants;

the caretaker governments enactment and implementation of anti-terrorism and anti-terrorist


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financing laws; and the present Awami Leage government`s serious counter-terrorism measures

ranging from banning outfits, arresting and prosecuting militants, updating laws, and initiating

other local terrorism prevention steps and regional policies.

While various reports and studies pointed out that political gaming with the Islamist

elements by two major political parties since the liberation war provided avenues for the rise of

Islamic political groups and Islamic extremism and militancy in the structure which subsequently

facilitated the uncontrolled growth of Islamist terrorist outfits and militant groups. The study

revealed that JMB, JMJB, HUJI-B and HT are the major terrorist groups which generated

thousands of members, and who have continued their activities under different names in differenttimes. Each of these groups has several thousand activists in the country. Though the exact

number of groups or outfits cannot be explored the number ranges from 12 to more than 50.

Data show that the top leaders and founders of these militant groups were educated in madrasha

(Islamic seminary institution), and later some of them joined teaching in madarsha at point of

their career. Some of them were also Afghan War veteran, and travelled to India, Pakistan,

Afghanistan and some other Gulf countries. Most of these Islamist militant groups have

symbiotic relationships among themselves and with foreign outfits based in Pakistan, India and

some other countries. These groups also have mutual support and cooperation from non-religious

insurgent groups within and outside the country such as ethnic militant groups in CHTs, Rohinga

refugee in Cox`s Bazar, and the Indian North East ethnic insurgent groups including ULFA.

The study found both positive and negative role of madrassa in facilitating the rise of

militancy. However, it is found that poor, unemployed and disadvantaged youth educated in both

general and madrassa lines and low educated and illiterate people from economically

disadvantaged districts are more likely to be brainwashed to join these militant groups.


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Evidences suggest that politicians, teachers, community leaders, and peers are the mentors or

patrons of militancy in Bangladesh. Despite having various anti-militancy and counter-terrorism

measures by the governments, recent media and intelligence sources indicate that several militant

outfits and their members are being reorganized to publicly continue to do their activities.

The study identified a number of funding sources, mostly from local areas generated

through collecting zakat/sadka/fitra (donation on different religious occasions), donation in the

name of Islamic dawaat (invitation) for speech or lecture, educational or orphanage institutions,

and from local businesses. External funding came through Islamic charitable NGOs from Gulf

countries, USA, UK and other countries and through hundi (illegal money exchange) fromindividuals living abroad. The militants are also found engaged in money laundering and

organized crime such as illegal underground business. The study also found that members of

these militant groups are trained in military tactics to use automatic weapons, guns and grenades,

IED (improved explosive device) and in making explosives such as powerful bombs, etc. They

also use high-tech information technology (IT) communication tools such as computer,

telephone, internet, compact disks (CDs) to propagate, disseminate or for terrorist attacks.

Bangladesh has been facing leftwing, ethnic and religious militancy since its

independence in 1971. However, the Islamist Militancy and terrorism has vandalized the lives of

the people and endangered law and order, and national, regional and international security, and

handicapped economic development. Therefore, we must eliminate the root causes of militancy

and terrorism in Bangladesh. In addressing these risk factors, a comprehensive and integrated

terrorism prevention strategy needs to be imparted, which is essential for a sustainable

democracy and socio-economic wellbeing in Bangladesh. Therefore, political parties and civil

society should work together to combat terrorism. The study concludes that the confrontational


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political culture, the culture of immunity and lack of appropriate policies are the major obstacles

to control the Islamist militancy in Bangladesh. Otherwise, the problem of militancy will go

beyond control threatening the national sovereignty.


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socioeconomic, political and cultural factors. Some experts argued that despite some significant

steps by the government, since independence ethnic and leftwing insurgency and militancy

continued in Bangladesh.

Islamist radicalization, extremism and militancy have gained accelerated currency in

Bangladesh politics in recent years (BIPSS, 2010; Riaz, 2008; Quamruzzaman, 2010; Datta,

2007). The mass-media, academics, researchers, politicians and the government have not

seriously brought the menace of Islamist militancy and terrorism in Bangladesh before 2000s,

but aftermath the country-wide showdown of force and strength by two Islamist militant

organizations the Jamaat-ul-Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB) and the Jagrata Muslim JanataBangladesh (JMJB) in 2005 (Riaz, 2008). International media, intelligence agencies, donors and

foreign governments have pointed to the rise of Islamist terrorist in the country since the US

attacks in 2001 (Quamruzzaman, 2011). Some researchers and experts do not think Bangladesh

is a safe haven for international terrorism, while other scholars ague that religious militancy is

homegrown due to various socioeconomic and historical factors and cannot be generalized the

menace in terms of international context and forms of terrorism.

Bangladesh is the 7 th populous country and 3 rd largest Muslim country located in South Asia.

It has a reputation for being a moderate Muslim country. In general people of this country are

peace loving and God believers. International concerns over Bangladesh as a hub of terrorists

have began since the US declared global war on terrorism after the 9/11 event. Various reports

by local and international media and intelligence sources claimed that Bangladesh has been

facing the rise of Islamist militancy, Talibanization by Islamist militants, becoming another

Afghanistan, becoming a regional terrorist hub linked with al-Qaeda or pro-bin Laden Jihadi

terrorism (Harrison, 2006; Vaughn, 2007; Rahman, 2004; Quamruzzaman, 2010; Institute for


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Defence Studies and Analysis 2009; Canadian Security Intelligence Service, 2003. It is found

that the rise of religious militancy and terrorism are linked to various factors, such as domestic,

regional and international (Riaz, 2008); historical-political (Quamruzzaman, 2011); madrassa,

political patronage (Datta, 2007); and political, economic and cultural factors (Momen, &

Begum, 2005).

The growing number of Islamist militants, networks and their activities along with the

incidents of terrorist attacks since 1999 indicate that Bangladesh is very vulnerable to terrorism

in the name of Islam. The Bangladeshi governments have already shifted their position from

denying the presence of Islamist militant groups and their international links to the war againstterror to accepting the menace of militancy. The current Bangladesh Awami League (AL)

government in their earlier regime (1996-2000) failed to take action against Islamist militancy

and terrorism, but the present AL government (2009 onwards) has adopted the zero-tolerance

strategy. During the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP)-led alliance government, religious

extremism and militant activities have risen as they initially denied its existence. But in the midst

of several terrorist incidents by a number of terrorist outfits and militants like Bangla Bhai across

the country finally they took measures to fight Islamist militancy. There has been allegation that

some of the then ruling party (four party alliance government) lawmakers and ministers used to

maintain relationship with the terrorist group leaders. At the same time, the party and the

government and state administration patronized some form of militant activities. In fact, the

international pressure from donors was a crucial factor in changing their position. A study by

Riaz (2008) pointed out that Islamist militancy is the result of both errors of omission (the state,

politicians and the civil society failed to do things that could have stemmed the rise of militancy)


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and errors of commission (the state, politicians, and the civil society did things that worsened the

situation).

Terrorism is a complex term; it has a long history and different meanings, depending on the

context and the users. Terrorism literature has been growing tremendously. But this field is too

complex, multi-faceted and multi-dimensional in terms of forms, causes, patterns, consequences,

organization, and networks. Therefore, no single study can adequately explain religious

militancy in Bangladesh. Necessary data and appropriate subjects for studying such topic is

always an issue. As a result, there is hardly any rigorous scientific study on terrorism in

Bangladesh. Most of the studies on terrorism were descriptive in nature. Given these limitations,the present study made efforts to explore the linkages between Islamist militancy and terrorism

in Bangladesh by looking at the growth of numbers and outfits, the links with regional and

international groups, the sources of funding, the patterns, trends and causes of Islamist militancy

and terrorism as well as the government responses to address the problem of terrorism.

In response to the current terrorist threat, the European Union (EU) and the United Nations

(UN) have introduced a global strategy by promoting democracy, dialogue and good governance

to tackle the root causes of radicalization.

1.2. Objectives of the study

The main objective of this study was to assess the extent and nature of religious militancy

and terrorism in Bangladesh. The specific objectives of the study were:

To identify the different Islamist militant and terrorist groups in Bangladesh

To understand the patterns of Islamist militant and their terrorist activities in Bangladesh

To investigate the strategies and techniques of committing militant and terrorist activities

in Bangladesh


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To determine the underlying causes of Islamist militant and terrorist activities in

Bangladesh

To examine the anti-militant and counter terrorism measures in Bangladesh

1.3. Rationale of the study

The issue of Islamist militancy and terrorism is not just a law and order issue for

Bangladesh; it involves overriding concern over other issues including political stability, human

security, socio-economic development, and international relations. Available public perception

as articulated through various media, local and international reports and research evidences

supporting such claims is plentiful . This study identified various Islamist militant groups andtheir terrorist activities in Bangladesh. It analyzed the trends, patterns, causes and consequences

of Islamist militancy and terrorism in Bangladesh. The study also looked at the funding sources,

strategies and techniques used by various terrorist groups. These findings can have policy

implications for undertaking future action plan in combating Islamic militancy and other terrorist

activities in Bangladesh.

1.4. Methods and data

1.4.1. Data collection techniques

Multiple methods were used to collect the data for this study. Secondary analysis was the

primary source of data. Despite the drawbacks of studying militancy and terrorism based on

secondary, official and biased journalistic sources, to ensure the maximum reliability and

validity, the same data were verified against different sources.

Content analysis : In the absence of primary data , a content analysis of secondary

sources such as newspapers reports, internet publications, books, magazines, journal articles, and

intelligence documents was the main method of data collection. This study also verified the content

of available and accessible books, booklets, leaflets, press briefings, press releases, reports, letters,


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articles, magazines, and newsletters and internet publications or interviews or statements published in any

newspaper to to understand the actual agenda of the groups and the reasons of their militant activities.

Data on militant groups, their types, numbers, ideologies, activities, strategies, funding sources,

and locations were gathered from the newspapers. It is important to mention here that terrorism

and religious militancy as subject matter of study being very sensitive for investigation and very

hard to get access to all required information.

Key informant interview (KII) : In-depth interview of key informants was conducted to

understand the underlying causes of terrorism and militancy, factors influencing involvement

with terrorist and militant groups, international linkages, trends and history of terrorism.

Case study : Case studies on five selected extremists/convicted terrorist/militants

belonging to five different militant outfits were conducted based on secondary analysis to find

information about their reasons for joining, involvement of activities. It is important to mention

that we have originally planned to conduct case studies on convicted terrorists who are serving

time in Dhaka Central Jail. We have not been able to conduct the interviews with the convicts

because the Home Ministry did not approve our request for obtaining permission to visit the

central jail and conduct the interviews. Under these circumstances we had to rely on

newspaper/magazine reports on the terrorists to present the case studies for this study.

1.4.2. Sampling

Sample selection for content analysis

Two leading national dailies the Daily Ittefaq and the Daily Star have been purposively

selected for data collection. Considering the volume of circulation and the neutrality of these

dailies we have selected them. We covered ten (10) years of newspaper from 2001 to 2010. In

addition to that, the Daily Prothom and the New Age were consulted to supplement the news

reports and the recent government strategies and actions.


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Sample selection for KIIs

Purposive sampling technique was used to select respondents for key informant interviews.

In this case respondents depth of knowledge on the subject matters was the primary

consideration. The sample is consisting of key officials of the law enforcing agencies, research

organizations, NGOs, and civil society members representing the following agencies who were

considered to be able to provide deeper understanding of their views on terrorism in Bangladesh:

1. Advocate Sultana Kamal, Executive Director, Ain O Salish Kendra (ASK), Ex. Advisor

to the Caretaker Government of Bangladesh, Chairperson of the Trustee Board,

Transparency International Bangladesh (TIB)2. Mr. Md. Nurul Huda, Ex. Inspector General of Police (IGP), Bangladesh Police, Ex.

Secretary, Government of Bangladesh

3. Dr. Ifthekharuzzaman, Executive Director, Transparency International Bangladesh (TIB),

Ex. Director, Bangladesh Institute of International and Strategic Studies (BIISS)

4. Professor Delwar Hossain, Chairman, Department of International Relations, University

of Dhaka

5. Professor Rafiqul Islam, Chairman, Dept. of Peace and Conflict Studies, University of

Dhaka

6. Professor Ali Riaz, Chair, Department of Politics & Government, Illinois State

University, Normal, USA & Author, Islamist Militancy in Bangladesh (2008)

7. Dr. Shaheen Afroze, Research Director, Bangladesh Institute of International and

Strategic Studies (BIISS)

8. AM M Quamruzzaman, Author, Militia Movement in Bangladesh (2011) and PhD

Researcher, McGill University, Canada


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An interview guideline was used to gather information from the respondents (Appendix 1).

We have not been able to conduct interviews with the IGP and DG, RAB because they were not

willing to give us interviews without prior permission from the Home Ministry in this regard.

Also, on some issues respondents were unwilling to answer any question.

Sample selection for case study

Five convicted militants were purposively selected given their involvement, leadership,

justice response and media coverage. The selected individuals are :

1. Sheikh Abdur Rahman

2. Siddiqul Islam alias Bangla Bhai3. Dr. Asadulla Al Galib Mufti Hannan

4. Zahidul Islam Sumon alias Boma Mizan

1.5. Scope and limitations

The study confined its scope to Islamist militancy and terrorism in Bangladesh. The

complexity of the phenomena of Islamist militancy and terrorism is a major limitation. The study

is based on the available and accessible secondary information derived from the content analysis

of two newspapers and views of experts gathered through Key Informant Interview (KII). Based

on secondary analysis supplemented with KIIs, it addressed the objectives. Limited scope, time

and resources as well as inaccessibility to appropriate subjects and experts affected the quality of

data and analysis of the study. Despite our repeated efforts, we could not interview some of the

respondents especially the chief executives of the law enforcing agencies such as police and

RAB. They were not willing to give the interview without permission from the Home Ministry.

The reliability and validity of data gathered from news media sources, which often count

on official sources, pose a significant question. Neither official data nor the news media are from


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biasness. Many authors pointed out the drawbacks of terrorism and militancy studies

(Quamruzzaman, 2010). Government sources do not release actual information under the excuse

of security concerns and the government`s image issue. Despite non-implementation of the

recently enacted the Right to Information Ordinance (No. 50 of 2008), 2008 and act in 2009

along with the inaccessibility of such sensitive information, this study used various news media

as the main source of information. International and regional news media are used as well. In

Bangladesh, news media do not enjoy much freedom from government control and in most cases

media are not neutral in reporting as they represent specific view points and the same is also true

for international and regional media as well (Quamruzzaman, 2010).


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CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. The concept of terrorism and militancy

2.1.1. Terrorism

Terrorism is a sociological concept. It is a global phenomenon now. Following Durkheim

(1973), terrorism is a social fact. It is a socially constructed concept. Following Becker, terrorism

a crime as it is labeled. ``Terrorism is more extreme than most common crimes since it often

involves the commission of serious violence against civilians who have done nothing to directly

provoke their victimization`` (Agnew, 2010). It has been used in various ways such as tactic and

strategy, as crime and a holy duty, as a justified reaction to oppression and inexcusableabomination or war on terror. It has been used by different actors ranging from militant groups,

pressure group, state, a group of individuals, ethnic group, religious group, and so on. The term

`terrorism` has no common or universally accepted definition. It is also one of the most debatable

terms in the literature. Its meaning is continuously changing and especially aftermath the 9/11

incidence, the term get more complicated and multifaceted. The definition of terrorism varies

from international bodies like the United Nations (UN), European Union (EU), and North

Atlantic Organization (NATO) to governments. One government varies from another in defining

terrorism. Even within the same state, different agencies responsible for different functions in the

ongoing fight against terrorism use different definitions.

The most commonly accepted academic definition starts with the U.N. definition

produced in 1992; "An anxiety-inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-)

clandestine individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons,

whereby - in contrast to assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets."

According to the framework decision of the European Union (EU), terrorism combines two


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elements: an objective element, as it refers to a list of instances of serious criminal conduct

(murder, bodily injuries, hostage taking, extortion, fabrication of weapons, committing attacks,

threatening to commit any of the above, etc.); and a subjective element, as these acts are deemed

to be terrorist offences when committed with the aim of seriously intimidating a population,

unduly compelling a government or international organization to perform or abstain from

performing any act, or seriously destabilizing or destroying the fundamental political,

constitutional, economic or social structures of a country or an international organization (EU

Website, http://europa.eu/ legislation summaries/justice freedom_ security/fight against_

terrorism/l33168_en.htm).Among government definitions, some are always broad (the USA) and some are narrow.

According to the US Department of Defense, terrorism is the calculated use of unlawful

violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate

governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or

ideological. This definition include three key elementsviolence, fear, and intimidation. The

U.S. Department of State defines "terrorism" to be "premeditated politically-motivated violence

perpetrated against non-combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually

intended to influence an audience. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) uses this:

"Terrorism is the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or property to intimidate or

coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political

or social objectives."

The British Government`s definition seem to be less specific and considerably less

verbose. According to their definition of 1974, terrorism is"the use of violence for political

ends, and includes any use of violence for the purpose of putting the public, or any section of the


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public, in fear." Canada`s definition of terrorism has been regarded as broad as an act or

unlawful acts for purposes of influencing or intimidating governments and the civilian

population for 'motivated for political and ideological purposes'."

According to the US Immigration Act of 1990, terrorists can be anyone who used a

"firearm, explosive, or dangerous device" to "endanger the safety of one or more individuals or

to cause substantial damage to property. According to the EU framework decision, a terrorist

group is defined as a structured organization consisting of more than two persons, established

over a period of time and acting in concert, and refers to directing a terrorist group and

participating in its activities as offences relating to a terrorist group. This framework alsoincludes certain intentional acts as punishable offences linked to terrorist activities even if no

terrorist offence is committed: public provocation to commit a terrorist offence; recruitment and

training for terrorism; and aggravated theft, extortion and falsification of administrative

documents with the aim of committing a terrorist offence.

Since 1930s, international bodies such as the League of Nations and the United Nations,

has put terrorism in their agenda. Domestic agencies like the Federal Bureau of Investigation

(FBI) have defined terrorism in the late 1930s. Both domestic and international groups flourished

and had began to use techniques such as hijacking, bombing, diplomatic kidnapping and

assassination to assert their demands. Politicians, lawmakers, law enforcement and researchers

have viewed these groups and as real threats to Western democracies. Lawmakers, security

professionals and scholars started efforts to classify terrorism based on what kind of attack

agents an attacker uses (biological, for example) or by what they are trying to defend (as in

ecoterrorism). The US researchers have begun to distinguish different types of terrorism in the

1970s to understand how to counter and deter terrorism.


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There has been no internationally agreed UN definition yet or there cannot be a universal

definition of such complex and debatable term overnight. However, given criminal law violation,

terrorism is a criminal act, one of the cruelest forms of crime that influence the audience beyond

the immediate victim.

2.1.2. Militancy

The term militancy has not clear definition like the term terrorism. The word militancy

can be understood as the acts of individuals, groups or parties displaying engaging in violence

usually for a cause whether religious, political, ideological, economic, or social. Nowadays, the

term militant is synonymously used with the term terrorist. This complexity is reflected in theuse of the term in both academic and non-academic literature such as security studies and

intelligence reports (Firdous, 2009; Quamruzzaman, 2010; Firdous, 2009). There some words

that often seem to be confusing to understand militancy.

The word militant comes from the 15th Century Latin militare meaning to serve as a

solider. Militia is the related modern concept described as a defensive organization grew out of

the Anglo-Saxon Fyrd (Firdous, 2009). According to the Oxford English Dictionary ( London:

Oxford University Press 2009), militia is an organized group of people comparable to a military

force. Etymologically, the term 'militia' derives from Latin miles or milit- meaning 'soldier;'

adding the suffix - ia , the word militia literally means 'military service ( An Elementary Latin

Dictionary edited by Charlton T. Lewis (London: Oxford University Press, 1997) . The

contemporary sense of the term militia as paramilitary force motivated by religious or political

ideology, especially one that engages in rebel or terrorist activities in opposition to a regular

army" is associated with the US usage in the early 1990s as applied to a number of rightwing

groups opposed to gun control and distrustful of the federal government (Quamruzzaman, 2010).


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In modern times, various movements seek to apply militancy as a solution, or use

militancy to rationalize their solutions for issues. But these movements do not share common

tactics. Usually, a militant uses violence as part of a claimed struggle against oppression. To Hall

(1995), a militia movement as a social movement has three common elements goals, collective

actors and collective action. According to Freilich et al. (2001), a militia movement has five

dimensions ideology, motivation, mobilization, organization and ritual. These elements are

also common to Islamist militancy or terrorism. This word is sometimes used to describe anyone

with strongly held views (e.g., militant Christian, militant Atheist). A militant sometimes hold an

extremist position. A militant person or group expresses a physically aggressive posture while insupport of an ideology or a cause. A militant person is a confrontational person regardless of

physical violence or pacifistic methods (http:/ http:/encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/

Miltancy). Two common traits shared by many militants are: use of force or violence directly,

either in offence or in defense, and justification of the use of force using the ideological rhetoric

of their particular group (http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/47081/4/Critical_Analysis_of_

the_Rise _of_Islamic_Militancy.pdf).

Abuza (2003) did not define militancy, but used the words radical, extremist, militant and

terrorist interchangeably (Hamilton-Hart, 2005). There are several other terms such as

insurgency, extremism and militia, which often have similar meanings or usages. However, they

have different connotations in different contexts. Some view these movements as social

movements or resistance movements while others view as criminal acts like terrorism. Following

Becker, these are socially constructed, and depend on who is labeled and who labels. Usually the

powerful or authorities define militias as terrorists or insurants and terrorists as in this present

world, the US or hegemonic powers determine what movements are terrorism (Quamruzzaman,


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2010). From the late nineteenth century, militant is sensed as ``aggressively active in pursuing a

political or social cause``. In earlier times, it has been referred to a person engaged in warfare.

Wright-Neville (2004) theorized that there is a continuum linking activists to militants

and militants to terrorists. Based on publicly available information on the attitudinal dispositions

of Southeast Asian Islamist groups (JI members), he argued that movement between these

behavioral categories is a function of relative degrees of existential anger and alienation. Many

reports also inform that the existential motives of Southeast Asian terrorists and their

counterparts in other corners of the world are similar in many respects (ICG 2002, 2003;

Singapore Ministry of Home Affairs 2003). He writes `` JI members differ from activists andmilitants at many levels, but one of the most obvious is their transcendence of parochialism and

commitment to a supra-national Islamist agenda. This is especially evident in their tendency to

paint the US and the West more generally as the main source of what they see as the

marginalization and oppression of Muslims around the world. In other words, as Southeast Asian

Muslims they see the causes of their plight as indivisible from those that deprive Muslims in

South Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East, and elsewhere`` (Wright-Neville, 2004:39). In

Southeast Asia, the majority of Islamic political organizations are activist groups; they infuse

national politics with a more Islamic flavor, and prefer to work within existing political or

democratic frameworks. As activists, they have moderate degree of political alienation. Activists

become militants due to their accumulated frustration generated by a sustained period of political

impotence. Their degree of alienation becomes high. Terrorists are characterized by extreme

degree of political alienation. The activist groups of Southeast Asia are Nahdatul Ulama and

Muhammadiyah (Indonesia), Sisters in Islam and Muslim and ABIM (Youth of Malaysia)

(Malaysia) and Philippine Association of Islamic Ulamas and Islamic Movement for Electoral


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Reform and Good Government (Philippines). At militant level, Islamist groups are KISDI

(Committee for Solidarity with the Islamic World), Hizbut Tahrir, Front Pembela Islam and

Laskar Jihad (Indonesia), Parti Islam se-Malaysia (PAS), Al Arqam and Al Ma`unah (Indonesia);

and MNLF, Bangsamoro People`s Consultative Assembly, MILF and Abu Sayaf group

(Philippines). JI appears as terrorist groups in all three countries.

2.1.3. Explanations of terrorism

There are various causes and forms of terrorism. Religious militancy is as old as

terrorism. From the definitions of terrorism, it is evident that the purposes of terrorism are

manifold; it could be for politically motivated, state sponsored, ideological and so on. Over thelast two decades, terrorists have committed extremely violent acts for alleged political or

religious reasons. It has been observed that the actors who use terror tactics belong to different

groups of our society, local, regional, international. The actors can be individuals, group or even

state.

There are various explanations of terrorism in academic literature. While much terrorism

research showed that strains or grievances are a major cause of terrorism (Rosenfeld, 2004;

National Research Council, 2002 as cited in Agnew, 2010). These strains may include material

deprivation, the problems associated with globalization/modernization; resentment over the

cultural, economic, and military domination of the West particularly the USA; territorial, ethnic,

and religious disputes resulting from postcolonial efforts at nation building; economic, political

and other discrimination based on race/ethnicity or religion; the problems (unemployment/

discrimination or the clash between western and Islamic values) encountered by certain

immigrant groups; the denial of basic human rights; harsh state repressions over certain groups;


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displacement or the loss of one`s land/home; military occupation of certain types; and threats to

the status of working class, white, male heterosexuals (Agnew, 2010).

Agnew (2010) linked collective strains to terrorism. According to him, the core

characteristics of collective strains are high in magnitude, with civilian victims; unjust; and

caused by more powerful others, including complicit civilians, with whom members of the

strained collectivity have weak ties. The likelihood of terrorism increases due to a number of

reasons - negative emotional states and traits caused by strains, reduced ability to effectively

cope through legal channels, common crime, and military means; reduced social control; beliefs

favorable to terrorism; and a collective orientation and response to the strain. A number offactors that condition the effect of strains on terrorism include a range of coping resources, skills,

and opportunities; various types of social support; level of social control; selected individual

traits; association with others who support terrorism; beliefs related to terrorism, and the

anticipated costs and benefits of terrorism. Terrorists explain their actions in terms of strains they

experience and these are reflected in the publicity materials (video, website etc), in the names of

their organizations (such as the popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and the

Organization for the Oppressed on Earth).

However, many scholars argue that various historical and politico-religious factors

contributed to the rise of militancy and terrorism in the region over the years (Millard, 2004;

Abuza, 2003; Gunaratna, 2003). The direct and indirect presences of al-Qaeda and homegrown

militant groups are associated with major terrorist violence in Southeast Asia (Hamilton-Hart,

2005; Wright-Neville, 2004). The 1990s witnessed the rapid expansion of Islamic political

organizations and activists like PAS to establish Islamic state and rule and there is a continuum

linking activists to militants and militants to terrorists (Wright-Neville, 2004). Various factors


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Another dominating causal explanation of terrorism in Southeast Asia is pathological

approach (Hamilton-Hart, 2005). Deviant religious teachings and religious brainwashing by

certain individuals drive to terrorism (Farish, 2002 as cited in Hamilton-Hart, 2005). Anti-US

anger, anger at local governments and religious justification of state terrorism killing innocent

civilians in the name of war on terrorism are associated with the problem of militancy and

terrorist violence (Hamilton-Hart, 2005).

2.2. History of Religious militancy and terrorism

The history of terrorism and militancy indicates that terrorism has been used since the

beginning of the recorded history and the meaning of terrorism depends on the context and onthe perspective of the perpetrators. Terrorist and religious groups can be traced back to ancient

times. Terrorist groups, like the Zealots of Judea (Jewish group against Roman occupation

forces), the assassins, and Nizari Ismails Shia faction in Northern Iran) existed in the fourteenth

century and modern terrorist groups are similar in many aspects like motivation, organization,

targeting, and goals, but key ingredients for terrorism were not before 1700s. These groups used

underground campaign, assassination, killing of enemies (the killers waited next to their victims

to be killed or captured). The term terrorism appeared in 1795 in the Reign of Terror initiated by

the Revolutionary government. Maximillian Robespierre, the radical leader in the post-

revolutionary period, famously said that virtue is powerless without terror. Royalists and other

opponents of the Revolution State against states oppressing their populations employed terrorist

tactics such as assassination and intimidation in resistance to the Revolutionary agents. The

Parisian mobs used such extra-legal activities as killing prominent officials and aristocrats in

gruesome spectacles starting long before the guillotine was first used.


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The 19 th century witnessed political terrorism and small group of revolutionaries started

to attack nation states employing weapons technology. Nationalist conflicts (Irish nationalism)

also brought decolonization. Such nationalism ideological force continued throughout the 2oth

century terrorism. After the World Wars, members of ethnic groups, such as both the Irish and

Macedonians in Europe chose terror as a method to conduct their struggle for independence and

bring their states back from the absorbers. They used terrorism to bring international attention

and sympathy.

During the 20 th century, leaders of nationalist insurgencies and revolutions used terrorism

as a tactic for independence from colonial rule within the framework of larger movements, andcoordinated with political, social, and military action. The Palestinian campaign against Israel

combined with other activities. The Soviet Union provided direct and indirect assistance to

revolutionary movements and many anti-colonial movements with free weapons and training

during the Cold War era. Extremists learned to employ violence and terror as the means to

realize their ambitions. Afghanistan`s Taliban are also blessed by this. Outside the Middle East,

the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and the Ulster Volunteer Force in Northern Ireland, Basque

Fatherland and Liberty (ETA) in Spain, the Shinrikyo cult in Japan, and the Shining Path

guerrillas in Peru are its luminous example.

The age of modern terrorism can be attributed to the activity of the Popular Front for the

Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), which hijacked an El Al airliner en route from Tel Aviv to Rome

in 1968. Palestinian groups got cooperation from European radicals in the early 1970 and with

the Japanese Red Army (JRA) in 1974. Since then the internationalization of terror has been

growing by cooperating terrorist groups through training, operations, and support.


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The 21 st century witnessed the new age of Islamic terrorism with 9/11. This is the largest

act of international terrorism held in a set of coordinated attacks on the USA where terrorists

hijacked civilian airliners and used them to attack the World Trade Center towers in New York

City and the Pentagon in Washington, DC. Since then various terrorist attacks have been going

on across the world. Among them, major terrorist attacks include New Delhi (Indian Parliament

attacked); Bali car bomb attack; London subway bombings; Madrid train bombings and two

recent attacks in Mumbai (hotels, train station and a Jewish outreach center, opera house).

The history of terrorism shows that political ideology divides between left extremists and

rights extremists; religious ideology divides between Islamist extremists, Christian extremists,Jewish extremists, Hindu extremists and so on. In many countries, terrorism has been used by

political ideology based groups such as left extremists (Bangladesh), Maoists (Nepal and India).

Nationalists sharing a common ethnic background also use terrorism (Tamils in Sri Lanka,

separatists in Northeastern India). Special interest groups also use terrorism for legitimate causes

justifying their use of violence to achieve their goals. Members of these groups are people who

use terrorism to uphold anti-abortion views, animal rights, and radical environmentalism.

2.3. Organized crime and terrorism

Since 1920s, organized crime has emerged as another field of study despite the paucity of

data and literature. Organized crime has no uniform definition and its definition has always

been problematic (Levi, 2008). Organized crime is often invisible, insidious in its network, and

dangerous as it involves violence and resilience. Organized crime is sometimes shaped by

political, economic and legal factors. Power elites alliance with criminal elements is more

threatening than the criminal groups (von Lampe, 2008). Legal political structures (by the police,

judiciary and government) also facilitate criminal organizations, and illegal enterprises continue


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and flourish. Organized crime is not just crime (specific type of criminal activity) but it involves

a systematic condition (the concentration of power whether in the form of an underworld

government and/or in the form of alliance between criminals and political and economic elites

(Von Lampe, 2008). Organized crime includes four levels of complexity the individual

characteristics of organized criminals, the structures (networks and groups linking to

individuals), the overarching power structures (hierarchical superior to individuals and

structures) and the nexus between these illegal structures and the legal structures of society (Von

Lampe, 2001).

The UN Convention against Transnational Organized Crime included three elements oforganized crime - organized criminal group, structured group and serious crime (Retrieved

June 14, 2010 from UNTOC, http://www.unodc.org/documents/treaties/UNTOC/ Publications/

TOC%20Convention/ TOCebook-e.pdf). Van der Heijden (1998) looked at organized crime

quantitatively and argues that a group of people, commission of serious criminal offences and

profit seeking interest are must for any crime or group to be called organized crime (c.f.

Gilmour, 2008).

Both terrorism and organized crime have conceptual, definitional and policing

challenges. The linkage between organized crime and terrorism has been growing. Ridley (2008)

argued the increased linkage based on his analysis of money laundering and financial crime

associated with terrorist financing in the post 9/11 era. In the UK, two-thirds of the organized

crime groups were involved with some form of terrorism in 2005 (Ridley, 2008). According to

Russian sources, Chechen terrorist groups received about 8 million US Dollars annually by 2003

from overseas donations and foreign groups engaged in various forms of criminal activity

(Ridley, 2008). They used various channels to receive these monies, such as via offshore


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entities, and used Georgia as the transit country (from overseas to Russia), cash couriers (Russia

to Chechnya), transferred to a second bank account, opening bank accounts on false

documentation and stolen or forged travel or identification documents. Ridley`s (2008) case

study also showed that thefts items are counterfeited and sold in illicit markets under through

front and subsidiary companies. In this Russian case, resistance groups used Moscow based

accounts to receive from or transfer money to accounts in the UK, USA, Poland, France and EU

countries. In another case, a small group of individuals active in London was associated with

credit card forgery and false sale of false credit card, across the UK, Belgium, France, Spain, and

other EU countries. Perpetrators were linked to Algerian Islamic extremist group (the GIA)which had affiliation to Al Qaeda since the mid-1990s.

Organized crime and terrorism together maintain status quo of partial breakdown of

government and law enforcement and disrupt democratization and economic development to

continue their activities (Ridley, 2008). In developing transition or failing states, domestic

terrorist groups make common cause with organized groups. Research evidence indicates that

Bangladeshi Islamist militants have political and administrative patronization during the BNP-

led alliance government. They are organized, engaged in money laundering for financing their

activities, and run underworld businesses to raise funds.

2.4. Islamist Terrorist groups, networks, tactics, and activities

Religion has appeared as a potential weapon to mobilize and unite people. It has been

used and misused for terrorism throughout the human history. Religious militancy results from

historical circumstances and again depends a lot on the perspectives of the perpetrators whether

the challenge or threats to a portion of the community is cultural, political or economic.

Religious extremism leads to militancy resulting in extremist movements and terrorist attacks


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across the globe. This relationship can be evident in the international or transnational conflicts

such as Arab-Israel (Muslims and Jews), India-Pakistan (Hindus and Muslims), the 9/11 plots.

Within the national boundary such relationship are also prevailing in various countries such as

India (between Hindus and Muslims, Ireland (between two Christian sects), Bangladesh

(Islamist), Pakistan (Islamist), and so on. Religious extremists want to establish legal system

based on their religious beliefs and often reject secular governments. In Bangladesh, Islamists

militant outfits and terrorist groups are mostly organized to achieve their main goal.

Islam has meanwhile occupied a prominent place in the critical study of terrorism and

militancy. Several studies also portrayed the rise of Islamist groups and al-Qaeda networks inSoutheast Asia (Hamilton-Hart, 2005; Wright-Neville, 2004). According to the US State

Department (2003), a number of indigenous terrorist groups connected in some way with al-

Qaeda are not only existing in Southeast Asia but also in North and East Africa as well as in

Central and South Asia, and even Central and South Asia contain many more of these groups

than Southeast Asia (as cited in Wright-Neville, 2004)

In the case of Southeast Asia (Indonesia, Philippines, Singapore and Malaysia), a series

of studies have shown that Islamic extremism has been associated with terrorism (Abuza 2003;

Millard 2004; Barton, 2005; Rabasa, 2003). In these countries, some political parties are alleged

to have links to terrorism and Islamic extremism (Millard, 2004; Stewart, 2003 as cited in

Hamilton-Hart, 2005). Al-Qaeda and indigenous groups like JI posed a potent threat to regional

security of this region (Wright-Neville, 2004). For example, in Malaysia, some members of PAS

(Prosperous Justice Party) had alleged links to terrorist groups (Stewart, 2003 as cited in

Hamilton-Hart, 2005). Various studies revealed that the genesis of militant groups can be linked

to the US funding and CIA support, US cooperation with Pakistan intelligence service, and arms


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transfer for the anti-Soviet militants in the 1980s and 1990s (Kepel, 2002; Gunaratna, 2003,

Abuza, 2003 as cited in Hamilton-Hart, 2005). Many scholars argued that the US connection to

and patronization of these groups got no proper attention (Gunaratna, 2003; Kepel, 2002 as cited

in Hamilton-Hart, 2005). Religious fundamentalism and the groups like JI (Jamaah Islamiyah) in

Indonesia have grown with Saudi Arabia`s funded mission of Wahhabism (Abuza, 2003;

Millard, 2004; Gunaratna, 2003) as cited in Hamilton-Hart, 2005). There is also an argument for

the inclusion of groups like PKS in the mainstream politics to count on their voice to address

radical Islamism (Fox, 2004, Bubalo & Fealy, 2005 as cited in Hamilton-Hart, 2005).

The age of modern terrorism beginning in the 20th

century can be attributed a lot toIslamist militancy and terrorism. The operational and strategic epicenter of Islamic terrorism can

be attributed to Pakistan and Afghanistan. As mentioned earlier, the new age of Islamic

terrorism was identified with 9/11 experiencing coordinated attacks characterized by hijacks of

airliners used to demolish the World Trade Center and the Pentagon preceded by the attacks in

New Delhi, in Bali, in London subway, in Madrid train, and in Mumbai. These groups use

violence and militancy to either establish Islamic state, implement Islamic laws or political

issues. Israel Palestine conflict, Taliban regime in Afghanistan, India Pakistan Kashmir,

Issues with al-Aqsa mosque in Israel, Babri mosque in India, led to the rise of a number of

Islamist militant groups who used terrorism as tactic to revenge in the name of Islam. During the

cold war era, many of these groups were trained, sponsored or assisted by two super powers,

USA and Soviet Union. European radicals and the Japanese Red Army (JRA) cooperated

Palestinian groups in the 1980s. There are linkages between Islamist militant groups with non-

Islamist groups in the areas of training, operations, and support. In South Asia, such nexus is


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discovered among Nepalese Maoists, Indian Maoists, Indian Insurgent Groups (IIGs) such as

ULFA, Sri Lankan LTTE, Islamist groups in Bangladesh, India and Pakistan.

The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) hijacked an El Al airliner en

route from Tel Aviv to Rome in 1968. Palestinian groups got cooperation from European

radicals in the early 1970 and with the Japanese Red Army (JRA) in 1974. Since then the

internationalization of terror has been growing by cooperating terrorist groups through training,

operations, and support. Osama Bin Laden sponsored the World Islamic Front for Jihad against

Jews and Crusaders (WIFJAJC). Various attacks, for example, bombing of Los Angeles

International Airport, the USS Cole bombing in October 2000 and September 11 attacks. In1996, al-Qaeda was formed by Bin laden having large base of operations in Afghanistan, when

the Islamist extremist regime of the Taliban had seized power.

The major terrorist attacks in Bangladesh from 1991 reveal that linkage between various

Islamist militant and terrorist groups and outfits go beyond national boundaries. Al Qaeda is one

of them. For bomb blasts in India, Pakistan-based LeT has been accused. HUJI is a Pakistan-

based international militant group. HUJI Bangladesh is the Bangladeshi chapter founded by the

Afghanistan holy jihadist from Bangladesh. There is also allegation that Bangladeshi militants

have supported Pakistan based militant groups in terrorist attack and expanding their networks in

India. HUJI-B is also connected to homegrown Islamist militant groups like JMJB, AHAB. In

the Middle East today, various terrorist groups are operative, such as Hamas (Islamic groups),

Kach or Kahene Chai (Jewish groups).

The perpetrators of terrorist attacks from 1991 in Bangadesh claimed responsibility for

the attacks, identifying themselves to be various Islamist militant groups and terrorist outfits. The

agenda and the links between these groups vary from one location to another. Some attacks are


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for political reasons such as the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MLIF) in the Philippines,

Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front in India, Pakistan, the Popular Front for the Liberation of

Palestine, and the Islamic Jihad Movement in Palestine. Others are for religious ideologies, such

as JMB, JMJB in Bangladesh, Islamic Jihad and Al Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades. But these days,

terrorism in Asia becomes regionally coordinated. Hizbul Mujahedin and Harakat ul Mujahedin

claimed responsibility for various attacks in India. They mostly used bombs for attacks. Hamas,

Hizballah, and al-Qaueda are attacking on Israel. Al-Qaeda is a global militant group of Osama

bin Laden founded before 19990. It claimed responsibility for various attacks including 9/11,

1998 US embassy bombings, and 2002 Bali bombings.2.5. Global action against terrorism, and War on terror

In 2005, the UN says, whatever may be the purpose, the international community will

not tolerate any form of terrorism. The international community put terrorism on the UN agenda

since 1934. They looked for a convention for the prevention and punishment of terrorism.

Despite its adoption 1937, it never came into force (UN website http://www.un.org/terrorism/

instruments.shtml). Since 1963, The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) has

collated the 13 universal conventions (international agreements) and 3 protocols against

terrorism signed to create consensus that certain acts count as terrorism (for example, hijacking a

plane), in order to create the means to prosecute them in signatory countries.

These sixteen universal instruments dealing with terrorism were elaborated to prevent

terrorist acts.

1. 1963 Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed On Board Aircraft

2. 1970 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft

1971 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil


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Aviation

1973 Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Internationally

Protected Persons

3. 1979 International Convention against the Taking of Hostages

4. 1980 Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material

Amendments to the Convention on the Physical Protection of Nuclear Material

5. 1988 Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence at Airports Serving

International Civil Aviation, supplementary to the Convention for the Suppression of

Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Civil Aviation6. 1988 Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime

Navigation

2005 Protocol to the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety

of Maritime Navigation

7. 1988 Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts Against the Safety of Fixed

Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf

2005 Protocol to the Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of

Fixed Platforms Located on the Continental Shelf

10. 1991 Convention on the Marking of Plastic Explosives for the Purpose of Detection

11. 1997 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings

(Terrorist Bombing Convention)

o Creates a regime of universal jurisdiction over the unlawful and intentional use of

explosives and other lethal devices in, into, or against various defined public


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places with intent to kill or cause serious bodily injury, or with intent to cause

extensive destruction of the public place.

12. 1999 International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism

(Terrorist Financing Convention)

o Requires parties to take steps to prevent and counteract the financing of terrorists,

whether direct or indirect, through groups claiming to have charitable, social or

cultural goals or which also engage in illicit activities such as drug trafficking or

gun running;

o

Commits States to hold those who finance terrorism criminally, civilly oradministratively liable for such acts; and

o Provides for the identification, freezing and seizure of funds allocated for terrorist

activities, as well as for the sharing of the forfeited funds with other States on a

case-by-case basis. Bank secrecy is no longer adequate justification for refusing to

cooperate.

13. 2005 International Convention for the Suppression of Acts of Nuclear Terrorism.

In response to the current terrorist threat, the European Union (EU) and the The United

Nations (UN) has introduced a global strategy by promoting democracy, dialogue and good

governance to tackle the root causes of radicalization. At the World Summit 2005 of the

United Nations member states condemned all forms and manifestations of terrorism, and

agreed to reach a common definition and a comprehensive combating strategy to address

international terrorism (retrieved March 5, 2011 from http://www.un.org/terrorism

/background.shtml).


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On 8 September 2006, the United Nations Global Counter-Terrorism Strategy (UNCTS) was

adopted as a unique global instrument to enhance national, regional and international efforts to

counter terrorism. It underscores the importance of existing international counter-terrorism

instruments. The Strategys four pillars include: tackling the conditions conducive to the spread

of terrorism; preventing and combating terrorism; building States capacity to prevent and

combat terrorism and to strengthen the role of the United Nations system in that regard; and

ensuring respect for human rights for all and the rule of law as the fundamental basis for the fight

against terrorism. In 2005, the Counter-Terrorism Implementation Task Force (CTITF) was

established with 31 international entities o provide member states with the necessary policysupport and spread in-depth knowledge of the Strategy, and wherever necessary, expedite

delivery of technical assistance. The biennial review of the UNCTS in 2010 also reaffirmed the

support for the Strategys four pillars.

Following the terrorist attacks in the USA (in 2001) and Europe (Madrid and London in 2004

and 2005), the European Union`s (EU) action against terrorism undertook four pillar approach

(prevent, protect, pursue and respond) based on the Amsterdam Treaty. To address this

transnational phenomena, the EU focuses on preventing and cracking down terrorist acts,

protecting infrastructures and citizens and tackling the causes, resources and capacities of

terrorism provided that coordination between law enforcement agencies and judicial authorities

within the EU and international cooperation are essential. The EU strategy includes the following

objectives:

increase cooperation with third countries (especially in North Africa, the

Middle East and South-East Asia) and provide them with assistance;

respect human rights;


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prevent new recruits to terrorism;

better protect potential targets;

investigate and pursue members of existing networks;

improve capability to respond to and manage the consequences of terroristattacks.

Following the 11 September 2001 terrorist attacks against the United States, North Atlantic

Treaty Organization (NATO) expressed the vulnerability of Alliance members to large-scale

terrorist attacks. NATOs Article 5 declaration and subsequent operations demonstrated the

Alliances resolve to deal with this threat (NATO Website http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/

topics_69482.htm.).

The UNODC Terrorism Prevention Branch (TPB) has been contributing critically for many

years to counter- terrorism capacity building among member states. To fight international

terrorism, the UNODC supported for different (inter) regional action against terrorism in Africa,

Asia, Europe, and other organizations.

G8 also vows joint action against terrorism. Leaders of the G8 promised to work together to

combat terrorism threat and to support weak governments in Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Sahel,

Somalia and Yemen to fight terrorism.

The USA is leading the War on Terror also termed as the Global War on Terror or the War

on Terrorism. Its policy, politics, and pursuit of a global war on terrorism influenced the rest of

the world. War on terror is an international military campaign with the support of other North

Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) as well as non-NATO countries mainly to fight against

militant Islamists and al-Queda. President George W. Bush first used the phrase War on

Terror. President Barack Obama used the term Overseas Contingency Operation. Even before

Bush, the Reagan Administration used the term "war against terrorism" in 1984 as part of an


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effort to pass legislation designed to freeze assets of terrorist groups and marshal the forces of

government against them. Following the 9/11 attack, the USA Patriot Act of 2001 was passed in

order to deter and punish terrorist acts in the United States and around the world to enhance law

enforcement, investigative tools, and other purposes. To protect the US from terrorist attacks,

the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is working closely with a range of partners and are

using growing suite of investigative and intelligence capabilities to neutralize terrorist cells and

operatives here in the U.S., to help dismantle extremist networks worldwide, and to cut off

financing and other forms of support provided by terrorist sympathizers (FBI website,

http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/investigate/terrorism). The US military action against terrorism predates 2001. The USA enhanced military action and attracted support from many countries

including Russia following the 9/11 attacks. In Aaugust 1998, the US ground troops undertook

airstrikes against terrorist training camps in Khost, Afghanistan. Following the bombings of US

embassies in Kenya and Tanzania, US President Bill Clinton launched Operation Infinite Reach,

a bombing campaign in Sudan and Afghanistan against targets.

Canada is a strong ally of the USA in fighting against terrorism. It has been leading that front

since 1963, and it has signed 12 conventions related to terrorism (CSIS Website,

http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/pblctns/prspctvs/200004-eng.asp). The Anti-terrorism Act (ATA)

represents Canada's overall anti-terrorism strategy like the USA Patriot Act passed in the same

time frame. The ATA focuses on terrorists and terrorist groups, and aims to protect the safety,

security and fundamental rights of Canadians.

Since the 9/11 event, various western governments have undertaken various programs to

support developing countries facing the problem of terrorism outside the war on terror in

Afghanistan and Iraq. The US is on the lead to support countries like Pakistan, Bangladesh, and


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India in South Asia. Bangladesh received training and technical assistance, for example, security

forces including Rapid Action Battalion (RAB) was trained in the USA. Scotland Yard helped to

investigate some terrorist attacks outside the Interpol. The US government also provided

capacity building assistance to Bangladesh Bank in addressing the money-laundering problem to

check and monitor terrorist financing.

2.6. The Current Study

In Bangladesh, militancy and terrorism have become a socio-economic and political issue.

Over the last two decades, a number of Islamist groups and terrorist oufits both homegrown and

internationally-linked have emerged in the country. Though the number of terrorist attacks byIslamist militants has increased since 1999, various militant groups continued to exist in the

country since 1992. Various militant groups have grown over the years enhancing strengths in

terms of manpower and skills, and widespread networks to conduct terror campaigns (Datta,

2007; The Daily Star 2005; The New Age xtra, 2009; BIPSS, 2010, 2011; ICM, 2011; Munir,

2011). On January 27, 2005, Janes Intelligence Review, the leading defence magazine of the

world, reported:

Bangladesh is one of the poorest countries on earth, on the brink of being a failed state,and that makes it a perfect target for al- Qaeda and its-ever expanding network of Islamistextremist organizations. Virtually unnoticed by the world at large, Bangladesh is beingdragged into the global war on terrorists by becoming sanctuary for them.

Another report by the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) in December 2003, said

that the Bangladesh government is not doing enough to prevent the country from becoming a

haven for Islamic terrorists in South Asia and pointed out that religious extremists are connected

to Al Qaeda. Blaming the BNP government for not taking appropriate action against the terrorist

organizations the report said rather than finding out the real perpetrators of violence the

government has been routinely blaming the opposition political party for such criminal activities.


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Various factors can be associated with the rise of Islamist militancy and terrorism in

Bangladesh (Riaz, 2008; Datta, 2007; BIPSS, 2011; Quamruzzaman, 2011). Most of the reports

indicate four major groups JMB, JMJB, HT and HUJIB (Riaz, 2008; BIPSS, 2011; ICM 2011;

Munir, 2011). The origins of these groups indicate the existence of such militant groups and

networks following the Afghan war (Munir, 2011). Quamruzzaman (2010) examined the militia

movement covering Islamist, leftwing and ethnic in terms of 5 dimensions - ideology,

motivation, mobilization, organization and ritual of different militant groups from a holistic point

of view following an integrated analytical model of Freilich et al. (2001). He used the term

militia instead of militancy. He does not accept the the claims of many national and internationalmedia and intelligence reports and even some academic studies that an Islamist movement is on

rise in Bangladesh after the 9/11 event. To him the Islamist movement leftwing and ethnic

militia movements are all equally important. He argued that that the Islamist movement has a

long history and it has been periodically revitalized in the country due to some internal and

external socio-political factors.

Immediate after the 9/11 US attack, Bangladesh has been presented as a new host of

extremism and Talbanization in a number of international media reports of 2002 (the Far Eastern

Review, the Hindu, Jane`s Intelligence Review, Time Magazine, and Frontline) and 2005 (New

York Times, Asia Times). These articles (Linter, 2002 a, 2002b; 2002 b; Perry, 2002; Habib,

2002 Griswold, 2005; Shahin, 2005) pointed out the links of Bangladeshi militants with

international terrorist groups and the use of madrasas (religious schools and colleges). The

Canadian Intelligence Service (CSIS) report 2003 also raises the same concern, and later the US,

Australia and other western governments have issued advisory stating Bangladeshs terrorism

Understanding Religious Militancy

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