Topic 8, The Birth of Modern States

8/9/2019 Topic 8, The Birth of Modern States

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But this unstable balance wasdestroyed after 1450:

In France, English wereexpelled from French soil(except from Calais) by 1453.

In England, failure in Franceand the loss of Normandy

provoked civil war, the War of the Roses. In 1485, a newdynasty, the Tudors,succeeded in restoring order.

In Spain, the warringkingdoms of Castile and

Aragon were united in 1479,and in 1492 their combinedforces completed thereconquest of the last Islamicstrongholds.


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In Germany, a series of dynastic alliances united the Habsburg lands with those of Luxemburg and Burgundy.All these possessions,and later those of theSpanish royal family,came to the emperorCharles V (1519-1556),

making him the greatestChristian ruler sinceCharlemagne.He systematicallyexpanded each of theseinheritances and

Habsburg hegemonydominated Europe fortwo centuries.


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The inhabitants of thesecountries, particularly thecommercial classes, wereprepared to tolerate theroyal absolutism in returnfor security andsuppression of civil war.

Civil war and economic setbacks hadweakened the old nobility, and thechurch was also brought increasingly

under royal control.The secular state, in which politics aredivorced from religion and organizedaround an impersonal, centralized andunifying system of government, was stilltwo centuries away
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Anthony_van_Dyck-_Portrait_of_Charles_V_on_Horseback.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Charles_V_Arms-imperial.svg


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The Authoritarian Monarchies in Europe

Although the creation of the Authoritarian Monarchies was a commonprocess in Europe through the 15 th century, there were only three wellconsolidated monarchies: France, England and Spain.

Once the HundredYears War ended, Francehad a long period of political and socialstability. Then, FrenchKings from Louis XI toFrancis I unified the

country and reinforcedtheir position andpower.


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In Spain, the territorial unification process took place during the Catholic Kingsreign: they could unify all the Iberian areas except Portugal. The noblemen lostpart of their political influence but kept their economic and social position.

Later on, Spain became the hegemonic country in Europe during Charles I andPhilip II reigns.However, The Holy Empire and Italy did not experience this territorialunification process and they maintained their political desegregation until 19 th

Century

In England the situation wasdifferent. After the Hundred YearsWar, the conflicts continued: therewas an internal confrontationbetween the York and the Lancasterfamilies that concluded in the TwoRoses War. The aristocratic powerdeclined and opened the way to theroyal power. Henry VIII and ElisabethI consolidated the AuthoritarianMonarchy in England.


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During the last years of 15 th century(1455-85), a civil war claiming thethrone of England took place betweenthe noble houses of York (whose badgewas a white rose) and Lancaster (laterassociated with the red rose): the Warof two Roses. The war ended with thevictory of the Earl of Richmond, HenryVII, who founded the House of Tudor,which subsequently ruled England andWales for 117 years.

15 th century overview

The Red Roseof the Houseof Lancaster

The WhiteRose of theHouse of York

England


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Henry VII's marriage to Duke of Yorkdaughter, Elizabeth of York, unitedthe houses of Lancaster and York.The Wars of the Roses were ended.It is generally said that with them

ended the era of feudalism inEngland, since the nobles becametoo weak, as a class, to contest thestrong monarchy of the Tudors. The Tudor Rose: a combination of the Red Rose

of Lancaster and the White Rose of York

About the middle of the 15th century Richard, duke of York , came tothe fore as leader of the opposition Lancastrian king Henry VI . The

Yorkists gained popular support as a result of discontent over thefailure of English arms in the Hundred Years War and over thecorruption of the court. After lots of battles in which the twodynasties achieved successively the throne, in 1485, the Lancastrianclaimant, Henry Tudor, defeated and killed the Duke of York andascended the throne as Henry VII .


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Tudor dynasty

The first monarch,Henry VI Tudor,descended patrilineallyfrom the rulers of aWelsh principality andmaternally from a

legitimized branch of the English royal Houseof Lancaster.In total, five Tudormonarchs ruled theirdomains for just over a

century (from 1485until 1603).

The Tudor line failed in 1603 with the death of Elizabeth I of England, who diedwithout issue. Through secret negotiations she arranged before dying thesuccession of the House of Stuart to the English throne, uniting the Kingdoms of England and Scotland in a personal union.


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After being denied the right todivorce, King Henry VIII convincedParliament to declare the Church inEngland separate from that of theCatholic Church, and to placehimself at the head of the Church.

Henry VIII wanted to produce amale heir. He feared that without

an heir his nation would again bethrown into civil war. His marriageto Catherine had only produceddaughters, and she was too old tobare any additional children.

After becoming the head of the newly formed church, King Henry VIII grantedhis divorce. He than married Anne Boleyn. After she failed to produce a maleheir, King Henry VIII had her executed on charges of treason. He would marryfour more times, and would have only one son, who would rule as KingEdward VI. During his reign, Henry VIII oversaw the legal union of England andWales with the Laws in Wales Acts .


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Edward would only rule for a short time, andwould die in A.D. 1553. Following his death

Henrys Catholic daughter came to the throne.Her name was Mary, and she got married to theSpanish king, Phillip II.

Queen Mary was overthrown by her half-sister Elizabeth I. Queen Elizabethwas protestant, and helped to strengthen the Church of England. She broughtall the people together by making the Church of England more like theCatholic Church, while still maintaining it as a separate church. She reignedfrom 1558 to 1603.

Elizabeth I

Bloody Mary I

Queen Maryattempted to use fearand death to bring

the Catholic Churchback into England.After putting manypeople to death, shebecame known asBloody Mary.


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Stuart dynasty and Civil War

When Elisabeth died withoutdescendants, James VI of Scotland,from the House of Stuarts, becameking both of England and Scotland.Charles I Stuart, made someunpopular decisions (expensive wars,taxes ) that set Parliament andMonarchy at odds.

The result was a long and bloody Civil

War (1642 to 1648) that broughtmany changes.

Maps of territory held by Royalists (red) and Parliamentarians(green), 1642 1645


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Oliver Cromwell was the leader of the

Parliaments supporters. His orderlyarmy defeated the Royal army. Charles Iwas captured and executed on 30 th

January 1649. From 1649 to 1660England was run as a republic. Cromwellbecame the leader of the country until

he died in 1658.In 1660, the Monarchy was restoredCharles II became the new king of England

Oliver Cromwell

1642 to 1648:Civil War

1 6 4 9 :

E x e c u t i o n

o f

C h a r

l e s I 1649 to 1660: English

Cromwell Republic1660: Restorationof Monarchy


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In the early 1500s, Wales was divided into two parts. One part wasalready controlled by England, but the other part was controlled by Lordswhose power grew over time.The problem for the English was not the Welsh themselves, but theseLords (called Marcher Lords). If Wales was not totally under Englishcontrol it could be used by other countries to attack England.

Wales

The solution to the problem was the Act of Union of England and Wales in1536 during the reign of Henry the VIII.These Acts had the following effects onthe administration of Wales: All Wales was divided into shires withEnglish law Courts. Wales would send MPs to Parliamentat Westminster.


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England had been worried about Ireland forhundreds of years. Ireland could be used as a base byEnglands enemies France and Spain.By 1485 England had tried many times to take overIreland but failed. Henry VII claimed to be the King of all Ireland, but only controlled the area aroundDublin known as the Pale .After 1485, England tried different ways of takingover Ireland: as driving Irish Catholics away fromtheir land and replacing them with Protestant Englishand Scottish. Every method England attempted wasextremely expensive.

Ireland

During the 1600s Ireland was eventually taken over by the English. By 1690Catholics held only 20% of the land and were very poor. The governmentpassed laws against the Catholics preventing them from voting or having jobsin government. The Act of Union of 1800 between Ireland and Britain signifiedthat Ireland was completely taken over.


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Scotland

In 1485 Scotland was a separatecountry. Since the 1300s there hadbeen occasional fighting betweenEngland and Scotland. Scotlandwas friendly with Englands old

enemy France. England wasnaturally worried.

Queen Elizabeth died in 1603. KingJames VI of Scotland was theclosest relative, so he also became

King James I of England. However,even though both countries sharedthe same monarch, there was nochange in the situation.


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In 1707 an act was passed joining the twocountries:

Act of Union of England and Scotland.These Acts had the following effects onthe administration of Scotland: Scotland gave complete freedom to tradewith England and her colonies. Scotland would send 45 MPs toParliament at Westminster. Scottish Parliament would be closed. England would give Scotland nearly400,000 to pay off her debts.

Between 1701-1713 England was at war

with France, and there were great fearsthat James II would land in Scotlandaccompanied with a French army andclaim the throne of Scotland for his son.


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Spain

The Catholic KingsThe Catholic Kings reign can be considered as the beginning of the ModernAge in Spain since, once the Reconquista was finished, the territorialunification and the reform of the institutions took place. The monarchs triedto reduce the influence of the nobility.

Map of Europe at the end of 15th century


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In 1479, Isabella was proclaimed Queen of Castile. When Isabellas brother,king Enrique IV of Castile, died, his daughter Juana was proclaimed Queen.

However part of the nobility wanted Isabella to inherit the crown since theywere not sure that Juana was Enriques daughter. Both candidates, Juana andIsabella, and their supporters began a war which ended when the Portuguesetroops that supported Juana were defeated by the Castilians.The same year, Fernando was appointed King of Aragon, once his father died.The Kingdom of Aragon was integrated by Aragn, Catalonia, Valencia, BalearicIslands, Naples and Sicily.

The Crown of Aragon at itsgreatest extent in the 1380s

The Crown of Castile in the15th century

After the marriage, bothkingdoms united howevereach of them maintainedits own institutions sothere was only a territorial

union. The only institutionin common wasInquisition.
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/LocationKingdomOfCastile.pnghttp://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/Imperi_de_la_Corona_d'Arag%C3%B3.png


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The Catholic Monarchs set out to restoreroyal authority in Spain. To accomplishtheir goal, they first created a groupnamed the Holy Brotherhood ( SantaHermandad ) These men were used as a

judicial police force for Spain, theforerunner of the todays Guardia Civil . Toreplace the courts, the Catholic Monarchscreated the Royal Council ( Consejo Real ),and appointed chief magistrates to runthe towns and cities. This establishment of royal authority can be seen as one of thecrucial steps toward the creation of one of Europe's first strong nation-states.

The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition ( Tribunal de la SantaInquisicin ) commonly known as the Spanish Inquisition, was a tribunalestablished in 1478 by Catholic Kings. It was intended to maintain Catholicorthodoxy in their kingdoms, and to replace the medieval inquisition whichwas under papal control.


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Ferdinand and Isabellawere noted for beingthe monarchs of thenewly-united Spain atthe dawn of themodern era. The Kingshad a goal of

completing theChristian Reconquestof the IberianPeninsula and toconquer the Muslimkingdom of Granada.

After 10 years of many battles the Granada War ended in 1492 when theEmir Boabdil surrendered the keys of the Alhambra Palace in Granada to theCastilian soldiers.

The Capitulation of Granada by F. Padilla:Muhammad XII (Boabdil) confronts Ferdinand and Isabella.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:La_rendici%C3%B3n_de_Granada.jpg


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Some Jews were even only given four months andordered to convert to Christianity or leave the country.The punishment for any Jew who did not convert orleave by the deadline was death. The Spanish Jews

fled to Portugal (driven out again in 1497), to NorthAfrica, and to south-eastern Europe where theyformed flourishing local Jewish communities, SephardiCommunity.The estimated number of repelled Jews vary between130,000 and 800,000. Other Spanish Jews (estimates

range between 50,000 and 70,000) chose to avoidexpulsion by conversion to Christianity. However, theirconversion did not protect them from SpanishInquisition, whose persecutions and expulsions werecommon.

A signed copy of the Edict of Expulsion

The religious unification would continue less than three months after thesurrender of Granada when the Catholic Kings issued the Alhambra Decree . In it,Jews were accused of trying "to subvert their holy Catholic faith and trying todraw faithful Christians away from their beliefs."
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Alhambra_Decree.jpg


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Navarra wasincorporated to theCastile Kingdom in1512. When PopeJulius II declared aHoly League againstFrance, Navarre triedto remain neutral.Ferdinand used thisas an excuse to attackNavarre, conqueringit while its potentialprotector France wasbeset by England,Venice, andFerdinand's Italianarmies.

All the territories conquered in America belonged to the Castilian Crown and theywere called Reinos de Indias or simply Las Indias .


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In 1504, Isabel died and,although Fernando triedto maintain his positionover Castilla, the RoyalCourt of Castile ( LasCortes Generales deCastilla) chose Isabel laCatolica's daughterJuana la Loca ( Joannathe Mad) as the newQueen.Her husband, Phillip the Handsome ( Felipe el Hermoso ), was the Habsburgson of the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I, and Mary of Burgundy. Hebecame king-consort Felipe of Castile. Because of Juanas insanity, in 1506Philip assumed the regency on her behalf, but he died later that year. Sincetheir oldest son Charles was only six, the Cortes reluctantly allowed Juana'sfather, Fernando of Aragon, to rule the country as the regent.

Juana and Felipe

Juana la Loca and Felipe el Hermoso
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joanna_of_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Johanna_die_Wahnsinnige.jpg


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As only monarch, Fernando

adopted a more aggressivepolicy, enlarging Spain'ssphere of influence in Italy. Asruler of Aragon, he had beeninvolved in the struggleagainst France and Venice forcontrol of Italy; these conflictsbecame the center of Fernando's foreign policy asking. Fernando took bothNaples to which he held adynastic claim and Navarre,as we said before.

Fernando's death led to the ascension

of young Charles to the throne asCarlos I of Castilla and Aragonfounding the monarchy of Spain. HisSpanish inheritance included all theSpanish possessions in America andaround the Mediterranean. Upon thedeath of his father in 1506, Charleshad inherited the Netherlands,growing up in Flanders. In 1519, withthe death of his paternal grandfatherMaximilian I, Charles inherited theHabsburg territories in Germany, andwas duly elected Emperor Charles Vthat year.


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Castilian inheritance

Aragon inheritance

Maximilian I inheritance

Mary of Burgundy inheritance

Holy Sacred Empire borders in 1530

Milan annex in 1535

Fernando IIof Aragon

Isabel of Castilla

Maximiliano I

of HabsburgMary of

Burgundy

Juana laLoca

Phillip the

Handson

Carlos V


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France: The king of France, FranciscoI, found himself surrounded byHabsburg territories, so in 1521Francis invaded the Spanishpossessions in Italy and Navarre,which inaugurated a second roundof Franco-Spanish conflict. The warwas a disaster for France, whichsuffered defeats (for example in

Pavia in 1525, at which Franciscowas captured and imprisoned inMadrid)

Foreign policy:

Carlos I became the most powerful monarch in Christendom. His foreignpolicy was aimed at:

As a result, Francisco I abandoned Milan, and the Duchy was incorporated toSpain.


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Protestantism: This religious Reformationof the Christian Church started in 1517 in

Germany. The Spanish king set himself upas the leader of Counter Reformation.Although Carlos I defeated the Protestantsin Mhlberg in 1547, he eventually had toadmit the two religions by the he Peace of Augsburg, which allowed German princes

to select either Lutheranism or Catholicismwithin the domains they controlled.

America: the new territories wereconsiderably extended by Hernan Cortesand Francisco Pizarro. Moreover, Magellan

circumnavigated the globe in 1522.

Peace of Augsburg front page


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Phillip II

Domestic Policy:The Spanish Kingdom was not a single monarchy with one legal system but afederation of separate kingdoms. Felipe tried to turn into an absolutist realm,but he often found his authority overruled. In the Kingdom of Aragon, Philip

was obliged to put down a rebellion in 1591 92, when his secretary AntonioPerez, who was born in Guadalajara, made Felipe confront to the Court of Aragon.

In 1556 Carlos I abdicated his various titles,giving Spain, the Netherlands, Naples, Milan andSpain's possessions in the Americas to his son,Felipe II. His brother Ferdinand, got the Austrianlands and succeeded him as Emperor. Charlesretired to the monastery of Yuste, dying in 1558.


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Netherlands: In 1568, Philip waged a war against Dutch territories, but he

could not avoid the independence of the north protestant provinces of the Netherlands, officially independent with Peace of Westphalia, duringthe reign of Phillip IV.

England: (see above)

Pacific Ocean: New expeditions took place in the West once America hadalmost been explored. Phillip II reached Philippines Islands and settledthere some colonies.

Foreign Policy:

Turkish: The campaigns against Turkishwas aimed to stop Muslim influence inthe East. In 1571 there was a decisivevictory against the Turks at the Battle of Lepanto, with the allied fleet of theHoly League, which he had put underthe command of his illegitimatebrother, Juan de Austria.


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Spanish society and economy in 16 th century

In the early sixteenth century the Spanish population reaches five millionpeople, growing to eight million over the next hundred years. The populationwas mostly rural.Social status remained as in feudal times: at the top, the king and nobles,who owned large territories. The clergy maintained its economic and politicalforce. The rest of the population lived in very poor conditions and weresubject to heavy obligations: tithes ( diezmo ), epidemics, famine, persecutionof heretics ...

Despite the large amounts of silver and gold thatwere imported from America, the economicsituation of Spain in the 16th century continuedto be terrible: there was massive inflation,agricultural production was insufficient andindustry (except sheep wool industry) greatlyweakened. There was just one sector thatexperienced some improvement: trade.


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Phillip III (1598-1621)

During the reign of Philip IIthe monarchs began todecline to exercise the dutiesof government, and it wouldbe handed to favouriteministers: Validos . Thefavourite of Philip III was theDuke of Lerma, whomaintained a peacetime.Domestic politic was markedby the expulsion of theMoriscos in 1609 and theeconomic and agriculturalproblems.

Philip IV (1621 to 1665)

The favorite of King Philip IV, the CondeDuque de Olivares , devoted great effortsto defeated the rebels in the Netherlands(the Thirty Years War). Despite someinitial victories (Breda) in 1648, Spain hadto sign the Peace of Westphalia, whichmeant the loss of some provinces inNetherland and the end of a completeCatholic Europe project. The Peace of Westphalia meant the decline of theSpanish monarchy.

The war impoverished even more toSpain. Portugal used the situation toseparated from the Spanish Crown (1640),while France got the Roussillon andSardinia (1659).


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Carlos II (1665 to 1700)

Charles II led the Habsburgmonarchy to a permanent decline.Several factors led to this decline:the inability of the king, corruptionof the Favourites ( Validos ),economic crisis and loss of hegemony in international politics.

When Charles II died withoutdescendant, the War of Successionbroke down. Felipe de Borbon , theFrench candidate to the throne,would become the new king andopen the Borbon dynasty.

Topic 8, The Birth of Modern States

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