Tracking Semantic Drift in the Biblical Corpus

by Matthew Munsonmmunson@gcdh.deTwitter: @sonofmun

Background

• Hypothesis– One can understand the New Testament better by

investigating how it uses and changes sections of the Old Testament

– And one can do this on the level of individual words• What I will present– Method and Data– Some interpretation and a little synthesis of results

Theoretical Basis I

• Daniel Boyarin – Theological– Rabbis recombined biblical passages,

recontextualizing them into new narratives1

• Zellig Harris - Linguistic– the most precise way of determining a word’s

meaning is by investigating the meanings of the words that occur along with that word.2

– We can determine differences in word meaning by analyzing differences in context

Theoretical Basis II

• Later authors recontextualize and context demonstrates meaning

• So by tracking how later authors recontextualize the words used by earlier authors, we can track meaning change

• These differences could be– Theological– Cultural– Linguistic

Note of Caution

• Ultimate in historical-critical method– meaning is relational– But this makes determining “actual meaning” a

very complex process • the “meaning” of every word is communicated by the

meaning of every other word with which it co-occurs• and every word with which the co-occurrents co-occur• etc.

Methodological Overview

• Count co-occurrences of word lemmata– Window of 4 left and 4 right of target word

• Calculate statistical significance of co-occurrence

• Compare the words between and within the testaments

Count Co-OccurrenceL4 L3 L2 L1 Target R1 R2 R3 R4

ἐν ἀρχή ποιέω ὁ θεός ὁ οὐρανός καί ὁ

ὁ ἄβυσσος καί πνεῦμα θεός ἐπιφέρω ἐπάνω ὁ ὕδωρ

Counts:ὁ - 5καί - 2ἐν - 1ἀρχή - 1ποιέω - 1

οὐρανός - 1

ἄβυσσος - 1πνεῦμα - 1ἐπιφέρω - 1ἐπάνω - 1ὕδωρ - 1

Calculate Statistical Significance

• Significant co-occurrence happens when two words occur together more often than you would expect by chance– LXX: ὁ 1 every 7 words, κύριος 1 every 72– w/ θεός: ὁ 1 every 5 words, κύριος 1 every 22– θεός attracts κύριος more than it attracts ὁ

• Log-likelihood measure

Log Likelihood

• Better for sparse data• More interpretable than, e.g., chi-squared• “It is…a number that tells us how much more

likely one hypothesis is than another” (Manning and Schutze, 1999)

Log Likelihood Formula

Log λ = logL(H1) #independence

L(H2) #dependence

= log L(c12, c1, p) + log L(c2-c12, N-c1, p)- log L(c12, c1, p1) – log L(c2-c12, N-c1, p2)

Where L(k,n,x) = xk(1-x)n-k

c1 = occurrences of word 1c2 = occurrences of word 2c12 = co-occurrences of word 1 with word 2N = number of tokens in the textp = c1/Np1 = c12/c1

p2 = (c2-c12)/(N-c1)

)p)-(1log(p p) ,c ,(c log So 12112 c-cc112 L

Different Ways Forward

• Compare LL lists manually, but…– 3,893 words common to both testaments– Over 14,000 (LXX) or 5,300 (NT) possible co-

occurrants– Need to reduce the complexity

• Compare LL lists automatically

Cosine Similarity

• Calculates the similarity of two listsPython Code

c1 = {ἐγώ: 0.00015636973, αὐτός: -0.00656411755…}c2 = {ἐγώ: 0.58764128248, αὐτός: 0.00000217846…}terms = set(c1).union(c2) dotprod = sum(c1.get(k, 0) * c2.get(k, 0) for k in terms) magA = math.sqrt(sum(c1.get(k, 0)**2 for k in terms))magB = math.sqrt(sum(c2.get(k, 0)**2 for k in terms))return dotprod / (magA * magB)

Cosine Similarity

• I calculated similarity between the testaments– e.g., how similar are the log-likelihood lists for θεός in

the OT and θεός in the NT– This tells us which words have changed the most

between the testaments• And within the testaments– e.g., how similar is the log-likelihood list for θεός in

the OT with that of κύριος in the OT– Tells us which words are most similar within each

testament

And then...

• Investigate change in usage (log-likelihood lists)– OT Log Likelihood – NT Log Likelihood = change

• Investigate change in meaning (cosine similarity lists)– OT COS Similarity – NT COS Similarity = change

• Here‘s how...

1. Determine Difference in UsageWord Similarity Occurrences OT Occurrences NT

Σίμων 0.124978237 80 75χάρις 0.125823442 134 155γεννάω 0.177162603 254 97ἐκβάλλω 0.178899156 101 81προσεύχομαι 0.258272324 110 85ἕτερος 0.268276562 267 98Μωϋσῆς 0.279342059 826 80ἄλλος 0.280188682 108 155διδάσκω 0.282892057 107 97ἑπτά 0.292734261 377 88καλός 0.296850637 235 102νεκρός 0.298957827 90 128ἔτι 0.316743475 550 93οὐδείς 0.317224244 188 234ἐγείρω 0.322611383 80 144ἐκκλησία 0.334642299 103 114βλέπω 0.34332697 133 132ζωή 0.349299071 298 135προσέρχομαι 0.374945203 116 86πονηρός 0.38284153 382 78

1. Determine Difference in UsageWord Similarity Occurrences OT Occurrences NT

Σίμων 0.124978237 80 75χάρις 0.125823442 134 155γεννάω 0.177162603 254 97ἐκβάλλω 0.178899156 101 81προσεύχομαι 0.258272324 110 85ἕτερος 0.268276562 267 98Μωϋσῆς 0.279342059 826 80ἄλλος 0.280188682 108 155διδάσκω 0.282892057 107 97ἑπτά 0.292734261 377 88καλός 0.296850637 235 102νεκρός 0.298957827 90 128ἔτι 0.316743475 550 93οὐδείς 0.317224244 188 234ἐγείρω 0.322611383 80 144ἐκκλησία 0.334642299 103 114βλέπω 0.34332697 133 132ζωή 0.349299071 298 135προσέρχομαι 0.374945203 116 86πονηρός 0.38284153 382 78

2. Compare Change in Usage

Σίμων - SimonCollocate Log-likelihood Diff. English Translation

ἀρχιερεύς 4.78868755 High Priestἀδελφός 1.97668932 Brotherσύ 0.70884314 Youδέ 0.61095764 But, andμέγας 0.46820919 Greatἐγώ 0.44210074 Iκαλέω 0.29046041 To callτὶς 0.20737781 Someone, Somethingαἴρω 0.20060086 To lift up...θάλασσα -0.35265681 Seaἀποκρίνομαι -0.37932464 To set apartπρός -0.39142971 Towardsοὖν -0.43430816 And soλέγω -0.80210635 To sayὁ -0.940275 Theἐπικαλέω -0.98102451 Summonκαί -1.06836515 AndἸούδας -1.96547425 Judas

χάρις – grace, favorCollocate Log-likelihood Diff. English Translation

εὑρίσκω 17.02945 To findἐναντίον 7.104399 Oppositeὁ 4.55197 Theἐνώπιον 2.082461 Facingεἰ 1.887208 Ifἀγαθός 1.432463 Goodδόξα 0.988545 Gloryπαρά 0.711348 Besideσύ 0.580478 You...σοφία -0.53002 Wisdomἔλεος -0.68112 Mercyδιά -0.91597 Throughκατά -0.9759 Downwardsκύριος -0.99528 Lordκαί -1.14771 Andαὐτός -1.53347 Himselfλέγω -1.59654 To sayθεός -3.62867 God

2. Change in Usage Analysis

Σίμων• OT

– appears with ἀρχιερεύς and ἀδελφός (he was high priest and brother of Judas and Jonathan Maccabee)

• NT– appears with Ἰούδας (“Judas

son of Simon”), with ἐπικαλέω and ἀποκρίνομαι (apostolic words) and with θάλασσα (the sea)

χάρις• OT

– appears with εὑρίσκω (to find), with ἐναντίον and ἐνώπιον (facing words), and with ἀγαθός (description of gifts)

• NT– appears with θεός and

κύριος (giver of gifts) and σοφία and ἔλεος (possible gifts)

3. Compare Change in Topic

ΣίμωνSimilar Word Cosine Similarity Diff. English

πολεμέω 0.354931673 to fight, to make warΣαλωμών 0.354820728 Solomonἐξολεθρεύω 0.347724511 to destroy utterlyνέος 0.34625518 youthful, newκαταλείπω 0.345432626 to leave behindΟνιας 0.337392476 Oniasἰσχύς 0.336073321 strength, mightΙωναθαν 0.334101138 Jonathanπατάσσω 0.334069924 strike, smite...Πέτρος -0.306455693 Peterἀνακαθίζω -0.331895269 to sit upδιενθυμέομαι -0.33809918 ponderνεύω -0.343399149 to nodἸάκωβος -0.369768608 Jamesξενίζω -0.402026864 to entertain, astonishφράζω -0.418118756 to explain, interpretἁλιεύω -0.449737419 to fishἈνδρέας -0.461752972 Andrew

χάριςSimilar Word Cosine Similarity Diff. English

κατασχίζω 0.559569675 to cut up, to tear upπαροινέω 0.535813921 to insult, to rage againstσυνοδία 0.531470401 caravan, company of travellersκόνδυ 0.485367609 drinking vessel, cupνεφθαι 0.437069069 naphthaἀντρώδης 0.390486532 cave-likeκαρπόω 0.385592739 to offer (as a burnt offering)διόρυγμα 0.379334876 digging through, breach, holeδεκαπλασίων 0.374839561 ten-fold...οὖν -0.553553397 and soὅς -0.553573814 who, which, what, thatγάρ -0.56084709 forθεός -0.561622448 Godλέγω -0.562754892 to sayδέ -0.574144999 and, butἵνα -0.575720796 so thatδιά -0.584088488 throughμαθητής -0.668627965 pupil, apprentice, disciple

3. Change in Topic Analysis

Σίμων• OT

– shares same topic with πολεμέω, ἐξολεθρεύω, ἰσχύς, and πατάσσω (war words), and Ονιας and Ιωναθαν (two other high priests)

• NT– shares same topic with Ἀνδρέας,

Ἰάκωβος, and Πέτρος (names of apostles), with ἁλιεύω (to fish), and with διενθυμέομαι and φράζω (interpretation words)

χάρις• OT

– shares same topic with κατασχίζω, κόνδυ, νεφθαι, καρπόω (sacrificial words)

• NT– shares same topic with

μαθητής, θεός, and λέγω. Words 10 and 11 are ἀγάπη and πίστις (gifts)

1. Determine Difference in UsageWord CSim Score OT to NT Occ OT Occ NT

ἀκούω 0,845822895 1067 428ἄνθρωπος 0,849351607 1427 550κύριος 0,857196676 8605 717ἐκ 0,859703706 3831 914ὁράω 0,863501359 1503 483μετά 0,863538079 2522 469θεός 0,863710763 4008 1317γινώσκω 0,865117244 754 222εἰσέρχομαι 0,86794173 710 194ἡμέρα 0,869471581 2572 389ἔρχομαι 0,874266188 1082 632ποιέω 0,877562927 3387 568δέ 0,880434567 4907 2792

1. Determine Difference in UsageWord CSim Score OT-NT Occ OT Occ NT

ἀκούω 0,845822895 1067 428ἄνθρωπος 0,849351607 1427 550κύριος 0,857196676 8605 717ἐκ 0,859703706 3831 914ὁράω 0,863501359 1503 483μετά 0,863538079 2522 469

θεός 0,863710763 4008 1317γινώσκω 0,865117244 754 222εἰσέρχομαι 0,86794173 710 194ἡμέρα 0,869471581 2572 389ἔρχομαι 0,874266188 1082 632ποιέω 0,877562927 3387 568δέ 0,880434567 4907 2792

2. Compare Change in Usage

Septuagint Co-Occurrents New Testament Co-OccurrentsCollocate LL Difference Translation

κύριος 75,91009775 Lord

ἐγώ 21,09482382 I

σύ 20,60507202 You

λατρεύω 9,549640054 To Serve

εὐλογητός 9,037180715 Praise

ὅτι 8,880056787 That, Which

υἱός 8,106906643 Son

Ἰσραήλ 6,608892501 Israel

εὐλογέω 6,016550457 To Praise

ἕτερος 5,368952049 Other

ἀνήρ 4,369749152 Man

φοβέω 3,552670146 To Fear

σωτήρ 3,426153263 Saviour

βασιλεύς 3,386998461 King

ἐγκαταλείπω 3,333623505 To Forsake

Collocate LL Difference Translation

ἐκεῖνος -0,93287157 That One

ἐν -1,278667122 In

ἔρχομαι -1,308490266 To Come

διά -1,315025651 Through

Χριστός -1,681830995 Christ

εἰρήνη -1,702872647 Peace

ἐνώπιον -2,070345268 Before, Facing

θέλημα -2,358967237 Will

εὐχαριστέω -2,608624736 To Be Thankful

δοξάζω -3,501485566 To Glorify

χάρις -3,713703025 Grace, Gift

βασιλεία -7,380142984 Kingdom

αὐτός -12,12970823 Himself

καί -32,60915365 And

ὁ -116,551495 The

2. Compare Change in Usage

Septuagint Verbs New Testament VerbsCollocate LL Difference Translation

κύριος 75,91009775 Lord

ἐγώ 21,09482382 I

σύ 20,60507202 You

λατρεύω 9,549640054 To Serveεὐλογητός 9,037180715 Praise

ὅτι 8,880056787 That, Which

υἱός 8,106906643 Son

Ἰσραήλ 6,608892501 Israel

εὐλογέω 6,016550457 To Praiseἕτερος 5,368952049 Other

ἀνήρ 4,369749152 Man

φοβέω 3,552670146 To Fearσωτήρ 3,426153263 Saviour

βασιλεύς 3,386998461 King

ἐγκαταλείπω 3,333623505 To Forsake

Collocate LL Difference Translation

ἐκεῖνος -0,93287157 That One

ἐν -1,278667122 In

ἔρχομαι -1,308490266 To Comeδιά -1,315025651 Through

Χριστός -1,681830995 Christ

εἰρήνη -1,702872647 Peace

ἐνώπιον -2,070345268 Before, Facing

θέλημα -2,358967237 Will

εὐχαριστέω -2,608624736 To Be Thankfulδοξάζω -3,501485566 To Glorifyχάρις -3,713703025 Grace, Gift

βασιλεία -7,380142984 Kingdom

αὐτός -12,12970823 Himself

καί -32,60915365 And

ὁ -116,551495 The

2. Compare Change in Usage

Septuagint Nouns New Testament NounsCollocate LL Difference Translation

κύριος 75,91009775 Lordἐγώ 21,09482382 I

σύ 20,60507202 You

λατρεύω 9,549640054 To Serve

εὐλογητός 9,037180715 Praiseὅτι 8,880056787 That, Which

υἱός 8,106906643 SonἸσραήλ 6,608892501 Israelεὐλογέω 6,016550457 To Praise

ἕτερος 5,368952049 Other

ἀνήρ 4,369749152 Manφοβέω 3,552670146 To Fear

σωτήρ 3,426153263 Saviourβασιλεύς 3,386998461 Kingἐγκαταλείπω 3,333623505 To Forsake

Collocate LL Difference Translation

ἐκεῖνος -0,93287157 That One

ἐν -1,278667122 In

ἔρχομαι -1,308490266 To Come

διά -1,315025651 Through

Χριστός -1,681830995 Christεἰρήνη -1,702872647 Peaceἐνώπιον -2,070345268 Before, Facing

θέλημα -2,358967237 Willεὐχαριστέω -2,608624736 To Be Thankful

δοξάζω -3,501485566 To Glorify

χάρις -3,713703025 Grace, Giftβασιλεία -7,380142984 Kingdomαὐτός -12,12970823 Himself

καί -32,60915365 And

ὁ -116,551495 The

3. Compare Change in Topic

Septuagint New TestamentSimilar Word OT Sim NT Sim Sim Diff Translation

Σατανᾶς 0,000 0,419 -0,419 SatanΦαρισαῖος 0,000 0,429 -0,429 Phariseesμέλλω 0,256 0,698 -0,442 to be about toπιστεύω 0,441 0,883 -0,442 to believeἑκατοντάρχης -0,188 0,256 -0,444 centurionὑπάγω 0,064 0,511 -0,447 to go, dieτοιοῦτος 0,096 0,545 -0,449 like thisπίστις 0,373 0,829 -0,456 Beliefεὐαγγέλιον 0,025 0,490 -0,465 gospelΠέτρος 0,000 0,494 -0,494 PeterΠιλᾶτος 0,000 0,495 -0,495 PilateΧριστός 0,000 0,520 -0,520 Christοὖν 0,302 0,833 -0,532 and soχάρις 0,138 0,699 -0,562 giftἵνα 0,339 0,904 -0,565 in order toφανερόω -0,018 0,558 -0,577 To showἀπόστολος 0,000 0,613 -0,613 apostleἀγάπη -0,008 0,639 -0,647 loveΠαῦλος 0,000 0,662 -0,662 Paulμαθητής 0,000 0,783 -0,783 Disciple

Similar Word OT Sim NT Sim Sim Diff TranslationΣαλωμών 0,690 0,000 0,690 Solomonἐξολεθρεύω 0,736 0,050 0,686 destroy utterlyπρόσταγμα 0,682 0,000 0,682 commandπαιδάριον 0,681 0,004 0,677 childπεδίον 0,674 0,000 0,674 fieldαἰχμαλωσία 0,629 -0,033 0,661 captivityἐγκαταλείπω 0,713 0,077 0,635 To forsakeἀλλόφυλος 0,666 0,036 0,630 foreignκτῆνος 0,615 -0,014 0,629 cattleἐναντίον 0,766 0,137 0,629 facingἐκζητέω 0,773 0,145 0,628 seek outχριστός 0,612 0,000 0,612 anointedἐλπίζω 0,318 -0,294 0,611 To hopeκαταλαμβάνω 0,588 -0,023 0,611 To lay hold ofἐξαίρω 0,649 0,039 0,610 to drive awayΒενιαμίν 0,546 -0,050 0,597 Benjaminἔναντι 0,638 0,050 0,588 beforeσυντελέω 0,740 0,155 0,585 to finishκακία 0,687 0,107 0,580 wickednessπατάσσω 0,734 0,155 0,579 to strike

3. Change in Topic – LXX Similar Words

Chi-Squared Less Than .25ἐκζητέω 0,916 seek outδείκνυμι 0,890 to showπρότερος 0,886 earlierτάσσω 0,882 to arrangeὀχύρωμα 0,877 strongholdτύπτω 0,873 to strikeπάρειμι 0,873 to be presentἐφοράω 0,873 to watch overμνημόσυνον 0,873 memorial, memoryἔσθω 0,873 eatἐπιτάσσω 0,873 to commandἐξουδενόω 0,873 treat with contemptδιάνοια 0,873 mind, heartμεθύσκω 0,873 to make drunkκατέχω 0,873 to hold, detainεὐδοκέω 0,873 to take delightἀριθμέω 0,873 to countἐκτρίβω 0,873 todestroyἸδουμαία 0,873 Idumeaσυναντάω 0,873 to meet, happen

Chi-squared, No LimitΣαλωμών 0,690 Solomonἐξολεθρεύω 0,686 destroy utterlyπρόσταγμα 0,682 commandπαιδάριον 0,677 childπεδίον 0,674 fieldαἰχμαλωσία 0,661 captivityἐγκαταλείπω 0,635 to desertἀλλόφυλος 0,630 foreignκτῆνος 0,629 cattleἐναντίον 0,629 facingἐκζητέω 0,628 to search forχριστός 0,612 anointedἐλπίζω 0,611 hopeκαταλαμβάνω 0,611 to takeἐξαίρω 0,610 to drive awayΒενιαμίν 0,597 Benjaminἔναντι 0,588 opposite, beforeσυντελέω 0,585 to finishκακία 0,580 wickednessπατάσσω 0,579 to strike

Chi-squared Less Than .10καταλείπω 0,883 to forsakeχώρα 0,879 fieldἁγιάζω 0,879 to sanctifyἑτοιμάζω 0,879 to prepareσυντελέω 0,877 to finishΑἰγύπτιος 0,877 Egyptδείκνυμι 0,875 to showπλανάω 0,875 to wanderΑβιμελεχ 0,875 Abimelechἐκζητέω 0,875 seek outἅμα 0,875 togetherπλατύς 0,875 wideἀναιρέω 0,875 to destroyἔνδοξος 0,875 Honouredῥάβδος 0,875 scepterμεγαλύνω 0,875 To magnifyκατάσχεσις 0,875 Possessionθεωρέω 0,875 to observeκριτής 0,875 a judge, rulerἀπώλεια 0,875 destruction

3. Change in Topic – LXX Similar Words

Chi-Squared Less Than .25ἐκζητέω 0,916 seek outδείκνυμι 0,890 to showπρότερος 0,886 earlierτάσσω 0,882 to arrangeὀχύρωμα 0,877 strongholdτύπτω 0,873 to strikeπάρειμι 0,873 to be presentἐφοράω 0,873 to watch overμνημόσυνον 0,873 memorial, memoryἔσθω 0,873 eatἐπιτάσσω 0,873 to commandἐξουδενόω 0,873 treat with contemptδιάνοια 0,873 mind, heartμεθύσκω 0,873 to make drunkκατέχω 0,873 to hold, detainεὐδοκέω 0,873 to take delightἀριθμέω 0,873 to countἐκτρίβω 0,873 to destroyἸδουμαία 0,873 Idumeaσυναντάω 0,873 to meet, happen

Chi-squared, No LimitΣαλωμών 0,690 Solomonἐξολεθρεύω 0,686 destroy utterlyπρόσταγμα 0,682 commandπαιδάριον 0,677 childπεδίον 0,674 fieldαἰχμαλωσία 0,661 captivityἐγκαταλείπω 0,635 to desertἀλλόφυλος 0,630 foreignκτῆνος 0,629 cattleἐναντίον 0,629 facingἐκζητέω 0,628 to search forχριστός 0,612 anointedἐλπίζω 0,611 hopeκαταλαμβάνω 0,611 to takeἐξαίρω 0,610 to drive awayΒενιαμίν 0,597 Benjaminἔναντι 0,588 opposite, beforeσυντελέω 0,585 to finishκακία 0,580 wickednessπατάσσω 0,579 to strike

Chi-squared Less Than .10καταλείπω 0,883 to forsakeχώρα 0,879 fieldἁγιάζω 0,879 to sanctifyἑτοιμάζω 0,879 to prepareσυντελέω 0,877 to finishΑἰγύπτιος 0,877 Egyptδείκνυμι 0,875 to showπλανάω 0,875 to wanderΑβιμελεχ 0,875 Abimelechἐκζητέω 0,875 seek outἅμα 0,875 togetherπλατύς 0,875 wideἀναιρέω 0,875 to destroyἔνδοξος 0,875 Honouredῥάβδος 0,875 scepterμεγαλύνω 0,875 To magnifyκατάσχεσις 0,875 Possessionθεωρέω 0,875 to observeκριτής 0,875 a judge, rulerἀπώλεια 0,875 destruction

3. Change in Topic – NT Similar Words

Chi-squared Less Than .10ἕτερος -0,563otherμαρτυρέω -0,570to witnessοὖν -0,587and so, thereforeἐμός -0,590mine, of meἵνα -0,621 in order toεὐαγγέλιον -0,623good news, gospelβάλλω -0,633to drive outὥρα -0,646time of day, hourπέμπω -0,670sendμᾶλλον -0,685moreχάρις -0,764grace, giftὄχλος -0,840crowdμαθητής -0,841discipleΠαῦλος -0,855Paulπίστις -0,973belief, trustὅπου -0,973whereμέλλω -0,973to be about toἀγάπη -0,973 loveἀπόστολος -0,973apostleπεριπατέω -0,973to behave, live

Chi-squared Less Than .25θαυμάζω -0,671to wonderδιάβολος -0,685devilλοιπός -0,691remainingπτωχός -0,692poor, needyτέλος -0,700the endμνημεῖον -0,732monumentἀγάπη -0,756loveσταυρόω -0,762to crucifyἀπόστολος -0,763apostleΠαῦλος -0,777Paulτοιοῦτος -0,827like this, certainμαθητής -0,832discipleμάρτυς -0,967witnessδιό -0,967thereforeφανερόω -0,967reveal, showΣατανᾶς -0,967devilβλασφημέω -0,967to blasphemeεὐαγγελίζω -0,967to evangelizeὀφείλω -0,967to oweὁμοίως -0,967likewise

Chi-Squared, No LimitΣατανᾶς -0,419 SatanΦαρισαῖος -0,429 Phariseesμέλλω -0,442 to be about toπιστεύω -0,442 to believeἑκατοντάρχης -0,444 centurionὑπάγω -0,447 to go (away)τοιοῦτος -0,449 like thisπίστις -0,456 trust, faithεὐαγγέλιον -0,465 gospelΠέτρος -0,494 PeterΠιλᾶτος -0,495 PilateΧριστός -0,520 Christοὖν -0,532 and soχάρις -0,562 grace, giftἵνα -0,565 in order toφανερόω -0,577 reveal, showἀπόστολος -0,613 apostleἀγάπη -0,647 loveΠαῦλος -0,662 Paulμαθητής -0,783 disciple

3. Change in Topic – NT Similar Words

Chi-squared Less Than .10ἕτερος -0,563otherμαρτυρέω -0,570to witnessοὖν -0,587and so, thereforeἐμός -0,590mine, of meἵνα -0,621 in order toεὐαγγέλιον -0,623good news, gospelβάλλω -0,633to drive outὥρα -0,646time of day, hourπέμπω -0,670sendμᾶλλον -0,685moreχάρις -0,764grace, giftὄχλος -0,840crowdμαθητής -0,841discipleΠαῦλος -0,855Paulπίστις -0,973belief, trustὅπου -0,973whereμέλλω -0,973to be about toἀγάπη -0,973 loveἀπόστολος -0,973apostleπεριπατέω -0,973to behave, live

Chi-squared Less Than .25θαυμάζω -0,671to wonderδιάβολος -0,685devilλοιπός -0,691remainingπτωχός -0,692poor, needyτέλος -0,700the endμνημεῖον -0,732monumentἀγάπη -0,756loveσταυρόω -0,762to crucifyἀπόστολος -0,763apostleΠαῦλος -0,777Paulτοιοῦτος -0,827like this, certainμαθητής -0,832discipleμάρτυς -0,967witnessδιό -0,967thereforeφανερόω -0,967reveal, showΣατανᾶς -0,967devilβλασφημέω -0,967to blasphemeεὐαγγελίζω -0,967to evangelizeὀφείλω -0,967to oweὁμοίως -0,967likewise

Chi-Squared, No LimitΣατανᾶς -0,419 SatanΦαρισαῖος -0,429 Phariseesμέλλω -0,442 to be about toπιστεύω -0,442 to believeἑκατοντάρχης -0,444 centurionὑπάγω -0,447 to go (away)τοιοῦτος -0,449 like thisπίστις -0,456 trust, faithεὐαγγέλιον -0,465 gospelΠέτρος -0,494 PeterΠιλᾶτος -0,495 PilateΧριστός -0,520 Christοὖν -0,532 and soχάρις -0,562 grace, giftἵνα -0,565 in order toφανερόω -0,577 reveal, showἀπόστολος -0,613 apostleἀγάπη -0,647 loveΠαῦλος -0,662 Paulμαθητής -0,783 disciple

Conclusions• Method produces a lot of noise• But it produces classifiable, logical results

– LXX – God’s is represented in many ways– NT – God’s servants and their relationship to God– NT is much more uniform than LXX (Jon Levenson)

• Next Steps– Compare the LL tables for the words on each end of the CSDiff lists

• This should give an idea of usage and meaning of the words in each testament• This will, in turn, make it clear what the significance of θεος being closely related to

those words is• All “meaning” that would be found here is relational not absolute

– Automatic classification of related words with topic modeling– Analysis with translation equivalents and comparison with co-occurrence

results

Thank You!

Footnotes

1. Daniel Boyarin, Intertextuality and the Reading of Midrash. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990.

2. Zellig S. Harris, “How Words Carry Meaning.” Language and Information: The Bampton Lectures, Columbia University, 1986. Lecture. http://www.ircs.upenn.edu/zellig/3_2.mp3