Vol. 4. No. 8

Training for Development In their book, Training for Development, Rolf P.

Lynton and Udai Pareek noted in 1967 that India was spending $6 million on training. Since the much wealthier U.S.A. was then spending an estimated $12 billion annually on training, the magnitude of India 's effort was commendable. Such a heavy expenditure on the part of India as well as other developing countries suggests the · need to evaluate the effectiveness of their training efforts. Based on their Indian experience, Lynton and Pareek make a useful effort to do so, facilitating our discussion in this TUE issue of this important subject. *

In too many cases, according to the Lynton­Pareek analysis, training takes a limited and passive form. Trainers have very little contact with the organizations from which the trainees come. They do a great deal of lecturing, and expect the trainees to memorize what is taught. Once the course is completed , training stops.

Training, however, can take a much more dynamic form , as suggested by the "spiral model" in Figure 1. Under this model , there is a close relationship between the participant's work organization and the training institution before, during, and after training takes place.

In the pretraining phase, there is cooperation in clarifying the precise objectives of training, in selecting suitable participants, and in building up the motivation of potential trainees. Organizations are expected to encourage their employees by maintaining their salaries and perquisites and promising increased responsibility and income upon satisfactory completion of the training. The training itself includes field trips, simulated exercises, role playing, case studies, sensitization procedures, individualized and group assignments, and seminars in which participants feel free to express their needs and ideas and to explore new

*Available in a 1978 edition from Kumarian Press: 29 Bishop Road , West Hartford, Connecticut 06119, USA.

possibilities. Following the training, an effort is made to evaluate its effectiveness and to use evaluation results to improve all aspects of the program.

While the authors offer no examples of the "spiral model" being used, they do note some innovative training programs. The Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad (llMA), . attempts to get each participating organization to send representa­tives of middle management, senior management, and top management to its training programs. While the training programs for each level of management are different, there is some sharing of experience. By using this method, each participant will have the support of at least two others at different levels of the organization after the training is completed . The Small Industry Extension Training Institute (SIET), in Hyderabad, divides participants into groups of three to analyze problems that they bring to the class. The groups are periodically reorganized, and there are also general sessions in which possible solutions to common problems are discussed .

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Figure 1. Spiral Model of Training Process

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The Urban Edge is pu bl1shed monthly by the Council for International Urban Liaison , 8181 Bth Street, NW, Washington , D.C ._ 20006, as _a clearing house for practical experience 1n low cost service delivery and employment creation projects in d_eveloping countries. Material_ appearing_ herein may be reprinted with source citation Copies of reprints appreciated . Herbert H. Werlin , Edlfor. George G. Wynne, Pub/1cat1ons D1rector.

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Training for Urban Development: Recommendations of a Habitat Report

In August, 1978, 53 participants from 21 different nations met in Enschede, the Netherlands, to discuss improved training programs for imple­mentors of urban development projects . This meeting was sponsored by the United Nations Center for Human Settlements (HABITAT) and the Government of the Netherlands, with the assis­tance of the International Union of Local Authorities (IULA) . The proceedings are available as a U.N. document: CHS/ R/79-1 .

At the meeting, Dr. Thomas L. Blair of the Polytechnic of Central London , aided by Dr. U.A. Ejionye of Nigeria, presented a critique of training programs in developing countries . He pointed out that many of them were directed by academic institutions rather than agencies directly respon­sible for project implementation and used staff with limited field experience. Consequently, their courses tended to be too theoretical and unrelated to the needs of practitioners.

To improve these training programs, participants at the Enschede meeting emphasized the impor­tance of linking training to practical project work . While training should be primarily given to top project managers and technical staff, there should also be training opportunities for policy makers, planners, community leaders, ordinary workers , beneficiaries, and others associated with urban development. To coordinate needed training programs, the possibility of " resource centers" operating at community, national , or regional levels was suggested . These centers could involve both public and private agencies and be sponsored in many different ways .

The example of such a " resource center" presented is the Foundation for Community and Municipal Development (FUNACOlv1UN) , which has primary responsibility in Venezuela for improving urban slums and squatter settlements. This foundation is empowered to make grants and loans to local communities, to extend technical assistance, and to undertake the training of local functionaries and community leaders. Because of its success, it has become a prototype for other Latin American countries having such programs. One of them , Brazil 's IBAM in Rio de Janeiro, is outstanding.

Train ing , according to the HABITAT report , should include skill development , " process learning, " "self-realization training ," and "sensiti­zation experiences." Process learning refers to a series of incremental stages required for settlement improvement, with the need to study appropriate standards and technologies for each stage . Through self-realization training , one learns to facilitate individual self-reliance and community self-help or mutual help. Most important of all are sensit ization experiences. This aims to : (1)

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overcome misconceptions and stereotypes; (2) gain a more realistic conception of the urban problems of low-income residents ; (3) develop an understanding of the required interrelations among actors involved in urban development; and (4) gain awareness of alternative strategies, including those used in other countries for upgrading human settlements.

The fol lowing are examples of training ap­proaches recommended in this report :

• EDI (Also, see announcement below) The World Bank's Economic Development

Institute (EDI) uses a case study method in which small groups of participants are required to develop solutions for problems which have emerged in projects undertaken by the Bank . These are combined with gaming and other simulation techniques useful for studying such activities as the development of pricing schemes for community services, land tenure policies, and cost-benef it relationships .

Among the advantages of such simulation devices is the ability to impart technical knowledge of many subjects and activities within the short duration (9-12 weeks) of most courses . Partici­pants are also encouraged to train one-another, thereby developing self-confidence and reducing the distance between instructor and trainee.

•GOSA The Center for Development Studies and

Activities in Poona, India, also emphasizes field­work tra ining on projects concerned with low­income human settlements. These teams are multi­disciplinary and include people with backgrounds in architecture, sociology, geography, economics, public adm inistration, and statistics . In addition to learning from working with community groups and government agencies , participants receive related lectures and seminars. Graduates come away from this combination of classroom and project work with highly useful experience in practical research techniques , project preparation and implementa­tion , report writing , and sensit ivity to the problems of low-income urban families .

Habitat, cont. p. 6

New Training Practices by David Pasteur

Mr. Pasteur is a Senior Lecturer with the Development Administration Group of the Univer­sity of Birmingham 's Institute of Local Government Studies. (See announcements below regarding its programs.) For several years he has been been associated with the Lusaka Housing Project Unit's training programs, in which an effort is made to use some of the ideas here presented. This piece has been extracted from his lecture contained in an /ULA report of a seminar held in Lusaka in December, 1977, entitled: "Training Needs for Local Government in Africa in the Light of the Recommendations of the HABITAT Conference."

OCTOBER 1980 • URBAN EDGE

First let me suggest three criteria to be borne in mind when making proposals on training :

(a) Relevance Much training can and has been criticized either on the grounds of being too theoretical or academic, or for being unrelated to the particular conditions and problems of the country concerned. This is true both of manage­ment training and of training in technical and policy issues.

(b) Commitment A major problem in training has been gaining the commitment to action not only of the individual , but more important, of the whole organization to the implementation of changes. There must be real change in attitudes not only of individuals but also of organizations.

(c) Time and Resources There is limited time to spare staff for long periods of training , especially once in service, and limited resources to provide training. Proposals must aim for the optimum level rather than the maximum; at the margin more training may have higher costs than benefits.

Five new approaches to training are suggested for discussion. These are innovations in course struc­ture and organization, rather than specific tech­niques.

1. Project Work in Pre-entry Professional Train­ing . Students in professional disciplines and public administration should be encouraged, or even required to undertake attachments, and do practical project work in public agencies. Students can also do part-time paid work in vacations, e.g. , social surveys. Both of these increase the relevance of their training and link the academic institutions to the practical situation.

2. The Administrative Survey and Planning Con­ference . In this arrangement a team from a training institution prepares a survey of policy and admini­strative problems of a particular authority, district or province and writes a series of papers in preparation for a conference of officials and politicians, lasting 2-3 weeks at which not only are the problems discussed, but recommendations for practical ac­tion are made. The discussion process has a training function and the membership of the conference is wide enough to secure commitment to subsequent action.

3. Management Training Combined with In­Service Supervision. Courses can be run in which an officer joins a residential course for certain periods, but returns to his authority in between and receives supervision and advice from the trainers on project work specifically related to his duties and to current problems in the authority. This arrangement can increase the relevance of training to practical problems, and the differing needs of individuals, and increase the commitment of the receiving authority to the results of training .

4. The Problem-solving Workshop /Conference. An alternative method to short-in-service teaching seminars or courses is the workshop directed at a particular administrative or policy problem in which the participants, initially in groups, work towards their own solutions, guided as to method and content by trainers or resource persons. This device, as in the Housing Project Unit, can be used

URBAN EDGE • OCTOBER 1980

both for staff and for community leaders.

5. Use and Involvement of Overseas Institutions. Overseas courses will continue to play an impor­tant role at the higher levels, both because the local government training institutions in the region are not yet well developed, and also because they have value in themselves. But more could be done to establish links with overseas institutions through which staff can do field work to develop relevant teaching material , advice can be given to new local institutions, and short courses can be run by visiting individuals or teams. There should also be more emphasis on the training of trainers.

m Lessons from Europe: Innovative Training Proposals

In 1979, the Organization for Economic Co­operation and Development (OECD) published the proceedings of a 1976 symposium in Cologne, entitled "Training for Urban Management."* While some of the conclusions and recommendations are similar to those already mentioned in this issue, the following deserve special attention :

(1) The desirability of seminars containing elected and professional officials. Cou nci I meetings tend to be concerned with narrow political issues or technical problems. Thus, there should also be opportunities for less formal meetings in which the reasons for decision making and different viewpoints can be communicated and analysed. By bringing together professional and elected officials in seminars or training sessions, it is possible to discuss broad issues and future problems which tend to be ignored. In the process, the gap between policy development and imple­mentation may be narrowed.

(2) The usefulness of mixing academic profes­sionals with experienced practitioners on the staff of training institutions . Academic scholars can often bring into training a greater degree of objectivity and a broader perspective than can practitioners who may be stifled by the bureau­cratic hierarchy in which they work . On the other hand, a training program must have the benefit of those with long and diversified implementation experience. Thus, at least 75% of its staff should be from the ranks of practitioners.

(3) The integration of training and research . By integrating training and research , training institu­tions may escape the tendency to provide "answers" instead of "approaches" to problems. Learning can thereby become perceived, not as a passive acceptance of information or procedures, but, rather, as the development of skills and capacity to improve policy-making and adminis­tration in government.

(4) Expanding the availability of training . Opportunities for training should be continuous, with programs available in secondary schools,

*Available from OECD, Publications Office, 2 rue Andre­Pascal , 75775 Paris Cedex 16, France (ISBN 92-64-11914-0) .

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local government agencies, special training institutions, universities, etc . At the same time, the type of training should be diversified so that those of every specialization and career stage can benefit, including non-governmental employees interested in urban development.

The following are examples of innovative training programs mentioned in this report:

• Nordplan The Nordic Institute for Studies in Urban and

Regional Planning (Nordplan) is located in Stockholm and financed jointly by the five Nordic countries. In addition to running training programs for officials, Nordplan sponsors the research of Ph.D. candidates.

Each training program runs for an entire year. The participants meet for only three months, in one-month segments. In-between, they return to their regular jobs and at home read and prepare for the next month at the Institute. The first and third months of tra ining take place in Stockholm, with the second month used for field work in other Scandinavian cities .

Fifty participants are accepted for each session . About half of them have social science back­grounds, while the others are in such technical professions as architecture, urban planning , and engineering . A majority are between 35-40 years old and in mid-level public sector positions. Their salaries ordinarily continue th roughout their training .

The first month is spent on exercises presented by the staff, with an emphasis on combining individual creativ ity with inter-disciplinary group work . Problems that arise in the process, such as democratic decision-making, leadership , role assignment, conflict resolution , and social control , are discussed and analyzed . Before the end of the first period , each group chooses a project for the field work period and assigns members research to do prior to it . The first part of the field period is spent interviewing politicians, professionals , and cit izens. The second half is mainly devoted to an analysis of the information obtained and report writing . The reports are then distributed to the participants before the beginning of the third period. Groups then are formed to write short comments on the reports, which are subsequently discussed in seminars .

So far , evaluations of Nordplan 's training program, particularly its division into one-month periods, have been largely positive. However, modifications are periodically considered and experimented with . A persistent criticism has been the shortness of the field period , but most participants could not afford to be away longer because of job and family responsibilities.

• France 's APPAC Since 1901 , France has had anAssociationforthe

Advancement and Training of Local Authority Staff (APPAC) . An example of its work was the develop­ment of an inexpensive two-day training course in computer appreciation for junior executives in Marseilles. The staff of a semi-public data process-

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ing corporation presented a series of lectures to participants, using diagrams, charts, and a 125 page manual. The various stages of computer operation and requirements were discussed, after which an analysis and demonstration of applications was presented. These included : traffic management, construct ion scheduling, and payroll handling . Finally, an opportunity to ask questions was pro­vided in a session led by a university faculty member.

Based on the results of a questionnaire, partici­pants seemed generally pleased with the training course . Criticisms largely reflected differences in educational and occupational background . While some participants were bored with detailed discus­sion of applications, others wanted a complete computer science program. To meet the needs and desires of those concerned with public finance and procurement, specialized computer-application courses have been developed .

m Training in Financial Management

In 1979, the U.S. Comptroller General , head of the U.S. General Accounting Office, issued a report to members of the American Congress on the need to improve financial management in developing countries.* Much foreign aid was being wasted, it was reported, because of ineffective accounting and auditing practices. In many cases, available financial information was so inadequate that there was no way of either evaluating past performance or determining future requirements .

The causes of this situation are many, including: a lack of trained and experienced people, an unwill­ingness to work for the government because of poor pay and personnel mismanagement, inadequate educational and training programs, and a lack of interest in improving governmental capabilities . Despite its importance, the accounting profession was found to have a low prestige in most of the countries visited by GAO representatives. In one of them , for example, there were only 3 out of 13,000 university students specializing in accounting .

A number of suggestions are offered in this report: (1) pay incentives for qualified accountants and auditors ; (2) guaranteed tenure and merit promotions to attract and retain competent financial experts ; (3) the development of training programs at national and regional institutions; (4) the linking of foreign aid to the greater willingness of developing countries to improve administrative and financial management; and (5) more coordina­tion among multilateral and bilateral assistance agencies in efforts to upgrade training opportuni­ties and professional standards. In addition to recommending that the U.S. include management training components in all foreign projects undertaken or sponsored, the Comptroller General invited qualified officials from developing countries to spend a year or so working at the GAO.

*Training and Related Efforts Needed to Improve Financial Management in the Third World (ID-79-46) is available without charge from USGAO, Distribution Section, Room 1518, 441 G Street, N.W., Washington , DC 20548.

OCTOBER 1980 • URBAN EDGE

Cross-Cultural Training For those doing cross-cultural training, Mr. Pierre

Gasse of EDI has recently written an interesting handbook entitled TRAINING FOR THE CROSS­CUL TURAL MIND (SIETAR, 1414 22nd St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037) . This book is primarily process oriented. It attempts (1) to help people who are interested in the field ask some of the right questions, and (2) to assist them in constructing their own training or consulting instruments for their particular situations. The method recom­mended emphasizes total learning by engaging not only the intellectual but also the emotional level. The participants are called upon to draw lessons from their experiences which seem most relevant. Using the "workshop methodology" (Figure 2) members work on selected problems. Under this method, the role of the facilitator or trainer is to integrate different training techniques, thereby creating and maintaining within the group a climate of confidence in themselves and their capacity to discover and learn.

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Figure 2. Diagram of an experiential learning model: The Workshop methodology

Announcements: International Training Programs

Below are some organizations or institutions having training programs for urban officials from developing countries. We hope that readers will bring to our attention other programs missing from this list:

• Bl E ( P. 0. Box 299, Rotterdam, the Netherlands) The Bouwcentrum International Education

Institute (BIE) has organized a number of seminars on improving low-income residential areas in various parts of the world. As in Indonesia and Tanzania, BIE seminars are sponsored by the Netherlands government, in cooperation with U.N. agencies and local institutions, and are intended for mid-career staff professionals with planning or implementation responsibilities .

In Indonesia, the emphasis is on case studies of urban improvement projects throughout Asia, comparing different approaches to existing situa­tions. In addition to field visits, time is spent discussing common issues and proposed recom­mendations. In Tanzania, the emphasis is on short courses in housing finance, aerial photography, planning of small settlements, and management of

URBAN EDGE • OCTOBER 1980

low-income housing projects. Along with this training program, BIE has set up a Center for Housing Studies to do applied research. By the end of 1981, the Dutch contribution will start to phase out, with the Center to be funded by the Tanzanian government as an independent unit within the Ardhi Institute.

• The World Bank During 1981, the World Bank's EDI will offerthree

courses of particular relevance to urban officrals: Managing Urban Growth, Water Supply and Waste­water Disposal Projects, and Urban Transport Policy and Planning. While these courses are usually given in English and at EDl's headquarters (1818 H St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.), some are offered in Spanish and French in Africa, Asia, and Latin America.

The World Bank is also increasingly introducing training components in the projects that it sponsors. In a 1978 study of these projects in the East Asia and Pacific region, it was found that about half of them contained a training component, costing an aver­age of 2.5% of total project expenditure. The most successful programs, according to this report, had the following characteristics: (1) a careful analysis of manpower needs and skill requirements for each component; (2) coordination of curricu­lum, instructional materials, facilities, and instruc­tor training; (3) compatibility with other training programs and the national education system; (4) adequate arrangements and inducements for serious participation ; and (5) a system of regular supervision and meaningful evaluation.

An example of a World Bank-supported training component is that provided by the Metropolitan Development Authority (CMDA) for its staff and that of other agencies responsible for the Second Calcutta Urban Development Project. The training center has three classrooms, a library of technical publications, and office space for instructors.

Since the training center opened in 1977, courses in site management, office administration, com­puters, traffic engineering, and construction technology have been offered . The Indian Institute of Management in Calcutta has helped to evaluate and update the training programs. So far, responses by participants in these programs have been extremely positive.

• USAID, Office of Housing, Washington, 0. C. 20523

USAID's Office of Housing plans to offer each year a month-long shelter training workshop for thirty senior professionals from developing countries . In this year's course, scheduled for November, some of the subjects to be covered will include: affordability criteria, gathering of social and economic data, identification of target groups, aerial photography, savings mobilization, financial management, construction methods, and project monitoring and evaluation. Work/study exercises, based on case studies, will be combined with talks by leading professionals and with field trips, audio­visual presentations, and workshops.

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• The Institute of Local Government Studies, U.K. The Institute offers a 4-month course each year

from mid-January to mid-May in the Management of Urban Development. The course is designed mainly for administrators from the developing countries in local government, development agencies and central ministries, but also caters for professionals and planners whose needs are for urban manage­ment training. The course is practical in orientation and includes a field project, an internship, and use of case studies drawn from overseas field work by staff members. Emphasis is given to policies directed towards the urban poor and to their management implications. The next course runs from January 19th to May 15th 1981. The Inst itute also offers a Diploma in Development Administra­t ion and Masters in Social Science for overseas candidates , each course including an urban management component. For further informat ion, write to The Associate Director, Development Administration Group, Institute of Local Govern­ment Studies, University of Birmingham, P.O . Box 363, Birmingham B15 2TT, U.K.

• Development Planning Unit of University College, London

The DPU offers each year three three-month tra ining programs for senior officials from develop­ing countries. Each program is run as a structured workshop, concentrating on a part icular topic , including intensive discussion of selected case studies and the exchange of pract ical experience among participants. These programs are limited to about 20 participants.

The DPU also offers d iplomas in urban and regional development planning and M Phil / PhD degrees in urban studies. These postgraduate diplomas and degrees require at least two years to complete. In addition, DPU has developed a Training Advisory Service (TAS) to help academic institutions, agencies, and local governments improve their training programs. TAS can also provide consultancy services to facilitate urban planning , infrastructure development, project implementation, and monitoring and evaluation . Enquiries regarding DPU can be addressed to: Bartlett School of Architecture and Planning, 9-11 Endleigh Gardens, London WC1 , U.K.

• Royal Institute of Public Administration (RIPA) , U.K.

RIPA, founded in 1922, is a non-political body dedicated to studying and improving public administration. In 1972, it formed an Overseas Services Unit to operate in close association with the U.K. Ministry of Overseas Development and Technical Assistance Program and with the British Council.

This Unit undertakes consultancy and training work in all aspects of policy formulation, manage­ment, manpower planning, land use, transportation and traffic control, police administration, educa­tion development, and health services. While most of the training programs are held in the U.K. each year, some have been organized in India, Indonesia, Nigeria, and the Sudan, among other countries.

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Most of them are of 12 weeks duration . More information, including course dates for those scheduled for 1981-82, can be obtained from Hamilton House, Mabledon Place, London WCLH 9BD.

• Cornell, M.I. T. , American University, U.S.A. Cornell and M.l.T. are two American universities

with outstanding academic programs in urban and regional planning and project implementation with an emphasis on the needs of developing countries .

The American University offers an M.A. in inter­national development which prepares students for a variety of careers in the development field . For information on this program, inquiries should be addressed to: International Development Graduate Program, School of International Service, The American University, Washington , D.C. 20016. Information about the Cornell program can be obtained from : Professor William W. Goldsmith , 200 West Sibley Hall , Ithaca, New York 14853. Regarding the M.l.T. program, inquiries should be directed to Mr. Reinhard Goethert of the School of Architecture and Planning , Cambridge, Massachu­setts 02139.

• /ULA, 45 Wassenaarseweg, 2596 CG The Hague, Netherlands

Each year, I ULA plans to offer two courses for senior off icials from developing countries . Some of these courses are to be in Spanish or French and located in developing countries. IULA's 38th Inter­national Course in comparative local government will be a policy workshop examining the efforts made t o conserve precious energy without damaging the environment. The course will run f rom March 17 to May 12, 1981 . In addition , IULA's 25th World Congress of Local Government wil I meet in Columbus, Ohio, June 21-25, 1981 . Some of the topics to be covered include: energy, developing settl ements for people, pub~ic-private cooperation , t ranspo rtation , care of the aging , and women in local government. Information on this meeting is available from IULA at the above address. Those interested in the training course should write to IULA's Di rector of Training , Mr. H.J.B. Allen.

Habitat, cont. from P· 2

•ENDA Senegal's Environmental Training Institute

(ENDA) has successfully used a "total field immersion " system of training. Participants representing different disciplines, countries, and levels of responsibility spend a number of weeks or months together, living and working in a low­income settlement. In the process of working closely with members of the community, various benefits are gained, including : (1) a heightened awareness of the problems faced by inhabitants; (2) an appreciation of development priorities, opportunities, and impediments; and (3) experi­ence in practical problem-solving and multi­discipl inary team effort.

OCTOBER 1980 • URBAN EDGE