Topic_electoral Systems and Their Effect on Democracy

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PS 335: DEMOCRACY AND ELECTIONS LECTURES R.S. DAMIAN +255713428318

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TOPIC: ELECTORAL SYSTEMS AND THEIR INFLUENCY ONDEMOCRACY

LECTURESBY

RESPICIUS SHUMBUSHO DAMIAN

A.INTRODUCTIONThe phrase electoral systems is used to refer to different things inpsephological studies. Some use it in a broader sense to refer to a combinationof institutions, structures, and procedures used in electoral processes in agiven country. In a narrow sense, electoral system is used to refer to the set ofrules and procedures that are used to translate the choices of the electoratesinto government. In this course, we adopt the second, the narrow sense of theelectoral systems. In this sense, we will categorize electoral systems; examinetheir advantages and disadvantages giving special attention to three roles of

electoral systems; the effect of particular electoral system on participation(psychological), ensuring representation of interests in the electorate(mechanical), and ensuring smooth power succession and managing electoralconflict (as a result of both participation and representation).

B.MEANING AND TYPOLOGY OF ELECTORAL SYSTEMSMeaningIn a narrow sense, the definition and classification of an electoral systems isclear if we understand the key components of an electoral system. These are

1. The Electoral Formulae: this is related to the size of the electoratepreference that qualifies to make the candidate win legitimacy of theelectorate. Thus, an electoral formulae can be a majoritarian orproportional. It is further divided into:

(a) The Mathematical Formula: this is the formulae used to calculatethe number of seats in government should be given to particular partiesin the government. For example, how many special seats (women)should a political party get in the parliament. Each country has itsformulae that may change with time. For example, in Tanzania in the

1995 general elections the formula was:-

Number of seats a party won Required special seatsTotal seats in parliament (constituencies)

Where the number of seats in constituencies was changing, the resultingseats could also change. For example, 1995=238 seats, 2000=231 seats,in 2005 =231. In 1995, CCM got 186 MPs, in 200 got 206 MPs, and in


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2005 got 206 MPs. In the 1995 election, there were 36 special seats, in2000 =48 seats, and in 2005=66 seats.

Question:Question:Question:Question: Use the formulae above to cUse the formulae above to cUse the formulae above to cUse the formulae above to calculate special seats for CCM.alculate special seats for CCM.alculate special seats for CCM.alculate special seats for CCM.

In 2005, the formulae were changed to reduce disproportionality. Instead ofusing the number of seats won by the party from constituencies, the total votesthat the party wins in parliamentary elections is used.Thus, the formula is:-

Total party votes in parliamentary electionsTotal party votes in parliamentary electionsTotal party votes in parliamentary electionsTotal party votes in parliamentary elections ....XXXX Total Special Seats (58, or 85Total Special Seats (58, or 85Total Special Seats (58, or 85Total Special Seats (58, or 85))))Total number of valid votes casted in parliamentary electionsTotal number of valid votes casted in parliamentary electionsTotal number of valid votes casted in parliamentary electionsTotal number of valid votes casted in parliamentary elections

In the 2010 general elections, the number of seats for special seats (excluding 10presidential reserved appointees) was 85 (317-232). Based on the parliamentaryelection results, calculate the special seats for each of the political parties.

Political Party Number ofVotes

% ofVotes Number of special Seats % of the seats

Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) 7,579,897 69.99%

Civic United Front (CUF) 1,542,254 14.24%

Chama cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo (CHADEMA) 888,133 8.20%

Tanzania Labour Party (TLP) 306,219 2.83%

National Convention for Construction and Reform-Mageuzi(NCCR-Mageuzi)

239,452 2.21%

United Democratic Party (UDP) 155,887 1.44%

Chama cha Haki na Usitawi (CHAUSTA)

38,085

0.35%

Jahazi Asilia 21,042 0.19% -

Progressive Party of Tanzania-Maendeleo (PPT-Maendeleo) 13,532 0.12% -

Democratic Party (DP) 11,876 0.11% -

Tanzania Democratic Alliance (TADEA) 6,845 0.06% -

Sauti ya Umma (SAU) 6,085 0.06% -

National League for Democracy (NLD) 6,054 0.06% -

United People's Democratic Party (UPDP) 5,456 0.05% -

National Reconstruction Alliance (NRA) 3,459 0.03% -

Demokrasia Makini (MAKINI) 2,102 0.02% -Forum for Restoration of Democracy (FORD) 1,625 0.02% -

Union for Multiparty Democracy (UMD) 1,510 0.01% -

Total (Valid Votes) 10,829,513 100% 85

(b) The electoral Threshold: refers to the stipulated minimum percentof votes that a political party should obtain at district or national level toget a seat in parliament. Therefore, apart from the mathematical


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formulae, the calculation of seats for an individual political party mustconsider the stipulated threshold. In Tanzania, a political party must get5% of the total valid votes casted in parliament to get a seat. However, itis not clear whether the threshold is considered for Tanzania since in2005, only CCM, CUF, and CHADEMA would qualify to get special

seats.

2. District magnitude: it refers to the number of MP seats assigned to eachof the district (constituency). It may be a single-member District(constituency) or a multi-member District (constituency).

3. Ballot Structure this refers to the number of voting preferences given avoter on a ballot for them to mark. The range of choices for voters may rangefrom single choice for a party or candidate; a multiple preference betweenparties and candidates; and weighting preferences between candidates byrank-ordering them.

It may be noted that most of the components of electoral systems relate to theformulae used at different stages of the electoral processes. These include,deciding the number of representatives for a district, number (or percent of

votes) that a political party must obtain to get representation, and thedetermination of number of representatives that a political party is entitled to getin parliament. Thus, Electoral System may be defined as a set of mechanisms,processes, and formulae used to convert the votes cast in a general election intoseats won by political parties (and their candidates).

Typology of Electoral SystemsA typology is a classification that is guided by certain clear principles. So,classification of electoral systems becomes clear if students understand theclassification criteria (of which most have been introduced in relation to themeaning of electoral systems). Electoral Systems are categorized consideringdifferent factors: These include,

Degree of proportionality: especially, the extent to which there isproportion between the votes won and the number of seats. Consider thedifference between votes and seats. For example, in 1995, CCM got

59.2% of votes, but got 80% of special seats. Methods used to express and qualify choice of the electorate:

some electoral systems take care that a choice of voter should not be lost(thus are given more than one choice) while some do not take care ofthis.

Procedure used to obtain the winning representative of theelectorate: some systems encourage rerun while some use transfer of


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votes to candidates using specific criteria depending on the number ofcandidates in an electoral district.

The way voters have to express preference (ballot structure)between the available candidates and political parties.

Types of Electoral SystemsThe classification of electoral systems use overlapping criteria, but electoralsystems are classified according to the formula used. Thus, there are three types;

a. Majority-Plurality Plurality Systems

Majority Systemsc. Proportional Representation (PR) Systemsd. Mixed Systems (7)

a.PLURALITY-MAJORITY SYSTEMSPlurality systems usually offer a seat to a candidate who wins most votes in theelection. Candidates are elected with a plurality (not a majority) of the votes.Sometimes, the terms winner takes all, or First-Past-the-Post (FPTP) areused as substitutes of plurality systems. Under majority systems, thecandidates who win are needed to obtain an absolute majority (50% +1).

1. PLURALITY ELECTORAL SYSTEMSThese emphasize that any candidate who receives the most votes in an election

becomes a winner regardless of whether the candidate wins a majority vote ornot.

SUBTYPES(i) First-Past-The-Post (FPTP)The country is divided into several single-member districts. The voters have to

vote for one candidate. The candidate who gets the highest number of votes iselected (not necessarily an absolute majority i.e. 50% +1, but a simple

Plurality

FPTP BV SNTV

Independen

t (21)

Dependent

(8)

Party List System

Majority-Plurality

Systems

Mixed

Systems

Proportional

Representation (PR)

Majority

AV (2) 2RS

Closed Open

Pure PR

STV

Semi-PR

Parallel


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majority). A candidate who gets 49% of the votes may be declared a winner,while the one who gets 48% a looser (the same as the third who gets theremaining 3%).Advantage: Simple voting, vote counting. It is less costly. It provides a clearcut choice for voters between major political parties. It gives rise to single

party, but stable governments. It enhances competition between the majorparties (likelihood of all parties to win elections). Enhances linkage betweenvoters and their representative (since MPs represent known geographicalareas)-can hold representative accountable.Disadvantage: creates many wasted votes, it leads into misrepresentation ofmany voters. It eliminates minority parties from being represented ingovernment. It can lead to minority government (especially if there are manysmall parties)Examples: Canada, United Kingdoms, India, United States,

(ii) Block Vote (BV) SystemIt is like using FPTP or winner-takes-all in a multi-member district(constituency). Each voter is given as many votes as a number of seats,

which are to be filled in a district. Once a candidate is elected, all ballot papersare returned to the count to elect the next member. A voter is free to vote foran individual regardless the party affiliation or vote for all the candidates ofhis/her own party. Let say there are 5 seats and there are 20 candidates fromdifferent parties, the top five candidates win and become MPs.

Advantages: It is easier, quick, and cheap. It allows the voters to vote forother parties. Disadvantage: In countries where there is partisan voting, oneparty may win all the seats.Examples: Philippines,Kuwait, Thailand,

(iii) Single Non-Transferable Vote System: Under the SNTV systems, eachvoter has one vote, but there are several seats in the district to be filled. Thecandidates who get the highest number of votes are elected to fillthese positions. It differs from majority systems as it makes it easier forminority parties to be represented. The larger the number of seats in the

constituency, the more proportional the system becomes. For instance, if thereare 10 seats, there will be more proportionality compared to a constituency wherethere are two seats. SNTV differs from block voting since there might be acondition of the threshold for winning candidates. For example, in a 4 seatsdistrict, a candidate must get 20% to be elected.

b.MAJORITY ELECTORAL SYSTEMS


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These electoral systems emphasize that a candidate becomes a winner if s/hewins a majority of the vote (50%+1). These types have procedure to ensurethat candidates who are elected win the majority vote.

SUBTYPES

(i)Alternative Vote (AV) System: Sometimes called Preferential voting(PV), is usually used in a single-member district as a way of avoiding a secondballot. The system requires an absolute majority. Each voter is asked toindicate preferences by ranking candidates from his first, 2,3,4,5, to the lastchoice. Any candidate who receives the absolute majority of the first choice iselected. If no candidate who wins absolute majority through the first choice,the last candidate is dropped and his votes are transferred to the candidate

whom the voters who voted first choice to the dropping candidate hadindicated as their second choices. The process is continued until the candidate

with absolute majority is obtained.

ADVANTAGES: it is economic, to avoid second ballot. Vote transfer makes itpossible to accumulate votes from different, but related interests. Gives powerand confidence to supporters of weak parties. It also empowers the candidatesof weak parties (can campaign for the second choice). It may be useful indeeply divided societies (i.e the voter has to choose not only candidates hesupports-even the others). It makes candidates be active to present policiesthat may attract not only party supporters, but also others.

(ii) Two Round System (TRS): It is also known at the Majority Run-Off System or Two Ballot System The two round system has the sameprocedure as FPTP, but a candidate must get an absolute majority to beelected. If a candidate gets an absolute majority, it does not differ from FPTP.It no candidate who gets the majority vote, the second round of voting isconducted (after some days) involving the top two candidates.

c. PR SYSTEMSPR electoral systems emphasize on the proportion between the votes that theparties win and the seats that they secure in the government (representation).

PR systems are mostly used in divided societies (eg South Africa, Angola,Mozambique, and Burkinafaso) to provide representation of both themajorities and minorities. In most of the countries, there are a stipulatedthreshold, which a political party is required to obtain to be represented.

SUBTYPES(i) Quota system: This system involves calculation of a quota by using

established criteria. A quota is established by dividing the number of


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votes cast by a number of seats +1. For example, if the number ofvotes is 10000, and the number of seats is 10, then the quota is10,000/10+1=1001. However, it must be noted that the greater thenumber of seats in constituency, the higher the level ofproportionality to the extent that even smaller parties can get

representation. In some incidents, a political party with the highestremaindervotes gets a seat.Advantage: The quota system assuresvoters than no vote would get wasted

(ii) Party List PR: It is a commonly used system. Each party presents alist of its candidates in relation to the number of required seats and

voters vote for the parties (usually represented by symbol). Seats areoffered in proportion with the votes that apolitical party wins. The

winning candidates are taken in relation to their position in the list.There are different types of lists.

Closed list PR: the ordering of candidates is fixed by the party, and

thus voters may not influence the ordering Open list PR: Voters have a chance to indicate their favored

candidates in the party list.

Free List PR: Voters may be free to choose either the party or thecandidate-This is rarely used.

(iii) Single Transferable Vote System (STV): It is similar toalternative vote, but it happens in multimember districts. The votersrank candidates in order of preferences (not political parties), but to

win a seat a candidate must obtain a quota of vote, which is

established. The commonly used formula for establishing a quota isthe known as the Droop Quota (By H. Droop). Under the Droopquota, the quota is calculated as

[V/(S+1)] +1Where V= Total valid votes in the constituency

S=Number of seats available in the constituency

Let say the number of votes cast in Karatu constituency is 3000, and Karatuconstituency has to be represented by 3 representatives. The Droop quota shall

be calculated as[3,000 / (3 + 1)] + 1 =751.

This means that for any candidate to be elected must get at least 751 votes.STV is not commonly used in Africa; it is used in Australia, Ireland, Malta, andEstonia. The seats are then allocated on bases of the Droop quota.

(iv) Parallel System: it uses both PR List System and the winner takesall system. Unlike most of the PR systems, it is not designed to


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compensate for any disproportionality produced by plurality system(thus sometimes identified as part of mixed systems). Voters aregiven chance to vote for both the constituency representatives andparty representative. It is commonly used in Japan and Russia

d.MIXED SYSTEMS

C.FACTORS THAT DETERMINE CHOICE OF ELECTORAL SYSTEMD.THE EFFECT OF ELECTORAL SYSTEMS ON PARTICIPATION AND

REPRESENTATIONE.ELECTORAL SYSTEMS AND ELECTORAL CONFLICT MANAGEMENT

Topic_electoral Systems and Their Effect on Democracy

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