Towards Increased Agricultural Productivity and Food Security in ...

University of Nairobi Grant No. 09-595

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TEMPLATE: REQUIRED FOR ALL CCRP GRANTS

ANNUAL PROGRESS REPORT — NARRATIVE AND APPENDICES

I. Overview (1-2) pages).

The project “Towards Increased Agricultural Productivity and Food Security in East Africa

through Capacity Building in Agroecological Intensification” is being conducted in Yatta district

of Eastern province, Kenya and Kamuli district in Uganda. Yatta district, the focus of this

narrative, falls within the semi arid areas (SALs) of Kenya and experiences low agricultural

productivity due to, among others, declining soil fertility, poor crop husbandry and, of recent,

effects of climate change such as prolonged drought. Lack of sufficient food and/or economic

opportunity for the many people who live in the SALs coupled with the poor and unsustainable

farming practices, therefore implies that the farmers are unable to earn a year-round livelihood in

their own villages. The consequent migration of villagers to cities and nearby towns for

livelihood during drought further imbalances the economic development of these areas.

The neglect of traditional crops in favour of modern crops that are not drought resistant and/or

escaping has further aggravated the problem of food availability. Planting a range of drought-

resistant crops such as sorghum and cassava could reduce the chances of total crop failure.

Initially, sorghum and cassava used to be widely grown by the resource poor farmers in the semi

arid parts of Kenya for subsistence and as a source of income but have since been largely

neglected in favour of maize (Macharia, 2004).

The current project explicitly aims to address the challenges facing the small scale farmers in the

SALs through capacity building in agroecological intensification of land use for the production

of selected neglected traditional1 crops. Agroecological intensification is a sustainable approach

to farming that blend use of locally available resources, tradition and innovation for increased

agricultural productivity and natural resource conservation.

It is envisioned that a significant improvement in agricultural productivity and subsequently food

availability and rural livelihoods would potentially be realized through promotion and

application of agroecological intensification practices alongside the reintroduction and

production of selected neglected traditional crops. Production of traditional food crops has

declined over the years due to lack of planting materials, low interest by seed companies and

changes in eating habits, yet these crops are known to do well in dry conditions (Orengo,2009)2.

Agroecological intensification will lend itself suitable for adoption by the small scale resource

poor farmers, in the ASALs, considering that; it borrows from and builds on the traditional

farming practices (TFP) and indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) of the local communities and

that much of the agriculture in East Africa has, by default, low external inputs but not necessarily

using agroecological approaches. It is thus hypothesized that promotion of agroecological

intensification approaches, that take into account farmers‟ ITK and TFS, will significantly

contribute towards enhancing rural livelihoods, environmental conservation; securing food

security and empowering the disadvantaged rural communities.

1 A traditional crop is an indigenous species native to a specific region or one that was introduced a long time ago

and, due to long use, has naturalized and become part of the culture of a community (Maundu, 1997). 2


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The project is anticipated to; contribute towards food security by increasing crop yields in the

SALs, increase income and/or reducing production costs due to its methodological approach and

being sustainable in the long term, enhance access to food through; increased quantity of food

produced per farm and hence household food security. The production and promotion of

traditional crops that are drought tolerant and thereafter selling of food surpluses at local markets

will thus lead to increased farmer incomes and resultantly farmer purchasing power.

Furthermore, the farming system will be integrated and more resilient to stress following the

reintroduction and promotion of abandoned crops. Maintaining a wide variety of crops through

crop rotation and intercropping will not only ensure food security throughout the year but will

also lead to nutritional security for farmer households and provide a promising option for

improving the nutritional status of the target communities through identification and eventual

cultivation of neglected traditional crops of ecological and nutritional significance.

The project implementation team comprises of scientists from the University of Nairobi, and

Makerere University and two Non Governmental Organizations; Kenya Organic Agriculture

Network (KOAN) and National Organic Movement of Uganda (NOGAMU), and the respective

communities in the two countries. Through the project, two students at MSc. level will be

trained.

II. Narrative (8 pages)

A. Activities.

The Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)3 exercise, the precursor to the project, involving the

research team and farmers had several objectives that centered around; identifying and

documenting; farmers‟ indigenous technical knowledge (ITK) on soil management and crop

production, locally available resources/technologies for crop production and protection, under

researched /neglected crops of ecological and nutritional significance, and pathways of nutrient

losses from the farming system and, generation of information (on TFP and ITK) to interface

with modern agroecological intensification techniques among others. Based on the information

generated, field experiments to test various agroecological intensification techniques involving

different cropping systems and organic inputs were jointly designed by the farmers and the

research team.

The field experiments involved the growing of sorghum and cassava - the prioritized

abandoned/eglected crops for reintroduction and/promotion under various cropping systems

(Monocropping, intercropping and crop rotation) involving legumes (Dolichos and pigeon peas)

and organic inputs (compost and manure) with the crop residues incorporated in the same fields

from which the crop was harvested. The field experiments that begun in October 2010 are (as

from October 2011) in the third season. The objectives of the field experiments are to:

1. To evaluate appropriate cropping system for enhancing soil fertility and yields of the

neglected crops.

2. To assess the effect of organic inputs on soil fertility and crop productivity.

3 Participatory rural appraisal will therefore be a cost effective and efficient method that would reflect on local

perception of issues pertaining to soil fertility management and crop production and more importantly involves local

community (Conroy, 2002)3.


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3. To model the performance of sorghum and cassava under different cropping systems and

organic inputs using APSIM.

4. To determine the economic performance of the selected cropping systems and application of

organic inputs

To compliment the field objectives and gain a deeper understanding of the trends of crop

production over the years and associated effects of climate change/variability, additional

objectives have been formulated and are being pursued. These objectives are;

5. To assess trends in crop type change in Yatta District for the past 30 years.

6. To determine farmer‟s perception, knowledge, coping and mitigation strategies on climate

change.

The project objectives are jointly being handled by the research team and the MSc. students as

part of their thesis research and is also component of capacity building of the project.

B. Results.

The results, for objectives 1 and 2 are reported in Appendix A but a preview of the same will be

given here below. Following discussion in the various CoP (II and III) meetings, it was felt that

the trends for crop production would better be tracked using GIS hence the introduction and

inclusion of objective 3 above. A GIS expert has also been co-opted into the research team. For

objective 4, data has been collected through administration of questionnaires to 60 randomly

selected/representative farmers within the study sites. Data for model calibration and validation

has been obtained for sorghum. For cassava, that takes comparatively long time to mature and is

usually harvested piece meal, only one season‟s data has been obtained and data for second

season will be available later this year.

Results: There were significant differences in cropping systems and organic inputs with respect

to crop yields and soil nutrient status. Relatively higher yields were realized with crop rotation

than the intercrop system across both seasons and organic inputs. The same pattern was observed

with soil nutrient (total N, P, K and organic Carbon) status. Regarding moisture levels, the

intercropping system registered higher moisture levels compared to the monocropping and crop

rotation system.


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C. Challenges.

The notable albeit manageable challenges faced during the implementation of the current

objectives are summarized in the matrix below;

Challenge Actions taken How activities were affected

Rainfall unpredictability/

uncertainity as well as extremely

high temperatures and wide

distances to be covered from one

farmer to the other. After farmer

selection, during the PRA exercise,

they ended up being far apart

nonetheless representative of the

socioeconomic status.

Using farmers‟ experience of the

environment, dry planting was done

at the first signs of expecting

rainfall. For easy of farmer access,

motorbikes (popularly known as

border border in this region) were

being used to cover the distances

involved. For the high temperatures

hats/caps became handy

- Delay in rainfall, apart from

causing anxiety, meant that the

planting activities had to be delayed

and thus interfering with timely

implementation scheduled of field

activities. The high temperatures

affected the speed of executing the

field activities such as field layout,

planting and harvesting.

Pests such as termites were feeding

on the crop residues and cassava

cuttings. Birds, squirrel and

porcupines attacked sorghum and

cassava, respectively.

Consultations between the

participating farmers and the

research team, led to devising

techniques to control the pests. This

involved techniques such as

digging out the termite mound and

pouring hot water to kill the

termites and this worked very well.

Use of bait and traps against the

squirrel and porcupines.

To chase away birds scare crows

were used. This was in addition to

covering sorghum heads using

polythene papers or deployed

people to chase away the birds

away (see photo next column)

This, to some extent had an effect

on the overall crop yields. This is in

addition to incurring additional

costs in devising the control

strategies against the identified

pests

One of the participating farmer

pulled out of the project after the

first two seasons citing other

commitments

The farmer was replaced with

another farmer who had been

keenly following the project

activities and had participated in the

PRA exercise and hence well

versed with the project activities.

This meant incurring extra cost in

field layout and input purchase. The

farmer will also not be at par with

the others but the results obtained

will nonetheless give new insights.

Demise of one of the MSc student

in the last quarter of the second

year following a short illness

Request to be made to be allowed

to recruit an on-going self

sponsored student to complete the

data collection and subsequent

thesis write up

Delay in data collection and

moving forward

a. Insights and lessons learned.

1. From the field experimentation, it was evident that with use of organic inputs,

introduction/growing of the neglected crops and allowing for crop diversity through crop

rotation and/or intercropping, it is still possible to produce a crop even in the midst of

drought/insufficient rainfall, like the one experienced during the experimental period – the

crops still survived to the amazement of the participating farmers.


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Farmers inspecting experimental plots, in the foreground is the Mcknight regional representative – Dr. Linnet

2. That farmers developed interest in the project – agroecological intensification of land use –

because it had clear advantages over their current farming practices. This is the case as a

number of the participating farmers have diversified their crop production system with

integration of the neglected crops and legumes into to the initially maize crop dominated

production systems. This advantages include but not limited to;

a. Diversity of crops ensured efficient use of the limited resources and acted as

insurance against total crop failure.

b. Pest and disease control evident with intercropping pigeon pea with cassava

c. All the crops involved in the trials showed the propensity to with stand drought

The crops would also meet the dietary needs of the farmer (proteins and carbohydrates

provided by the legume and cereal/cassava component of the cropping system, respectively)

3. The farmers are receptive to new ideas and knowledge so long as they are tailored towards

improving their agricultural production activities and livelihoods. The farmers have been

keenly following the project activities, voluntarily visiting experimental sites and attending

field days.


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III. Annual Work plan Item/Major activity Related activities Month (by when) Budget Responsible (who)

2011 2012

O N D J F M A M J J A S

1) To evaluate the effect of

cropping systems and

organic inputs on soil

fertility and yields of the

selected neglected crops

1.1 Third season field

experiments to evaluate the

effect of cropping systems and

organic inputs on soil nutrients,

soil moisture status and yield

of the neglected crops

- Tuition and

- Stipend for

graduate students

- purchase of farm

inputs

(seeds/cuttings)

-payment of

casuals

- Transport costs

- Daily subsistence

allowance for

participatingproject

team during the

actual field activity

G. Kironchi

1.2 Analysis of (for nutrient

composition) and application of

prioritized organic inputs and

planting of neglected crops

-Purchase of

organic inputs

- casuals pay

G. Kironchi

1.3 Soil and plant tissue

analysis for N, P and Kcontent

-Soil and plant

tissue sampling and

sample preparation

- Payment of

laboratory sample

analysis fee and

purchase of

assorted analytical

chemicals

G. Kironchi

1.4 Measurement of water

holding capacity (WHC) and

organic carbon (oC) contents of

the soil

-Soil sampling

-Laboratory fee for

analysis of organic

carbon

-Purchase of

assorted reagents

for determination

of organic carbon

PI


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Item/Major activity Related activities Month (by when) Budget Responsible (who)

2011 2012


2.6 Calculation of nutrient

(NPK) balances in the cropping

systems using decision support

tools – NUTMON

-Soil and plant

tissue sampling and

sample preparation

- Laboratory fee

for analysis of N, P

and K contents in

soil and plant

tissues s

PI

1.4 Plant sampling for

determination of crop yield and

yield components

-Travel and

accommodation

- Plant tissue

laboratory analysis

for N,P and K

- casuals labourers

pay

Dr. Cecilia Onyango

3. To determine farmer‟s

perception, knowledge,

coping and mitigation

strategies on climate

change

3.1 Questionnaire design,

training of enumerators and

pretesting

- Question

preparation/printi

ng and

photocopying

costs

- Payment of

enumerators

PI

3.2 Questionnaire

administration and data

collection

-Travel and

accommodation

-Payment of

enumerators

PI

3.3 Data analysis - PI, Research team,

MSc. students

2) To use crop models to

predict the effects of

climate change and inform

future production of

neglected crops

2.1 Collection/gathering of long

term climatic, soil and crop

data (antecedent and current)

-Travel and

accommodation

-Purchase of

climate data

PI and Dr. G. Karuku

Model calibration (for cassava

data), validation and crop

modeling

-Transport costs

-Purchase of

additional (current)

climate data

PI and G. Karuku


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2011 2012


2.2 Modeling and comparing

the performance of the test

crops under different cropping

systems and organic inputs

- casuals pay

-Soil and plant

sampling and

analysis,

PI and G. Karuku

23 Participatory identification

and generation of anticipated

climate change scenarios for

predicting future crop

production

-Transport refund,

and daily

subsistence

allowance (DSA),

PI and G. Karuku

3. To assess trends in crop

type change in Yatta

District for the past 30

years..

3.1 Questionnaire design,

training of enumerators and

pretesting

- Questionnaire

preparation/printi

ng and

photocopying

costs

Payment of

enumerators

PI and V. Kathumo

3.2 Questionnaire

administration and data

collection

-Travel and

accommodation

-Payment of

enumerators

C. Onyango and Dr. V.

Kathumo

3.3 Data analysis -

4) To determine the

economic consequences

with respect to net returns

to land, labor, and

management for the

selected cropping systems

and organic inputs

Assessing the economic returns

arising from the various

cropping systems and organic

inputs

-Facilitation to visit

research sites and

interview farmers

-Stationery

C. Onyango and R.

Mulua

4.2 Determination of market

value of crop harvests

-Transport , and

stationery

R. Mulua/C.Onyango

4.3 Calculation of Gross returns

for each cropping system using

current market values and

measured yield data of target

crops.

-Transport and

stationery

R. Mulua/ C.Onyango

4.4 Providing farmers with

alternative management

decisions to consider (based on

economic analysis outcomes) in

-Workshops

-Field days, -

demonstrations

C. Onyango and R.

Mulua


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2011 2012


addition to agronomic practices

5)To hold training

workshops and regional

tours, develop training

materials and empower

households for self

experimentation

5.1 Processing of experiential

data to back up development of

policy guidelines on

agroecological intensification

of land use

- Statistician

/consultant

R.G. Wahome,

Research Team

5.2 Preparation of training

materials and syllabi for farmer

and stakeholder training in


- Purchase of

stationery

- printing expenses

and workshops

R.G. Wahome

Research Team

5.3 Empowering households

(through FFS) to analyze

opportunities, and experiment

with alternative interventions

such as; integrated production

and pest management

approaches in crop production.

- Purchase of farm

inputs

- payment of

casuals

-Demonstrations

and field days

R.G. Wahome

Mr. Kiarie

5.4 Training policy makers on


of land use through consultative

stakeholder workshops.

-Venue hire,

- Transport

reimbursement and

DSa

PI and R.G. Wahome

R.G. Wahome

5.5Holding workshops to

develop policy guidelines on


of land use

-Venue hire,

- Transport

reimbursement and

DSa

PI and R.G. Wahome

Research Team, Kiarie

5.6Arranging interregional

study tour of farmers within

East Africa

-Vehicle hire

- accommodation

-DSA

PI and R.G. Wahome

Kiarie, MoA staff

Project coordination and management for the entire duration

of the project

Coordination fee PI and Project team

University of Nairobi Grant Number 09-595

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1. Budget.

The budget is attached on the excel sheet

1. Appendices.

A. Appendix A – Research Report

Effects of cropping systems and organic inputs on soil nutrient status, soil moisture and yields of

cassava (Manihot esculanta crantz) and sorghum (sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) in Yatta

District, Eastern Kenya

i. Statement of the problem and systemic context.

Very low inherent fertility of the soils is one of the major causes of poor crop growth in the

tropics (Onwu et. al., 2008). The use of chemical fertilizers to sustain crop productivity on a

long-term basis has not been effective. It often leads to a decline in soil organic matter content,

soil acidification and soil physical degradation, which may in turn lead to increased soil erosion

(Onwu et. al., 2008). Farmers on the other hand are reluctant to invest in fertilizers because they

have limited access to cash and the returns may be uncertain in risky environments (Kherallah et

al., 2002; Mwanga, 2004) such as Yatta district. Yatta is a semi-arid district with unreliable

rainfall and hence low crop productivity.

Besides the low and/or declining soil fertility, the arid and semi arid lands (ASALs) continue to

experience food insecurity due to the marginalization and/or abandonment of most of the

traditional crops. Economic emphasis has been on the production of modern crops like maize and

beans of which require a lot of inputs for enhanced production at the expense of traditional crops

which are more resilient and adaptable to the prevailing conditions in the ASALs. This has been

accompanied by the stigmatization of traditional foods, their labeling as „food for the poor‟ and

characterization as inferior crops (Shava, 2000 and 2005; Asafo-Adjei, 2004).

Studies further indicate that Africa‟s agriculture is negatively affected by climate change (Pearce

et al., 1996; McCarthy et al., 2001) and this is more pronounced in the ASALs because of their

limited capacity to adapt to climate change (FAOSTAT 2010). Climate change has resulted in

reduced crop production in terms of yields as well as crop diseases or pest infestations which are

also weather-dependent, and tend to cause more damages especially in the developing countries

(ASALs) with lower technological levels. The low erratic and unreliable rainfall in the ASALs

has also resulted in low soil moisture levels (Biamah 2005).

Poverty as a result of low agricultural productivity is another major constraint of the ASAL

areas. Poverty reduction is closely related to agricultural performance particularly the rate of

growth of agricultural productivity. The vast majority of people in hunger and poverty live in

rural regions, relying heavily on agriculture, with their well-being closely tied to the natural

environment (World Bank World Development Report 2010).

This therefore calls for novel and sustainable approaches to improve soil and crop productivity

and subsequently promote food and nutritional security, and alleviate poverty.

ii. Review of relevant literature.

Approximately 82% of Kenya landmass is characterized as arid and semi-arid (Abbas, 2009).

About 20-25% of Kenya‟s approximately 40 million people live in arid and semi arid lands

http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/EXTWDRS/EXTWDR2010/0,,menuPK:5287748~pagePK:64167702~piPK:64167676~theSitePK:5287741,00.html


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(ASAL) with the majority (estimated at some 80%) in semiarid lands where rain-fed agriculture

is possible.

Smallholder farms average 2ha in size and are usually cultivated continuously without adequate

replenishment of soil nutrients (Mureithi et al., 2004; Okalebo et al., 2006). Diminishing soil

fertility, labour constraints, food insecurity and high poverty levels have necessitated alternative

interventions such as incorporating legume cover crops into the cropping systems (Gachene and

Makau, 2000). According to Sanchez and Palm (1996) soil fertility depletion in smallholder

farms is the fundamental biophysical cause of declining per capita food production in the region,

and its replenishment should be considered as an investment in natural resource capital (soil

nutrients).

Low soil fertility, particularly N and P deficiencies, is one of the major biophysical constraints

affecting agriculture in Sub- Saharan Africa (Smaling, 1993; Wang`ati and Kebaara, 1993;

Mokwunye et al., 1996). Increasing demographic pressure has led to the shortening of fallow

periods and continuous cultivation without crop rotation. This system results in a decline in soil

fertility and high disease inoculum in the soil (Otsyula, Nderitu, and Rachier, 1998). Further, it is

also proved that modern agriculture cannot be sustainable in the long run because of the adverse

changes being caused to the environment and the ecosystem (Kaiser, 2004). These implications

are also experienced by declining crop yields and instability in crop production (Ramesh Chand,

2008).

The necessity of having an alternative agriculture method which can function in friendly eco-

system while sustaining and increasing the crop productivity is realized now. Agroecological

intensification of land use is recognized as the best known alternative to the

modern/conventional agriculture. Due to the rising input costs involved in modern farming and

its un-sustainability due to overcapitalization has made agroecological intensification approaches

a necessity in many agriculturally grown regions (Singh, 2009). Modern agroecological

intensification techniques have the potential to stabilize and even increase sustainable farm

yields with increasing soil fertility, environmental sustainability and preserving biodiversity of

the ecosystem. It will also increase the nutritional value of the produce and reduce pesticide

residues. Evidence of increased agricultural productivity due to capacity building in

agroecological approaches in East Africa has been demonstrated in eastern and central Kenya

where, smallholder farmers were trained on natural soil fertility management; pest and disease

control; on-farm soil and water conservation techniques; and farm level seed conservation.

Application of the knowledge gained translated into 50% increase in agricultural productivity

and 40% increase in income. Elsewhere, more than 1000 farmers in low soil fertility areas in the

North Rift and western regions of Kenya increased maize yields to 3,414 kg/ha (71% increase in

productivity) and bean yields to 258 kg/ha (158% increase in productivity) as compared to

traditional agriculture, by incorporating soil fertility management, crop diversification and

improved crop management (Lim Li Ching, 2009)4.

The main constraints to the development of agriculture in the arid and semi-arid lands (ASALs)

of Kenya are low and erratic rainfall, high pan evaporation and crop evapotranspiration, poor

soils, pests and diseases and use of unsuitable technologies by smallholders (Republic of Kenya,

4 Briefing Paper. The Oakland Institute. February 2009


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1993). Nevertheless traditional approaches for soil fertility management range from recurring

fertilizer applications to low external input agriculture based on organic sources of nutrients

(Sanchez et al., 1997, Bashir et al., 1997).

The exclusive use of organic inputs as external nutrient sources has been advocated as a logical

alternative to expensive fertilizers in Africa. Organic fertilizers have one major advantage in that

they contain all essential nutrients plus carbon, the source of energy for soil biota that regulates

nutrient cycling (Sanchez et al.,1997 ) and increases soil organic matter content. Soil organic

matter is of great significance in the functions of soil as it mediates many of the physical and

biological processes controlling the capacity of a soil to perform successfully. Cultivated soils

have shown considerable reduction in soil organic matter compared to uncultivated soils (Rakshit

A. and Sen D., 2008).

The application of organic materials such as compost, animal manures, crop residues and

municipal wastes to soil provides potential benefits including improving the fertility, structure,

water holding capacity of soil, increasing soil organic matter and reducing the amount of

synthetic fertilizer needed for crop production (Phan et al; 2002; Blay et al., 2002). Its chemical

function is manifested by its ability to interact with metals, metal oxides, hydroxides and clay

mineral to form metal organic complexes and act as ion exchange and store house of N, P and S.

Soil organic matter has a biological function in that it provides carbon as energy source to N-

fixing bacteria, enhances plant growth root initiation facilitating nutrient uptake, improving

chlorophyll synthesis and seed germination (Allen & Allen, 1981).

To enhance agricultural productivity in the ASALs therefore calls for agroecological

intensification of land use alongside reintroduction of the abandoned/neglected traditional crops.

Studies undertaken to date seem to indicate that agroecological intensification offers a

comparative advantage in areas with less rainfall and relatively low natural soil fertility levels.

Soil and climate conditions in Kenya's drylands make them particularly well suited to

agroecological intensification. These marginal lands, with their marginal soils, tend not to

respond well to intensive farming practices. Addition of organic matter, a cornerstone of

agroecological intensification practices, will not only improve the physical condition of these

dryland soils but also greatly improve their ability to supply balanced plant nutrients (Rufino, et

al., 2006).

Growing of neglected crops which are also drought tolerant such as cassava, sorghum, pigeon

peas (Cajanus cajan {L.} and dolichos, with application of organic inputs, in these areas is of

great importance. Cassava is a hardy crop that can adapt to micro-variations in relief, soils,

different cropping systems, infertile soils, little inputs and labour, and a long harvesting period

(Gobeze et al., 2005).

Thus, it is planted as a famine relief insurance crop and an emergency food reserve in the semi-

arid areas. Cassava has relatively high productivity on marginal soils, flexible harvest dates and

its consumed where drought, poverty, and malnutrition are often prevalent (Dixon A.G.O. et al.,

2005). However, a sole crop of cassava, which is considered a long-season crop, does not

efficiently use the available resources (land, light, water and nutrients) during its early growth

stages due to its slow initial development. A short-duration second crop may be inter-planted to

make more efficient use of these growth factors.


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Among the cereal crops, sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is very popular in semi-arid zones

particularly more in drought-prone regions of the world (Wenzel and Van Rooyen, 2001) due to

its short duration, fast growing nature, high productivity and wider adaptability to varied agro-

climatic conditions. Sorghum is ranked third among cereals grown in Kenya. It is grown

principally in the often drought-prone marginal agricultural areas of Eastern, Nyanza and Coast

Provinces. Consumption of sorghum is similarly localized to these growing areas (Government

of Kenya, 2002). Sorghum is tolerant to drought and nutrient-deficient soils. It also stays greener

than other crops when water-stressed, and therefore continues to photosynthesize during

droughts hence the crop of choice to fight nutritional and food insecurity in Africa (Jones et al.,

2001). Since the introduction of maize, sorghum is less widely grown. However, it still is an

important crop for semi-arid regions due to its ability to tolerate drought. Sorghum can grow

with as little rainfall as 250 mm, but does best where 800-1,200 mm is received annually.

Legumes can play a major role in improving farm productivity in smallholder agriculture as

short-term fallow species (Hudgens, 2000). They can increase plant nutrient supply in the soil

(especially N) and improve soil physical characteristics, thereby improving crop yields (Peoples

and Craswell, 1992; Muller-Samann and Kotschi, 1994). This thus provides an alternative to the

commercial nitrogen from inorganic fertilizers which is often not easily available or only at high

price (Peoples, 2004). Legumes have proven to be an effective means of sustaining soil fertility

(Cheer et al., 2006). They are cheap and can be used to complement animal manures. Legume

cover crops (LCC) when incorporated into the soil, improve soil organic matter and moisture

retention, soil workability, retard erosion and suppress weeds (Khisa et al., 2002). In addition,

grain legumes are important as human food source and are rich in protein, while herbaceous and

tree legumes are important livestock feeds. Farmers in Kenya have for long recognized the role

of intercropping not only as an insurance against crop failure, but also as a convenient strategy

for meeting dietary needs. They have adopted intercropping into traditional farming systems

(Gachene et al., 2000). Legume crops have been considered suitable for use in intercropping

systems with other crops because they can improve soil fertility through their root nitrogen

fixation and crop residues (Wanjekeche et al., 2000).

Though largely considered an orphan crop, pigeon pea has a huge untapped potential for

improvement both in quantity and quality of production in Africa. More than any other legume

adapted to the region, pigeon pea uniquely combines optimal nutritional profiles, high tolerance

to environmental stresses, high biomass productivity and most nutrient and moisture

contributions to the soil. It has a large temporal variation (90 – 300 days) for maturity. These

traits allow its cultivation in a range of environments and cropping systems. Pigeon pea is a deep

rooting crop and improves soil fertility through biological nitrogen fixation. Falling litter and

decomposing roots contribute to soil fertility. The production of pigeon pea is also important for

food security and risk spreading; when cassava or sorgum harvest fails, there is still a yield from

the pigeon pea. Rotation farming and intercropping are common practices by small-scale farmers

in Africa (Sakala et al., 2000) and pigeon pea has been reported to be best suited for both. Other

than transferring fixed N to the inter-planted crop, pigeon pea has the ability to bring minerals

from deeper soil horizons to the surface also improving soil air circulation (Kumar Rao et al.,

1983) to the benefit of the accompanying crop. Pigeon pea‟s initial slow growth reduces

competition for light, water and soil nutrients when intercropped (Dalal, 1974) thereby


14

minimizing any negative impact on the main crop. Under rotation farming, the residual effect of

N fixed by pigeon pea on a following cereal crop can be as much as 40Kg N/ha (Nene, 1987).

Dolichos (lablab or Lablab purpureus) seed contains an average of 17% protein with in vitro

protein digestibility of 80% (Murphy and Colucci, 1999).These nutritional characteristics

coupled with the environmental benefits make dolichos bean a suitable food and fodder crop for

the tropics. Recent compilations of information promoting the „conservation and use of

underutilized and neglected crops‟ (e.g., the series by IPGRI of the same name; Hammer et al.

2001)5, however, have usually excluded lablab because the species has attracted certain attention

in the science literature, often far more than other neglected crops (J. Heller, pers. comm. 2003).

Despite its representation in the literature, however, it can be argued that lablab truly qualifies as

„underutilized‟ given its many attributes, potential uses and adaptation.

Animal manures, conversely, are perhaps the most widely used organic inputs on smallholder

farms in East Africa. Most work on animal manures has focused on cattle, which are the most

important livestock in most farming systems in terms of abundance and amounts of nutrients

transferred (Rufino et al., 2006). Recent research effort is thus focused on ways of increasing the

quantities and quality of manures that are produced on smallholder farms under the various

livestock management systems. Specifically, emphasis is on designing storage technologies that

reduce losses after manure excretion (Lekasi et al., 2001). Soil organic matter is of great

significance in the functions of soil as it mediates many of the physical and biological processes

controlling the capacity of a soil to perform successfully. Cultivated soils have shown

considerable reduction in soil organic matter compared to uncultivated soils (Rakshit and Sen,

2008). The application of organic materials such as compost, animal manures, crop residues and

municipal wastes to soil provides potential benefits including improving the fertility, structure,

water holding capacity of soil, increasing soil organic matter and reducing the amount of

synthetic fertilizer needed for crop production (Phan et al; 2002; Blay et al., 2002).

iii. Research design and method.

Site Description: The experiment was conducted in Yatta District of Eastern province, Kenya

(Figure 1). Yatta district falls under agro-climatic zones IV and V which is classified as semi-

arid to arid lands respectively (Jaetzold and Schmidt, 2006). The soils of Yatta district are a

combination of Ferralo-Chromic/Orthic/Ferric Acrisols and Luvisols with Ferralsols dominating.

These soils are well drained, moderately deep to very deep, dark reddish brown to dark yellowish

brown, friable to firm, sandy clay to clay (Kibunja et al. 2010)6. The District has a semi-arid

climate with mean annual temperature varying from 17ºC to 24ºC and experiences bimodal long

rains from end of March to April/May (about 400 mm) and short rains from end of October to

December (500 mm). The majority of the farmers in the district are small-scale mixed farmers

with low income investment for agricultural production.

5 Hammer K, Heller J, Engels J. Monographs on underutilized and neglected crops. Genet Resour Crop Evol.

2001;48:3–5. doi: 10.1023/A:1011253924058 6

Study area

Yatta district

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2933844/#CR30


15

Figure 1: Map showing location of the study sites

Experimental Design and treatments: The experiment was laid out in a randomized complete

block design with a split plot arrangement and replicated three times. The main plots (10 x 10 m)

were the cropping systems; Monocropping (Cassava and Sorghum), intercropping

(Sorghum/Dolichos (Lablab purpureus), sorghum/pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan (L.) Millspaugh),

cassava/dolichos, cassava/pigeon pea)) and crop rotation; (dolichos - sorghum-, pigeonpea -

sorghum, dolichos – cassava-, pigeonpea-cassava) with the split plots (5 x 5m) being the organic

inputs (FYM and Compost). Agronomic practices: Land preparation was done using oxen-

plough. Planting was done manually by direct placement of the seeds/cuttings into the soil. One

cassava cutting was placed with budding parts facing upwards per hill at a depth of between 10

and 15 cm. Two seeds of dolichos and pigeon pea were planted per hill at a depth of about 5 cm.

For sorghum, 3 to 4 seeds were planted at a depth of about 5cm and were later thinned to two

plants per hill. Spacing for sole cassava was 1m by 1m, 0.75 by 0.25m for sorghum, 0.75 by 0.3

m for dolichos and 0.75 x 0.50 m for pigeon pea. All the crops for intercrop were sown in rows

between cassavas and sorghum at the same inter-plant spacing as in pure stands. Weeds were

regularly controlled manually using a hand hoe.

During the second planting season hand hoe was used to prepare land to avoid mix up of organic

inputs from one plot to another. At harvest the aboveground biomass of the crops were chopped

into small pieces and incorporated in the same plots where they were harvested from.

Soil, plant sampling and analysis: Soil for initial soil characterization was randomly sampled at

0-15 cm depth from different points of the experimental plots. The soil was then mixed

thoroughly to make a composite sample, packed in polythene bags and transported to the

laboratory for the analysis of chemical and physical properties. At crop maturity, soil was

sampled at the 0-15 cm depth in a zigzag manner from different locations of each plot. The soil

from each plot was mixed to make one composite sample and packed in polythene bags. The

soils were then transported to the laboratory where they were air dried, ground and passed

through 2mm sieve before determination of soil pH, organic Carbon, total Nitrogen, Phosphorus,

Project Area

Yatta District

Project Area

Yatta District


16

and potassium and gravimetric soil moisture content according to methods described by Okalebo

et al., (2002).

Measurement of grain and tuber yields: A net plot area of 6 m2 (2m x 3m) was selected at the

centre of each subplot and used to determine the total grain and biomass yield. Total grain and

biomass yield was determined using a weighing balance scale. The yields obtained from each

plot were converted to t/ha. For Cassava, tuber harvesting was done piecemeal at 12 months (and

thereafter 15 and 18months) after planting, and data were collected on fresh total tuber yields and

dry matter content. Dry matter was determined by drying 250 g root pieces at 104°C until final

weight was reached. Tuber yield was determined by weighing the tubers using a weighing

balance similar to the one used for sorghum, pigeon pea and Dolichos grains.

2.4 Statistical Analysis: Data was subjected to the general analysis of variance, using Genstat statistical software (Payne et al., 2006). Fisher’s protected least significant difference (LSD) test was used to identify significant differences among treatment means (P<0.05)

iv. Findings.

Effect of organic inputs and cropping systems on grain and Tuber yields: The yields of the

legume crops were higher in the rotation system than in the intercrop system (Table 1) and

higher in the second season than the first season for the intercropping system. The low legume

yields in the intercropping system were due to competition of resources and the crop architecture

of the companion crop. The yields of legumes were however higher compared with farmers‟

yields (Kinyua et al., 2008)7.

In all cropping systems the crop yields, though not significantly different, were higher with

application of FYM compared with the application of Compost (Table 1). This may be due to its

relatively higher nutrient concentration and hence increased the soil‟s capacity to hold those

nutrients upon release. This is in addition to improving the soil physical properties such as the

water holding capacity and infiltration rates (Brady and Weil, 1996)8.

7 Kinyua, M.G., D. Orwa., E. Kimani. and G. Kamotho. (2008). Survey of Dolichos Bean (Lablab purpureus)

Production Systems, Utilization, Marketing and the Collection and Characterization of Germplasm in Kenya.

Proceedings of the International Dolichos meeting, Arusha, Tanzania, 8th March 2008.

8 Brady C.C. and Weil R.R. (1996). The nature and properties of soils. Prentice-Hall Inc., USA


17

Table 1: Effect of cropping systems and organic inputs on crop yields for season I and II

Crop Yields - Season I (October 2010-March 2011) Season II (March 2011-Oct2011)

Organic inputs

Organic inputs

Cropping System Crop FYM Compost Cropping System Crop FYM Compost

Grain/

Tuber DM Grain DM

Grain/

tuber DM

Grain/

Tuber DM

Monocropping Sorghum 0.74 2.124 0.78 2.176 Monocropping Sorghum 0.78 2.83 0.84 3.24

Cassava - - - -

Cassava 6.20 - 5.90 -

Intercropping

Intercropping

Sorghum/Dolichos Sorghum 0.72 2.86 0.79 2.765

Sorghum 0.79 3.08 0.86 2.88

Dolichos 0.65 5.08 0.72 4.97 Dolichos 0.8 5.63 0.85 5.10

Sorhum/pigeon peas Sorghum 0.69 2.19 0.64 3.12

Sorghum 0.73 2.18 0.77 2.78

Pigeon peas 0.59 1.746 0.593 1.390

Pegion peas 0.77 2.12 0.80 2.24

Cassava/Dolichos Dolichos 0.67 4.82 0.78 4.51

Dolichos 0.90 5.7 0.89 5.12

Cassava - - -

Cassava 5.78 - 5.85 -

Cassava/pigeon peas Pigeon peas 0.65 1.86 0.59 1.89

Pigeon peas 0.63 1.32 0.59 1.417

Cassava

Cassava 5. 86 6.18

Crop Rotation

Dolichos-Sorghum Dolichos 0.9 4.82 0.73 5.00 Crop Rotation Sorghum 0.9 2.88 0.95 2.96

Pigeon peas-Sorghum Pigeon peas 0.640 0.593

Sorghum 0.81 2.67 0.86 3.1446

Cassava-Dolichos Dolichos 0.80 4.98 0.83 4.92

Cassava 6.70 - 6.68 -

Cassava-pigeon peas Pigeon peas 0.612 1.86 0.582 1.78

Cassava 6.80 - 6.55 -


18

The yields of cassava, sorghum and legume component in the cropping system were significantly

higher in the second season than first season (Table 1). This could be attributed to availability of

nutrients arising from the application of organic inputs, that release nutrients slowly and over a

long period of time, and residue incorporation after crop harvest. In addition application of

organic inputs improves soil structure and hence moisture retention. Organic matter has a

physical function that promotes good soil structure, thereby improving tilth, aeration and

moisture movement and retention (Prochazkova et al., 2003 and Ingle et al., 2004), soil fertility,

crop productivity, control wind and water erosion, nutrients losses ( Bukert et al., 2000).

Inadequate soil moisture is the most limiting constraint to land productivity in the semi-arid

lands of Kenya (Itabari et al., 2004)9.

Conversely, the sorghum grain yield and cassava tuber yields were significantly higher in the

monocrop and crop rotation cropping systems than the intercrop system (Table 2). Cropping

systems involving dolichos, in both seasons registered higher yields compared with those

involving pigeon pea and the higher yields were pronounced under the crop rotation system than

in the intercropping system. This observation may be explained in terms of the better N fixing

ability of Dolichos compared to pigeon pea and hence the observed yield response. Similarly,

many researchers have reported that N is a key factor in the response of cereals following

legumes compared with cereals following non-legumes (Evans et al., 1991; Chalk et al., 1993;

Smiley et al., 1994).

The yields of sorghum and cassava in the intercropping system were lower compared to the crop

rotation and the monocropping system. This is attributable to competition of resources and crop

architecture. The tall pigeon pea plants, for instance, may have shaded the companion sorghum

crop thus reduced growth and protosynthesis resulting in reduction in yield of the companion

legume. This finding is in agreement with that of Egbe et al., 2010 who observed yield decrease

of sorghum in sorghum/pigeon pea intercrops. On the other hand, when cassava is intercropped

with legumes the cassava root yield generally decreases compared to when cassava is planted

alone. This is due to the competition of the component crops for light, water and nutrients.

However, cassava-legume intercropping systems usually increase the land use efficiency and

economic return over solely cassava (Polthanee et al. 2010)10

.

Despite the fact that the intercropping system appeared to perform dismally, the system was still

advantageous and preferable to the farmers. This is in view of the fact that two crops could be

harvested from the same unit area. Furthermore, calculation of the land equivalent ration (LER)

were consistently > 1 for both organic inputs and cropping seasons implying that intercropping

was more effective. The pigeon peas and Dolichos therefore provide compatible and profitable

options for intercropping with sorghum and cassava because of their higher grain yield

9 Itabari, J.K., Nguluu, S.N., Gichangi, E.M., Karuku, A.M., Njiru, E.N., Wambua, J.M., Maina, J.N. and Gachimbi,

L.N. (2004). Managing Land and Water Resources for Sustainable Crop Production in Dry Areas. A case study of

small-scale farms in semi-arid areas of Eastern, Central, and Rift Valley Provinces of Kenya. In: Crissman, L. (eds.)

Agricultural Research and Development for Sustainable Resource Management and Food Security in Kenya. In:

Proceedings of End of Programme Conference, KARI, 11-12 November 2003. pp. 31-42.

10

A Polthanee, S Wanapat, M Wanapat and C Wachirapokorn, 2010. Cassava-Legumes inter-cropping: A potential

food-feed system for dairy farmers. http://www.mekarn.org/procKK/polt.htm


19

contribution to the overall yield. Cassava, a long season wide spaced crop is slow in its initial

growth and development and therefore, intercropping a short duration crop may increase the

biological efficiency as a whole.

Effect of organic inputs and cropping systems on soil nutrient status and soil moisture

content: The nutrient, N, P, K and organ C showed mixed trends across the organic inputs,

cropping systems and seasons (Figures 2, 3, 4 and 5). The nutrients were significantly higher in

the crop rotation system, followed by intercropping and monocropping respectively. Though

there were no significant differences in nutrient levels across the organic inputs, slightly higher

levels of nutrients were realized with application of FYM and may perhaps be due to increased

microbial decomposition of the latter compared to compost and hence higher nutrient release.

The N, P and K levels were higher in cropping system involving dolichos than pigeon peas. The

higher nutrient levels in the crop rotation system are attributable to nitrogen fixation by the

legume component of the cropping system and nutrient release by the organic inputs. For the

intercropping system, competition among the crops for nutrients may have contributed to the low

nutrient levels measured. When compared across the main crops and associated crops in the

cropping system (intercropping and crop rotation), the nutrient levels (N, P and K) were higher

in the sorghum plots than the cassava plots and higher with integration of dolichos than pigeon

peas. The low levels of nutrient observed in the cassava plots are due to the fact that cassava

exports most of the nutrients through aboveground biomass and tubers. According to Pypers, et

al (2011)11

, cassava is often considered as a crop with low nutrient demands that can be grown in

poor or degraded soils but exports high amounts of nutrients, particularly N (up to 70 kg N ha-1

,

mostly through aboveground biomass) and K (up to 160 kg K ha-1

, mainly through the tubers).

The nutrient levels were significantly higher in the second season than the first season across all

cropping system and organic inputs. This scenario can be attributed to the nutrient release by the

organic inputs and the residue incorporation following the harvest of the first season crops and

hence continued albeit gradual nutrient release upon decomposition. The nutrient levels, in the

second season were particularly high in the cropping system involving legumes and higher with

dolichos compared to pigeon peas (Table Figure 2, 3, 4 and 5). The high nutrient levels with

dolichos integration are attributable to the high dolichos biomass produced, with high nutrient

concentration, compared to pigeon pea and hence more nutrient release upon decomposition of

the residue.

The soil moisture levels (Figure 2 and 3) were significantly higher in the intercropping system

than in crop rotation and monocropping across organic inputs and cropping systems. For all

cropping systems and organic inputs, the soil moisture content was higher in cropping systems

that involved dolichos (Table 2 and 3). This could be attributed to the greater canopy created by

the dolichos and thus less evaporation losses experienced in the plots due to the higher ground

cover.

11

Pypers P, Sanginga J-M, Kasereka B, Walangululu M, Vanlauwe B(2011). Increased productivity through

integrated soil fertility management in cassava-legume intercropping systems in the highlands of Sud-Kivu, DR

Congo. Field Crops Res., 120: 76-85.


20

Figure 2: Effects of cropping systems and organic inputs on total N, C and soil moisture for season I

Figure 3: Effects of cropping systems and organic inputs on total N, C and soil moisture for Season II


21

Figure 4: Effects of cropping systems and organic inputs on phosphorus and potassium levels for season I

Figure 5: Effects of cropping systems and organic inputs on phosphorus and potassium levels for season II


22

v. Implications of the research findings.

In spite of the fact that during the field trial period, below average rainfall were experienced

immediately after planting the crops in both seasons; pigeon pea, dolichos and sorghum grew to

maturity and some harvest was realized. Cassava also performed well with integration of

legumes and addition of organic inputs. The farmers visiting the experimental sites further

appreciated the essence of crop diversification in space and time. The soil nutrient status and soil

moisture were equally improved and contributed towards enhanced crop yields.

The findings of the current trials confirm the hypothesis that agroecological intensification can

improve crop productivity in the study area and by extension the ASALs of Kenya. The

agronomic and economic performance of the system will be compared in the third season,

alongside the farmers‟ perceptions of the same, with view of generating recommendations on the

best bet practice. The data collected will also be synthesized and used to formulate policy

guidelines for discussion with policy makers.

At the end of the project, and besides the promising change (as appreciated during the mid-term

review) in terms of the farmers attitudes towards the reintroduction of the abandoned crops, its

envisioned that the household food security and farmer incomes will be increased with wide

adoption of the agroecological intensification techniques that are being promoted.


23

B. Appendix B - Publications Summary.

Onwonga R.N, Kipkok B.K, Kyazz, F.B, Bareeba, F., Kabi. F., Wahome, R., Liavoga. A.B.,

2010. Abandoned crops of nutritional and ecological significance: a case study of Yatta district,

Kenya: Paper presented at the University of Nairobi, Faculty of Agriculture biannual conference

and under preparation for submission to a reputable journal.

A. Appendix C - Training and Outreach Summary.

1. Capacity building

- Two students were recruited to work on the following (tentative titles) and set of objective:

a) Influence of cropping systems and organic inputs on yield of cassava (Manihot esculanta

crantz) and sorghum (sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench) in semi-arid, Eastern Kenya

• To evaluate appropriate cropping system for enhanced soil fertility and yields of the

selected neglected crops,

• To assess the effect of organic inputs on soil fertility and crop productivity,

• To determine the economic consequences of the selected cropping systems and

application of organic inputs

b) Climate change effects on growth and yield of sorghum and cassava in Yatta district, Kenya

To assess trends in crop type change in Yatta District for the past 30 years.

To determine farmer‟s perception, coping and mitigation strategies on climate change.

To model the growth and yield of sorghum and cassava under different cropping systems

and organic inputs using APSIM.

2. Workshop for farmers

Midterm-review workshop - The workshop was jointly held with the participating farmers and

the research team. The workshop provided an opportunity for the participating farmers and the

research team to take stock of the project implementation progress.

Appendix D - Photographs and Graphs.

Visit by the McKnight regional representative - Dr. Linnet Gahole to project sites at Katangi and Ikombe

Divisons of Yatta District on March 17-18, 2011


24

Sorghum intercropped with Dolichos and pure stand of Dolichos in the third season

Pure stand of cassava (from the previous season) and pigeon for for the third season

B. Appendix E - Confidential Materials.

The information here below is NOT confidential but is important that it be shared under this

section. In spite of slow start, the project has picked on well with some of the objectives having

been realized. Additionally;

1. The project got a big blow following the sudden dead of one of the students who had

actually collected most of the data for his thesis write up. We are consulting as a project

team and with your permission we will consider recruiting another student from the pool

of ongoing self sponsored students to continue with the late student‟s work.

2. The current project has immensely benefited from and been significantly redefined

through the various initiatives such as the CoP meetings, technical support offered through

different forums/workshops and the personal support of the regional team.

3. In view of the delays in starting field experimentation and the fact that our Ugandan

counterparts are slightly behind schedule and some of the core activities require that;

a. the projects learn and benefit from each other by way of farmer exchange tours

b. data generated be analyzed and be used in training policy makers and developing

policy guidelines on agroecological intensification of land use

c. Moneys available is already committed for the said activities

4. Against the backdrop of the foregoing, approval of a maximum of one year non-cost

extension of the project for the completion and fully realization of the project objectives

will be of essence.

Work plan 2010-2012 Objective 1: To enhance consultation and develop partnerships and networks among researchers, extension agents, producers, private sector and policy makers Activity Instruments/

Tools Results/ Outputs

Outcomes Milestone Sources and means of verification

Inputs/Budget Responsible person

Familiarization tour of Kamuli district

Meeting with

stakeholders in Kamuli district

Creation of a

Website

Phone numbers

E-mail

addresses

Addresses of collaborators and stakeholders

Activities

assigned to stakeholders

Collaboration/partnerships with stakeholders

By the end of April 2010

Signed MoU Minutes Invitation

letters Attendance lists

See attached detailed budget

Mr. C. Namuwoza NOGAMU

Objective 2: To explore and develop appropriate agro-ecological approaches that will contribute towards increased agricultural productivity, environmental conservation, securing food security and empowering the disadvantaged rural communities Activity Instruments/




Contact farmers’ leaders

Reconnaissance

tour of farming households

Meetings with

farmers (PRA)

Check list for PRA

Focus group

discussions Semi-

structured Questionnaire

Indigenous technical knowledge documentation – Book

Video and

tape recordings

Photographs

AI interventions for guiding field experiments

By the end of Nov. 2010

PRA Report Video and tape

recordings Check list Questionnaires Attendance lists


Prof. Bareeba - MAK

Objective 3: To explore and document under researched/abandoned crops of ecological and nutritional significance Activity Instruments/




To be achieved concurrently with

By the end of Nov.2010

List of identified under

Under the same

Prof. Bareeba -

Objective 2.

researched/orphaned crops

Photographs

(Album of identified crops)

budget for Objective 2

MAK

Objective 4: To assess the economic and ecological returns from using agro-ecological based techniques vis-à-vis simplified conventional agriculture systems Activity Instruments/




Recruitment of students and Defending of MSc. Proposals by students

Seed

multiplication Establish field

experiments Establish

demonstration plots

Socio-Economic

analysis

On-farm trial sites

NUTMON

toolbox Models

(APSIM) Questionnaire Computer

Questionnaires

Data AI

management practices for adoption identified

Food and nutrition security

Household incomes

enhanced

By the end of October 2012

Field trials Data Journal papers MSc. Theses


Prof. Bareeba - MAK

Objective 5: To prepare and disseminate agro-ecological intensification techniques to rural communities, researchers and policy makers in an integrated, participatory and holistic manner

Activity Instruments/ Tools

Results/ Outputs



Prepare training materials

Train farmers in

Workshop Media

Policy briefs

Training

Improved production practices

Regional collaboration

By the end of November 2012

Tour photographs

Training


Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and

AI thematic areas Media

involvement Prepare policy

briefs Test out adoption

of AI techniques in a farmers’ competition

Interregional tour

(East Africa)

Tours Conferences

materials Tour Sharing of

experiences Farmer

motivation

strengthened Briefs included in the

main agricultural policies

manuals Attendance lists Minutes

Fisheries (MAAIF)

APPENDIX During 2010, I failed to recruit students. The project managed to recruit 2 students in 2011 and these students have done their course work and have embarked on their research. I am therefore requesting extension for one year with the existing funds so that students can complete their projects and get their degrees.

BRIEF DESCRPTION OF STUDENTS PROJECTS

1. EFFECT OF PLANT DENSITY AND ORGANIC FERTILIZATION ON

GROWTH AND FRUIT YIELD OF CAPE GOOSEBERRIES (Physalis peruviana) UNDER SEMI-ARID CONDITIONS OF UGANDA.

By ABIGABA MICHEAL (MSc. CROP SCIENCE)

Among the under researched crops, cape gooseberries are increasingly becoming important in Uganda. The production levels of cape gooseberries(Physalis peruviana) is very low and limited to a few farmers countrywide despite increasing demand for the fresh fruit and processed products of this delicious fruit. The limited levels of production are in part attributed to the lack of appropriate information on the agronomic practices and therefore the few farmers grow them haphazardly. The local farmers in Kamuli district, Uganda, know the crop and the local residents enjoyed the fruits that grow as volunteer crops in the wild or gardens. Because of the high population in the district, there is high unemployment among the youth and they are finding ways of earning a living. Hence the interest in growing cape gooseberries for sale. However they have little knowledge the crop and need appropriate techniques (e.g. spacing, fertilization, planting model etc.). The study aims to identify appropriate agro-ecological intensification techniques for Cape gooseberry cultivation. It involves:

Study on the effects of different spacing and manure on plant recovery 20 days after planting (DAP).

Study on the effects of different spacing and manure on vegetable growth (trunk diameter, plant height, and number of branches per plant) at 45 DAP (before pruning) and 75 DAP

Study on the effects of different spacing and manure on days until 50% flowering per subplot 1 after planting.

Study on the effects of different spacing and manure on fruit yield (number of fruits per plant and per hectare, and 100-dry-fruit weight) per season.

Summary of field activities/workplan

No. Activities 2010 2012

aug sep oct nov dec jan feb mar apr may jun july Aug‐Dec

1 land preparation and plot design x x

2 Seeding and nursing x x x

3 Transplanting x x

4 Fertilization x x

5 Weeding

6 Flowering x x

7 Fruiting x x x x x

8 Harvesting fruits once a week x x x x x x

Course work x x x x x

Data analysis and thesis writing

xxxx

Please see some photos in appendix on on-going work.

2. FACTORS INFLUENCING FARMER INNOVATIVE CAPACITY TO ENGAGE IN THE PRODUCTION AND UTILISATION OF GRAIN AMARANTH IN KAMULI DISTRICT

By STELLA NAMAZZI (MSc. in Agricultural and Applied Economics)

In Uganda, currently grain amaranth production and consumption is still limited to a few areas

around Lake Victoria basin in districts of Nakasongola, Iganga, Bududa and Kamuli and within

these areas the farmers are engaged in production as well as processing and marketing. Through

its Food and Nutrition Programme, VEDCO is promoting the production and consumption of

grain amaranth to curb the nutritional food security among most households in Kamuli District.

Some households have taken up the initiative. However, the production and consumption of

grain amaranth is still very low among farming households in Kamuli district. Given the

nutritional importance of the crop, there is need to provide empirical evidence that describe the

incentives and innovativeness that drive farmers to cultivate and utilize the amaranth and other to

not. Currently, this kind of information is scanty. The main objective of the study is to

determine the factors that influence farmer innovative capacity to engage in the production of

grain amaranth in Kamuli District.

Specific objectives of the study are;

1. To characterize the farmer categories that produce and utilize grain amaranth.

2. To identify the different resources that are used in the production of grain amaranth.

3. To describe farmer innovations in the production and utilization of grain amaranth.

4. To determine the relationship between the farmer innovations and farmer’s characteristics

in the production and utilization of grain amaranth.

Therefore this study which focuses on drivers of farmer’s innovativeness in grain amaranth

industry will provide important information on farmers’ innovation and innovativeness by

identifying and documenting farmers’ innovations that exist in grain amaranth industry in

Kamuli district.

A survey will be conducted to collect data on the characteristics of farmers involved in

production and utilization of grain amaranth, resources that are used in grain amaranth

production, innovations which exist in production and utilization of grain amaranth and

factors which influence the innovativeness of farmers in grain amaranth industry. Secondary

data from journals and text books will be used to supplement on primary data collected.

The study will also shade light on factors which determine innovativeness and therefore this

information can be incorporated in extension programmes to enhance sustainable agricultural

development.

Lastly the study will provide information to policy makers, planners, administrators,

extension organisations and development institutions to review their strategies in view of

farmers’ innovations.

Three sub-counties of Nawanyago, Namasagali, Butansi are purposively selected because

they were located in different agro-ecological zones and from each sub county a total of 60

farmers will be randomly selected to make a total sample size of 180 farmers

Descriptive statistics will be used to achieve objective one, two and three. In order to

determine whether there is a relationship between farmer characteristics and farmer

innovations in production and utilization of grain amaranth a binary logit model will be used.

Summary of field activities/workplan

No. Activities 2010 2012

aug sep oct nov dec jan feb mar apr may jun july Aug‐Dec

1 Questionnaire design and pretesting x x

2 Field surveys x x x

3 Focus group discussions x

4 Stake holder workshop x

5 More data collection x x

6 Course work x x x x

8 Data analysis and thesis writing x x x x

AGRO-ECOLOGICAL INTENSIFICATION TRIAL ON CAPE GOOSEBERRIES

PROGRESS REPORT

BY

ABIGABA MICHEAL

(STUDENT MSc. CROP SCINCE)

16/02/2012

1.0 Project objectives

1.1 Major objective:

To enhance the productivity of cape gooseberries in Uganda

through appropriate agronomic practices.

1.2 Specific objectives

To determine the effect of different spacing patterns on

growth and fruit yield of cape gooseberries under semi-arid conditions.

To determine the effect of organic fertilizers on growth and

fruit yield of cape gooseberries under semi-arid conditions.

To determine the differential response of bare root and

potted Cape gooseberry seedlings to farmyard manure and different spacing patterns.

2.0 Accomplishments

2.1 Nursery establishment

A well prepared nursery was made to raise seedlings during the month of September and healthy

seedlings were removed for field establishment. for some seedlings were left un potted while

some were potted.

Raising seedlings in screen house Raising seedlings in farmers’ fields

2.2 soil and manure sampling

Soil samples were picked from the different experimental sites and are yet to be analyzed.

Samples of manure were also kept for analysis of the nutrient composition.

2.3 Field establishment

The area for setting up the experiment was first sprayed using herbicides to kill perennial weeds

and later ploughed twice.

Three experimental sites have been established. Land clearing, ploughing and planting of

established seedlings has been done. The seedlings were transplanted with an average height of

20-25 cm and 5 mature/ broad leaves. The plants established well and are currently one month

old.

Hardening seedlings before transplanting Hardened seedlings ready for transplanting

Setting the field weighing manure prior to application

2.4 Data collection

Data has been collected on growth parameters such as plant height, canopy width, number of

flowers, number of leaves, and number of branches.

3.0 Summaries of treatments and design

Design: Completely Randomized Design (CRD)

Treatments

a) Spacing at 3 levels, 1mx1m; 1mx1.5m; 1mx2m.

b) Farmyard manure at 4 levels, 1kg; 2kg; 3kg; 4kg.

c) No manure at 3 spacing levels above.

3.0 Activities to be done

Data collection in progress

Analysis of soil and manure samples.

Regular weeding and clearing around the experiment.

Design plot labels and a poster.

Fine tune my proposal.

Another field trial next season

4.0 Sample data sheet used for growth parameters

T represents treatment (T1=1kg manure, T2=2kg manure, T3=3kg manure and T4=4kg manure

S represents spacing (S1= 1mx1m, S2= 1mx1.5m, S3 =1mx2m)

C represents control (C1S1= no manure at spacing 1mx1m, C1S2= No manure at 1mx1.5m,

C1S3= No manure at spacing 1mx2m)

A sample of this data sheet is shown next page

DATA COLLECTION SHEETS FOR MCKNIGHT PROJECT ON AGROECOLOGICAL INTENSIFICATION TRIAL ON CAPE GOOSEBERRIES 1ST SEASON

(Data on growth parameters)

Planting Date ………………………………….District…………………………………Sub County/site location…………………………………

T1R1S1 No. plants

Branches Plant height (cm)

Canopy width(cm)

No. of leaves

No. of flowers

Days to 50% flowering (DAP)

T1S1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average T1S2 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average T1S3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average T2S1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average T2S2 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average T2S3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average T3S1 1 2 3 4 5 6

Average T3S2 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average T3S3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average T4S1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average T4S2 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average T4S3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average C1S1 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average C1S2 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average C1S3 1 2 3 4 5 6 Average

COLLECTED BY…………………………………………………………………………

Towards Increased Agricultural Productivity and Food Security in ...

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