LABORATORY EXERCISE 20 (ZOOLOGY) : TYPES OF TISSUESI. EPITHELIAL TISSUE

TYPES SPECIALIZED OTHER PICTURES: Lining Squamous

Cell division occurs near the basement membrane, pushing older cells to the surface

Cells lost by abrasion are replaced by cells underneath

Tile-like flattened cells

Ciliated epithelium Roof of mouth of living frog Glandular epithelium 1. specialized for production of secretory substances

o goblet cells - unicellular glands in lining of the intestine 2. for higher amount of secretiono surface epithelia grow inward or infolded to become multicellular glands o include the following:

a. exocrine glands with ductsb. endocrine glands no ducts

o types:a. simple cutaneous and gastric glands b. compound salivary and mammary glands

Cuboidal Lining of many

internal cavities Lumen of kidney

tubules, intestine

OVERALL CHARACTERISTICSo Form outer coverings and inner linings of the body surfaceso Tightly packed cells with very little intercellular material o Primitive tissues

- first to develop both ontogenetically and phylogenetically o Main functions

1. protection skin 2. selective absorption lungs and gut (absorb nutrients from food)3. secretion chemicals, hormones, etc.

o grouped into:a. covering and lining of epithelial membranesb. glandular epitheliumc. type:

1. squamous2. glandular3. transitional

d. # of cell layers1. simple2. stratified

e. Shape of cells:

1. Cuboidal2. Squamous3. Columnar

f. Surface specializations:1. Cilia2. Keratin

Columnar Lining of many

internal cavities Lumen of kidney

tubules, intestine

II. SUPPORTING AND CONNECTIVE TISSUE

OVERALL CHARACTERISTICS CARTILAGE- depending on the nature and amount of connective tissue fibers present in the matrix BONE

Ciliated/pseudostratified epithelium

Frog skin Cheek cells

Kidney tubules

Bile duct

Small intestine

o Presence of a large amount of:1. intercellular material

a. attach or connect partsb. support or bear weightc. provide medium through which

tissue fluids may diffuse 2. paucity of cells

o connective tissue cell = FIBROCYTES 1. most distinct feature =

extracellular ovoid nuclei2. stellate cells with pale cytoplasm3. intercellular material secreted:

a. amorphous ground substance (matrix)

b. connective tissue fibers 4. collagenous fibers

o fine, wavy fibers occurring in bundlesmatrix

QUESTIONS: 1. Give examples of each kind of cartilage

(3)2. Bones are prepared by the grinding

method will not show osteocytes but only the cavities or lacunae. WHY?

- Because they have already been replaced by grinding that is why only the cavities are shown

HYALINE FIBROUS ELASTIC

o most abundant o found in lining of joints, inside boneso forms most of the embryonic skeleton o large and predominantly collagen

o found in areas requiring tough support or great tensile strength

o lacks erichondrium o epiglottis and external ear

o present to kept the tubes permanently openo similar to hyaline but with elastic bundles o yellow

PARTS, FUNCTIONS, CHARACTERISTICS PARTS FUNCTIONSCartilage cells (CHONDROCYTES)

o nuclei rounded and have one or more nucleolia. young/undifferentiated - flattenedb. old/differentiated big and round

Bone cells = OSTEOCYTES Embedded in a calcified matrix (hydroxyl apatite crystals)

Intercellular substance Solid matrix (chondroitin sulfate matrix) Canaliluci o Where protoplasmic processes of the immature bone cells used to passo Passageway of materials from the blood vessels in the Haversian canal to the osteocytes

lacunae May contain more than one chondrocyte LacunaePerichondrium Calcified matrix Laid down in rings or lamellae around the Haversian canal

Haversian canal run along the length of the long bone and provide major vessel supply to the osteocytesVolkmanns canal Connects Haversian canals

III. MUSCULAR TISSUE OVERALL CHARACTERISTICS NONSTRIATED MUSCLE STRIATED MUSCLE

a. specialized for movement b. Contracts in response to stimulation

c. Used for locomotion, food movement , heat production d. Muscle cells are called MUSCLE FIBERS

o drawn out in long spindle-shaped thread-like structures for effective contraction

o contractile tissues of visceral organs (except heart)o involuntary muscles

o cross section of vertebrate intestine/stomach o layer of spindle-shaped cells (smooth muscle cells with oval nuclei) next to

the tunica serosa (outer covering)

o presence of alternating dark bonds (anistropic/A-disc) & light bonds (isotropic/I-disc)

o Thick and thin myofilaments (contained within myofibrils)

a. Myosin (thicker and darker)b. Actin (thinner and lighter)

Arrangement of myosin and actin give rise to the dark and light bonds of striated muscleTERMS SMOOTH SKELETAL CARDIAC (INVOLUNTARY)

PART FUNCTIONsarcoplasm a. Muscle cell cytoplasm Myofibrils a. Contractile elements of the muscle cell

b. Consists of small protein filaments (myosin and actin) Anistropic/a-disc Dark bandsIsotropic/i-disc Light bands MyofilamentsSarcolemma a. Thin cell membrane of the muscle fiber

**Inner surface of the cell membrane of muscle tissue Syncitium (SKELETAL)

a. Presence of multi-nucleated condition in cells

Intercalated discs (CARDIAC)

QUESTIONS:1. How is

syncitium brought about in muscle cells?

- Numerous mitoses but no cytokinesis

a. Tightly joined cell membranes of the adjacent cells comprising the muscle fiber

b. Fibers are not straight by bifurcate and connect with neighboring fibers to form an intricate network

c. Nuclei of individual cells are centrally located within the fiber

o Made up of thin-elongated muscle fibers (tapered ends)o Single. large, oval nucleus, spindle-shaped next to the tunica serosa (outermost

covering of stomach/intestine) o Myofibrils are parallel to each other (smooth)o Form sheets or layers rather than bundles o Forms the muscle layers in the walls of hollow organs (digestive tract, stomach,

intestine)

o FUNCTIONS:a. Controls slow, involuntary movements, such as the contraction of the smooth

muscle tissue in the walls of stomach and intestinesb. Muscle of arteries contracts and relaxes to regulate the blood pressure and the

flow of blood

o Most abundant tissue in the vertebrate body o Attached to and bring about movement of the various bones of the skeletono Enclosed in a sheath of connective tissue (EPIMYSIUM)

- folds inward into the muscle substance to surround a large number of smaller bundles (FASCICULI)

consist of even smaller bundles of elongated, cylindrical muscle cells (FIBERS)

each fiber is called SYNCYTIUM (many nuclei) o NUCLEI

- Oval-shaped- Found at the periphery of the cell (beneath the sarcolemma)

o CONTRACTION

- Actin filaments slide inwards between myosin filaments

o FUNCTIONS:a. Coordinated movements of the limbs, jaws, eyeballs, etc.b. Directly involved in the breathing process

o Not structurally syncytial although it is a functional syncitium o Found in the walls of the heart

o Differences from striated muscle:a. Shorterb. Striations not so obviousc. Sarcolemma is thinner (not discernible)d. One nucleus present

o FUNCTIONS:a. Contraction of the heartb. Causes rhythmical beating of heart (circulation of heart)

IV. VASCULAR/BLOOD TISSUE OVERALL CHARACTERISTICS RBC (Red Blood Corpuscles) :: ERYTHROCYTES WBC (White Blood Corpuscles) :: LEUCOCYTES

o components:a. plasma (liquid portion)b. blood cells (formed component)

o types:a. RBCb. WBCc. Platelets

- produced by megakaryocyte (mammals) or thrombocytes (amphibians)

QUESTIONS:1. Explain why blood is considered as

belonging to the connective tissue group

- It has intercellular spaces through which blood cells are suspended

- Located in a fluid medium- Traced to the connective tissues of the

bone marrow2. Function of erythrocytes3. functions of WBC

FROG HUMAN FROG HUMAN

o ovoid and has a nucleus o biconcave discs without nuclei

o unstained : pale greenish-yellow

o rouleaux - arrangement resembling a

stack of coins o hemoglobin

- coloring pigment- has a role in the

transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

o fewer than the erythrocytes

o smaller than erythrocytes o nuclei differ from the

classical spherical centrally located type

o fewer than erythrocytes o larger than erythrocytes

Polymorphonuclear leucocytes (PMN) Lymphocytes Monocytes/ Macrophilo aka : GRANULOCYTES/POLYMORPHS o irregular nuclei with a variety of shapes o three kinds (according to staining property of cytoplasmic granules)

NEUTROPHIL EOSINOPHIL BASOPHIL

most numerous (60-75% of WBC few (2-5% of WBC) least numerous (0-2%)nuclei: 2-5 thin lobes connected by chromatin threads

nuclei: 2 oval lobes linked by thread-like chromatin

nuclei: stain very faintly (almost not visible)

o moderately numerous comprising 20-25% of the WBC

o large nucleio narrow rim of cytoplasm around nucleus o smallest of the WBC in general (slightly

larger than RBC)

fine granules coarse granules coarse cytoplasmic granules B lymphocytes T lymphocytesneutral pH acid (red) basic (blue)scavengers within extravascular tissue, destroying bacteria or other infectious organisms that invade the body

function specifically as phagocytes to destroy larvae of parasites that have invaded tissues (allergic responses)

Phagocytotic & granules contain histamine and heparin (for allergic response)

o make antibodies o recognition and rejection of foreign tissues

o few (3-8% of total WBC)o nuclei: indented ovals to horsehoe-

shaped o larger amounts of cytoplasm than

lymphocyteso largest of the blood cells

V. NERVOUS TISSUE

Smooth muscle

Skeletal muscle

Cardiac muscle

NEURON (nerve cell)

Cytoplasm - drawn out in

long nerve fibers- carry impulse

a. Dentrites TOWARD cell body b. Axon AWAY from body

Sheath of Schwann - covering of the nerve fiber- protoplasmic sheath- also called the neurillema

Axis cylinder - central transparent portion- it is the long drawn-out cytoplasm of the neuron

Medullary sheath / Myelin sheath

- white substance of Schwann

Nodes of Ranvier - areas of myelin sheath which are discontinuous or constricted

Clefts/incisures of Schimdt-Lantermann

- oblique clefts present in the myelin sheath

NERVEBundle of nerve fibers bound by connective tissue

Epineurium Loose connective tissue covering the nerve

**loose connective tissue- holds organs in place and attaches epithelial tissue

to other underlying tissues- soft and compliant

Fascicles - nerve bundlesPerineurium - dense connective tissue (completely fibers) that

covers each fascicleEndoneurium - lies in an amorphous (shapeless) intercellular

substance - connective tissue fibrils that covers individual

fibers within the fascicle

EXERCISE 21: MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF FROG ORGANS I. SKIN EPIDERMIS (epithelial) DERMIS/CORIUM (connective tissue)REGIONS/PARTS FUNCTION REGIONS/PARTS FUNCTION Stratum corneum - outermost layer of the epidermis

- made up of thin, flat cells (squamous cells)- dead cells that have been pushed outwards and are

constantly shed off

Stratum spongiosum / stratum laxum - dermis layer of loose connective tissue- where glands have been sectioned centrally, their openings to the outside

can be seen penetrating the epithelial layers - locate blood capillaries and lymph spaces (clear spaces)- contains:

1. chromatophores - contains pigment granules- function:

2. cutaneous glands - multicellular glands formed by the infolding of the stratum

germinativum Stratum germinativum

- second layer of epidermis- several rows of more or less spherical cells and a deeper

layer of columnar cells which touch the dermis part - columnar cells continuously divide and give rise to new

cells which are pushed to the outer layer

stratum compactum -- made of tightly packed horizontal strands of connective tissue with

alternating vertical connective tissue strands- blood capillaries and nerves are present between connective tissue fibers - below the stratum compactum:- very loose subcutaneous connective tissue filled with lymph in the living

frog (connect the skin with the underlying muscle)

2. LIVERPARTS FUNCTION Hepatocytes - liver cells

- polygonal in shape- darkly stained spherical nuclei

Blood Vessels a. HPV (hepatic portal vein) branchesb. Arterioles (THICK-WALLED)

- have well-defined walls with a scalloped inner marginc. Venules (THIN-WALLED)

Bile duct - surrounded by a stroma of collagenous tissue (found in large blood vessels)- lumina is lined with cuboidal epithelium- found together with smaller blood vessels, arterioles, and venules

Sinusoids - Spaces between hepatocytes - No distinctive walls - Occur in-between the liver cell clusters

Bile Duct and Sinusoids

Bile Duct and Artery

3. INTESTINE REGIONS/PARTS FUNCTION Valves of Kerkring - Inner wall circular folds Tunica mucosa - Lines the intestinal cavity or lumen

- Innermost layer- Made of simple epithelial cells and goblet cells

goblet cell unicellular gland with a slender base and dilapidated apexTunica submucosa - Outer to the mucosa

- Made up of loose connective tissue- Contains lymph vessels and blood vessels

Tunica muscularis - Outer to the submucosa- In between the muscle cells are connective tissue fibers - Made up of two layers of muscles running perpendicular to each other:

a. Stratum circulare - thick inner circular layer- Spindle-shaped smooth muscle cells can be observed

b. Stratum longitudinale - Thin outer longitudinal layer - Cross sections of muscle cells can be seen

Tunica serosa - Serous coat or visceral peritoneum - Forms the outermost layer of the organ - Very thin layer of loose connective tissue covered with mesothelium

QUESTION:1. What do goblet cells secrete Goblet cells secrete and produce mucus

2. What is mesothelium? Pavement epithelial cells in surface view that lines the internal cavity (derived from the mesoderm)

\EXERCISE 1: ANIMAL FORMS 1. INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL FORMS SYMMETRY METAMERISM REGIONALIZATION APPENDAGESo Correspondence in size, shape and relative position of parts that are on opposite sides of a dividing line, median line, or parts that are distributed about a center or axis

Universal Radial Bilateral - Displayed by animals with

spherical body- Body can be divided into two or

more symmetrical parts by cutting through the center of the body

- Condition of having similar parts regularly arranged about a central axis

- Ex. star-shaped body (pentamerous plan)

- THREE AXES:a. Longitudinalb. Transversec. Sagittal

- Median sagittal plane (passing through the longitudinal and sagittal axes dividing the body into right & left halves which are mirror images of each other)

- SIX ASPECTSa. DORSAL (back)b. VENTRAL (front)c. LATERAL (right and

left)d. ANTERIOR (head)e. POSTERIOR (tail)

o Regular repetition of body parts along antero-posterior axis

o May be divided into more or less equal parts SEGMENTS/METAMERES?SOMITES

o Has both INTERNAL (internal organs) & EXTERNAL aspects

o Condition of having parts of the body more or less differentiated in to recognizable zones (head, trunk, tail)

o cephalization tendency for the anterior end of the body to differentiate into a head

o cephalic appendages antennae, tentacles, etc.

o may be segmented or unsegmented (extremities on the side of the body)

o lophophores ciliated tentacles

2. EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF THE FROG AXIAL REGIONHEAD a. Snout (apex)

b. External nares (nostrils)c. Bulging eyes (dorsolateral sides) with upper and

lower eyelidsd. Tympanum (eardrum) posterior to the eye

TRUNK a. Posterior to the trunk anus b. Anterior to the trunk mouth

APPENDICULAR REGIONFORE LIMBS a. Upper arm proximal to the fore arm

b. Fore arm proximal to the manus c. Manus composed of four segmented units; distal

end (away from the axis of the body

HIND LIMBS a. Proximal thighb. Middle shankc. Pes

o Web o QUESTION: what is the function of the

web?

EXERCISE 2: ANIMAL INTEGUMENTSo Outer covering which may be soft or hard in texture, dry or slimy o Simplest form: thin, slimy epithelium (Planaria) -- allows diffusion of gas into the body o Earthworm : epithelium secretes a cuticleo Mollusks : mantle (soft integument) chitinous; mantle secretes the shello Arthropods : rigid integument which is chitinouso Echinoderms : integument comparable to the vertebrate skino Frogs: have naked skin

QUESTION:What is the role of integument in crabs and lobsters?

- Housing for the animals since they do not have endoskeletons (protection and support)

EXERCISE 3: SKELETAL SYSTEMo Any hardened part of the bodyo Either EXOSKELETON (outside the body) or ENDOSKELETON (inside the body)

SKELETON OF VARIOUS ANIMAL TYPES COMPARISON OF BONES OF THE FORELIMB AND HINDLIMB COMPARISON OF VARIOUS TYPES OF VERTEBRAE (+/)Animal Exoskeleton (specify) Animal Endoskeleton (present/absent) FORELIMB HINDLIMB TYPES OF VERTEBRAE

Corals Calcareous exoskeleton (made of calcium carbonate)- Phylum Coelenterata/ Cnidaria

Squid and cuttlefish Pen (transparent and pliant) humerus Femur Atlas Sacral vertebra UrostyleRadio-ulna Tibia-fibula Neural spine + (slight protrusion) + (modified into a keel)

Mollusks Shells (calcareous)- Single valve- Bivalve

Sea urchin Shell (test or corona) - Calcareous- Composed of dermal plates separated by jagged sutures

carpals Tarsals Neural arch + + +

metacarpals Metatarsals Neural canal + + +phalanges phalanges centrum + + +

Crustaceans and insects

Chitinous exoskeleton

Turtle Shell- Partly bony or horny - Composed of (1) dorsal carapace and (2) ventral

plastron

Vertebrates - Leverage for locomotion and as protection for the delicate organs like the brain and the heart1. Bones (principal elements of endoskeletons)2. Ligaments/tendons3. Cartilages

zygapophyses + (pre) + Transverse processes +

GENERAL REGIONS OF THE SKULL AND LOWER JAW (mandible)The skull consists of (1) the cranium and (2) maxillary arch/bones of the upper jaw

Fish Bony scalesSnakes and lizards Horny shields (also present in crocodiles)

- Form a continuous coat (different from scales)Birds Feathers (plumage)Mammals Hair (plumage)

Cattle and buffalos True horns (hollow)Deer Antlers (bony and can be shed periodically)

o QUESTION: Why are the pen of squids and cuttlefish placed in cages of pet birds? - they serve as food for the birds

PART LOCATION CHARACTERISTICSCranium Dorsal side - Encloses the brain and some sense organs

- Hollow median portion of the skull- Expands anteriorly into a pair of olfactory capsules

Maxillary arch Bordering the orbit laterally

Premaxillary process Snout region where the arch meets its pair - Adjoins the paired triangular bones of the cranium - Attached to the otic region (posteriorly) by 2 dorso-ventrally opposed triradiate bones

Chicken Plumage; claws Chicken PresentButterfly Chitinous plate (sclerites) Butterfly

Synarthrosis - Immovable type of joint - Sutures in the skull which separates the bones

Garden slug Shell Garden slug Olfactory capsule Anterior to the cranium Hidden from view by a pair of triangular bonesDog Pelage; claws Dog Present Otic capsule Posterior to the cranium Lodges the inner ear Sea stars Skin Sea stars Present Occipital region Posterior region of the skull Bears a hole at the center (foramen magnum)Prawn Cuticle (chitinous plate) Prawn Foramen magnum Center of the occipital region Where the spinal cord passes thorughCockroach Chitinous plate (sclerites) CockroachEarthworm Cuticle (chitinous plate) Earthworm (fluid-hydrostatic)

Occipital condyle Ventrolateral to the foramen magnum - Pair of smooth processes- Articulate with the first vertebra (connection to the atlas)

Corals Calcareous CoralsMan Pelage; nails Man Present

orbit Large cavity on each side of the cranium Houses the eyeball

OTHER EXOSKELETON: nails, hooves, claws THE FROG SKELETAL SYSTEM

OVERVIEWThe Skull is the chief skeleton of the head

PART LOCATION CHARACTERISTICLower jaw Posterior end of the skullVertebrate Posterior to the skull Longitudinal row of short irregular bones Hyoid Lies in the floor of the mouth - Flat skeleton (mounted separately)

- Articulates with the rear end of the skull by means of long paired anterior processes

Other parts:Pectoral girdle

Shoulder region - Arch of bones and cartilages- Upper arm bone fits on its ventro-lateral aspect

Sternum Anterior and posterior the pectoral girdle on its mid-ventral aspect

- Series of bones and cartilages

Pelvic girdle - Posterior tip of the elongate 10th vertebra- intimate association with the lateral processes of

the 9th vertebra

- U-shaped structure

THE VERTEBRATEPART LOCATION CHARACTERISTIC

FIRST vertebrate : ATLAS - Right below the occipital condyles

- First part of the vertebral column

- Articulate the occipital condyles of the skull- Cervical vertebra

Centrum - Body of the vertebra- Concave in front - Convex behind

Neural arch - Dorsal to the centrum - Forms a canalNeural canal - Contains the spinal cordNeural spine - Mid-dorsal side of the neural

arch- Posteriorly directed

Transverse processes - Junction of the centrum and the neural arch

- Extend laterally and help support the body wall

Zygapophyses (PRE and POST) - Anterior and posterior edges of the neural arch

- Short paired processes- Serve for articulating successive vertebrae

NITH vertebrate: SACRALTENTH vertebrate: UROSTYLE

THE PECTORAL GIRDLE Suprascapula - Most dorsal component of the

pectoral girdle- Flat- Trapezoidal- cartiliginous

Scapula - articulates with the suprascapula

- irregular bone- smooth concavity on its proximal end

Glenoid fossa - smooth concavity on the scapulas end

- where the upper arm fits

Fenestra - gap that separates the scapulaClavicle - anterior to the fenestra - thin

- where a Y-shaped bone rests (belongs to the sternum)

Coracoid - posterior to the fenestra - contributes to the glenoid fossaEpicoracoid cartilages - joins the two halves of the pectoral girdle

THE STERNUMSet of bones and cartilages lying in the mid ventral axia which consist of two portions (anterior and posterior to the PG)

Episternum - flat, rounded cartilage- first portion

Omosternum - inverted Y-shaped bone- two arms rest on the clavicle

Mesosternum - second portion- bone wedged between the coracoids in its anterior end

Xiphisternum - cartilage lying posterior to the mesosternumTHE PELVIC GIRDLE

Strengthens the posterior design of the body and provides support to the hind limbsConsists of left and right halves, solidly fused on its posterior end

Each half is called OS INNOMINATUM (innominate bone)Acetabulum - each rear end of the

innominate bone- cup-shaped depression - where the proximal end of the thigh bone fits - formed by the convergence of the raised edges

of the bones comprising the girdle (ischium, ilium, pubis)

Ilium articulates with the lateral processes of the 9th vertebra

forms the anterior boreder of the acetabulum

Ischium - wedged between the ilium and the next bone

- fan shaped bone - contributes to the posterior border of the

acetabulumPubis - wedged ventrally between the

ilium and ischium - apical end contributes to the acetabulum

EXERCISE 4: MUSCULATURE Muscle - contractile tissues responsible for

motion and locomotion- found next to the integument forming

part of the body wall- found in walls of certain visceral

organs (ex. digestive tract)

AXIAL MUSCULATUREHEAD (3 pairs) LOCATION ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION TRUNK LOCATION ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION

Temporalis (1) stout muscles at the back of the skull Mid-dorsal line Posterior region of the mandible

Raises lower jaw Coccygeosacralis (DORSAL)

Anterior portion Lateral of anterior part of urostyle

Transverse processes of sacral vertebra Keeps coccyx in line with ilium

Depressor Mandibulae (2) posterior to the temporalis and tympanic membrane

Mid-dorsal line Angle of the jaw Lowers the jaw Coccygeoiliacus(DORSAL)

- Both coccys are the V-shaped muscles bordered by the ilium of the pelvic girdle

- Taper towards the anus

Posterior portion Lateral posterior part of the urostyle

Ilium

Skeletal Muscle

- muscles attached to the skeletons- comprise bulk of the body- voluntary

Median Raphe (3) Mid-ventral side of the head (a septum)

Mylohyoid Median raphe Inner surface of lower jaw

Raises floor of the mouth

Visceral Muscle

- form part of the wall of internal organs like the stomach, heart, blood vessels, and ducts of glands

- involuntary Longissimus dorsi(DORSAL)

Posterior part wedged between the coccygeoiliacus

Urostyle Posterior end of the skull, dorsal surface of the vertebrae

Extends back and elevates head

Fascia - connective tissue that binds skeletal muscle

- continue to the ends as tendons (when cord-like) or as aponeuroses (when thin and flat)

- attach the muscles o lumbo-dorsal fascia fascia

covering the back of the frog

External oblique Lateral side of the abdomen Lumbo-dorsal fascia Beneath muscles of the ventral side of the abdomen

Compress the abdomen

Rectus abdominis (VENTRAL) Ventral abdominal wall (thin and flat muscle)

Pubis sternum Compress the abdomen

Linea alba (not a muscle) Longitudinal septum of connective tissue (white line)Inscriptiones tendinae (not a muscle) Lateral and segmentally arranged connective tissue

TENDONS

APPENDICULAR MUSCULATURE FORELIMB LOCATION ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION HINDLIMB (THIGH) LOCATION ORIGIN INSERTION ACTION

Belly - middle fleshy part of the muscleOrigin - point of attachment

- more or less fixed

Latissimus dorsi(DORSAL)

Flat muscle next to and partly hidden from view by the depressor mandibulae

Fascia on the anterior trunk region

Shoulder joint and humerus Draws arm away from the body

Insertion - relatively movable end Sterno-radialis(VENTRAL)

- Chest region- Muscle forming the apex of the

triangular mass of muscle on the chest

- Anterior portion hidden from view by the edge of the mylohyoid

Episternum Proximal end of the radio-ulna

Draw arms towards the chest

Triceps extensor femoris Stout muscle on the frontal surface of the thigh, extendin well to the dorsal and ventral sides

Posterior border of the ilium and the anterior border of acetabulum

Proximal end of the tibio-fibula

Straightens shank and bends the thigh

Heads - when there is more than one point of origin

- Semimembranosus (DORSAL

Medial to the triceps femoris on the dorsal side (stout muscle)

Ischium Back of the knee, proximal end of the tibio-fibula

Biceps femoris(DORSAL)

Separate the triceps and semimembranosus

Long slender muscle

Posterior margin of ischium Proximal end of tibio-fibula

Slips - several points of insertion -

-

Draws the thigh medially and bends the

shank

- Gracilis major(VENTRAL)

Medial margin of the thigh (stout) Posterior margin of ischium Proximal end of tibio-fibula Draws the thigh medially

Pectoralis(VENTRAL)

Posterior to the sterno-radialis (divisible into 3 portions)

- (1-2) pectoral girdle and sternum

- (3) almost a separate muscle; fascia of the rectus abdominis

Humerus (hidden from view by the distal end of the sterno-radialis)

Sartorius(VENTRAL)

Long, flat muscle traversing the thigh obliquely and partly covers a stout muscle

Lower end of ilium Proximal end of tibio-fibula Bends the leg

Adductor magnus (VENTRAL)

Covered by the sartorius Pelvic girdle Distal end of femur Adducts thigh and draws thigh ventrally

Deltoid Stout muscle wedged between the distal ends of the sterno-radialis and the latissimus dorsi in the upper arm

coracoid Proximal end of the humerus HINDLIMB (SHANK) LOCATION ORIGIN INSERTION ACTIONGastrocnemius muscles (calf muscle)(DORSAL AND VENTRAL)

Loosely bound to the adjoining muscles of the shank by a superficial fascia which may be slit

(!) small head top of aponeurosis which covers the knee(2) big head- tendon back of the knee connected to the ligament bending the femur and the tibio-fibula

Achilles tendon- passes over the back of the ankle joint

Flexes leg and extends foot

Triceps Brachii Stout muscle at the back of the arm Scapula-coracoid Distal end of the humerus and proximal end of the radio-ulna

Straightens the forearm

Peroneus (DORSAL)

Lateral to the gastrocnemius Distal end of femur Distal end of tibio-fibula and proximal end of tarsal bones

Straightens the shank and bends the foot

Tibialis anticus(DORSAL AND VENTRAL)

Anterior border of the shank and bound with the peroneus by a common fascia (long, thin muscle)

Distal end of femur 2 tendons onto the tarsals Bends the foot

Tibialis posticus (VENTRAL)

Long, thin muscle adhering to the posterior margin of the bone (push the ventral portion of the gastrocnemius away from the tibio-fibula)

Entire length of tibio-fibula Proximal end of the tarsals Extends the foot

EXERCISE 5: MOTION AND LOCOMOTION LOCOMOTION IN PLANARIA LOCOMOTION IN GASTROPOD MOLLUSKS LOCOMOTION IN EARTHWORMS MOTION AND LOCOMOTION IN VERTEBRATES

- Illustrate origin of the dynamic functions of the hydrostatic skeleton

- Capable of looping - Leeches - Snails and slugs (pedal

locomotory waves)

- By means of flattened muscular foot through pedal locomotory waves

- Foot is analogous to the whole body of the flatworm

- Gastropod foot may be inflated by blood

o QUESTION: how does the snail pedal locomotion differ from the creeping mode of locomotion of Planaria?

- Highest form of a locomotor system dependent on a hydrostatic skeleton- Same diameter all throughout if the body is at rest- Contraction of circular muscles on the anterior end of the body extends to a

number of segments- Alternate circular and longitudinal muscle contraction that facilitates

locomotion - Wave of circular muscle contraction then passes backwards along the body,

and when it has travelled some distance it is followed by a wave of longitudinal muscle contraction, also starting from the anterior end

- Contraction of circular muscles makes segments longer and thinner- Contraction of longitudinal muscles shortens segments in preparation for

the next phase of circular muscle contraction o QUESTION: how does the earthworm anchor itself to the substratum?

DEMONSTRATION OF MUSCLE ACTION LOCOMOTION IN VERTEBRATESAction specific movement produced by a muscleAntagonists Groups of muscles whose actions are opposite Synergists Groups of muscles whose actions are acting in concertadductor Moves a part towards the bodyabductor Moves a part away from the bodyflexor Bends a part

Undulatory swimming - Body is thrown into waves that pass along the animal (head to tail)- Brought about by the contraction of the trunk musculature- Ex fish:

Pectoral and pelvic fins breaksCaudal fin rudder

Dorsal fin stabilizer

extensor Extends a part Pedal Locomotion - Contraction of limb muscles- Quadruped- biped

Levator Raises a part Flight - birds and bats- flying lemurs and squirrels (volpane/glide not fly)

depressor Lowers a partconstrictor Closes an aperture Animal Mode of Locomotiondilator Opens an aperture PythonQUESTION: what does a rotator do?

House lizardeel

QUESTIONS:i. gastrocnemius and peroneus (synergistic/antagonistic)?

ii. How does the tibialis-anticus respons with respect to the gastrocnemius and peroneus?

iii. What action does the tibialis posticus produce?

iv. What muscles must be stimulated to produce abduction/adduction and elevation/depression?

v. What happens when you stimulate the rectus abdominis?

vi. Does the external oblique respond in the same way as with the rectus abdominis?

vii. When do you use your abdominal muscles?

viii. Does the depressor mandibulae raise the lower jaw?

Frog

Duck

Chicken

mouse

Chimpanzee

Horse

Dove

TortoiseMan

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