Topic 2 Development of Policy Studies in Education: In Retrospect and Prospect PEDu 6209 Policy...

Topic 2Development of Policy Studies in Education:

In Retrospect and Prospect

PEDu 6209

Policy Studies in Education

Pre-historical period, from the Enlightenment to the WWI 1500s to 1910s From the Prince’s advisor to social physicist

The formative period, between the two world wars The rise to prominence in the post WWII period: The

Advent of the policy science From military operation to operation research and management

science From war of intelligence to cybernetics to information

technology From training camp to learning psychology to marketing

research

Historical Development of Policy Studies as a Discipline

The challenge of the bounded rationality and the science of muddling through Grand-comprehensive rationality meet with political reality

The rise and fall of the policy science in the 1960s to the 1970s The War on Poverty The Vietnam War The Watergate scandals The Energy Crisis

The post-modernist period from the 1990s to present The linguistic, argumentative and persuasive turns


From the Prince’s advisor to social physicistFrom Niccolo Machiavilli (1469-1527) The Prince (1532) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Leviathan (1651) to August Comte (1798-1857) Treatise of Sociology (1851)


Niccolo Machiavilli (1469-1527) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)

August Comte (1798-1857)

From the Prince’s advisor to social physicistFrom Niccolo Machiavilli (1469-1527) The Prince (1532) Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Leviathan (1651) to August Comte (1798-1857) Treatise of Sociology (1851)

US Government sponsored the Franklin Institute (1824-) to study the causes of explosions in steamboat boilers in 1832

The rise and fall of the American Social Science Association (ASSA) 1865-1915

Historical Development of Policy Studies


The initiatives around the WWI: Upon President Wilson's request, National Research

Council was established in 1916 to assist the government to fight WWI

Establishment of the Social Science Research Council in 1923 and the Brookings Institute in December, 1927.

Charles Merriam's advocacy in his Presidential address in American Political Science Association in 1925 for researches of applied and multidisciplinary social science on social problems


The Post-WWII and Cold-War initiatives: The success of Operations Research (OR) and

Psychology of War in WWII The Congress initiated the establishment of National

Science Foundation (NSF) in 1950 to serve as instrument to sponsor scientific research informing public policy


Harold Lasswell’s three-perspective formulation of The Policy Orientation (1951) in the book Policy Sciences edited by him and Daniel Lerner Multidisciplinary Perspective Contextual and Problem-Oriented Perspective The Normative Perspective


Developments of policy orientations from the 1950s to the 1960s

Multidisciplinary PerspectiveThe theoretical hegemony of the economic analysis,

system approach, and/or management scienceRobert K. Merton’s call for applied social science

research and theories of middle range (1967)


Developments of policy orientations from the 1950s to the 1960s Contextual and Problem-Oriented Perspective

Demarcation of knowledge in and of policy process, i.e. policy analysis and policy-process analysis

The growth of policy analysis: the heyday positivist-empiricism and instrumental rationalism

• Stuart S. Negal’s conceptualization of policy analysis “Policy analysis can be defined as determining which of various alternative public or governmental policies will most achieve a given set of goals in light of the relations between the policies and the goals.”

• Stokey, E. & Zeckhauser, R. (1978) A Primer for Policy Analysis. New York: W.W. Norton.

• Quade, E.S. (1975) Analysis for Public Decisions. New York: Elsever.



David Easton’s conception of political system (1953)

Robert Dahl & Charles Lindblom’s Pluralist challenge

Charles Lindblom’s science of muddling through (1959/1979)

Simon & March’s conception of bounded rationalism (1958)

Aaron Wildavsky’s (1969) critique on program-planning-budgeting system (PPBS)



• Debate on policy process– Quade's (1975) elements of policy analysis: (1)

identification of objectives, (2) specification of alternatives, (3) recommending policy action, (4) monitoring policy outcomes, and (5) evaluating policy performance

– May and Wildavsky's (1978) reformulation of policy process: (1) agenda setting, (2) issue analysis, (3) initiation, (4) estimation, and (5) termination.


Developments of policy orientations from the 1950s to the 1960s The Normative Perspective

Neglect of normative perspective by the value-free policy analyst & muddling through theorist

Reinstating values in Policy Studies and challenge from political philosophers, John Rawls (1971) and Robert Nozick (1974)


Growth and Development of Policy Science through the 1970s The rise of the welfare state and J.F. Kennedy and L.B.

Johnson Administration’s Great Society Project Robert S. McNarama and the transplantation of

rhetoric Program, Planning, and Budgetary system from the U.S. Department of Defense


Growth and Development of Policy Science through the 1970s The rise of the welfare state and J.F. Kennedy and L.B.

Johnson Administration’s Great Society Project Robert S. McNarama and the transplantation of

rhetoric Program, Planning, and Budgetary system from the U.S. Department of Defense

The expansion of the policy analysis The mean-end causal analysis Public decision analysis Evaluation analysis Implementation analysis


Growth and Development of Policy Science through the 1970s The contextual reality and constraint (deLeon, 1988)

The War on Poverty

The Vietnam War

The Watergate scandals

The Energy Crisis


From Policy Analysis to Policy Inquiry: The 1990s and Beyond The Post-positivist challenge:

Frank Fischer & John Forester (1987) Confronting Values in Policy Analysis

John Forester (1989) Planning in the Face of Power Frank Fischer & John Forester (1993) The Argumentative

Turn in Policy Analysis and Planning. Schon Donald & Martin Rein (1994) Frame Reflection:

Toward the Resolution of Intractable Policy Controversies.

The coining of the concept of Design Rationality


From Policy Analysis to Policy Inquiry: The 1990s and Beyond From instrumental rationalism to critical and

communicative rational approach

From value-free analysis to political philosophy and communicative ethics for policy argument

Argumentative, narrative and discursive (linguistic) turns of Policy Studies

Planning in the face of power and the governmentality approach to Policy Studies

B.

Development of Policy Studies in Education as a Field in the Twentieth Century:

The Welfare State Paradigm

James S. Coleman’s odyssey of research in education policy, 1960s to 1980s

The first Coleman Report 1965-66

Policy research on inequality of Educational Opportunity

Design of effective policy ends and intervention measures

The second Coleman Report in 1975 AERA annual conference

Policy research on the phenomenon of the White Flight

Controversy over the unwanting findings

The third Coleman Report in 1980

Policy research on the effectiveness of public and private schools

The argumentative turn of the report

Late James S. Coleman’s Odyssey: The case of US

Late James S. Coleman’s Odyssey

Late James S. Coleman’s odyssey

The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954

Forensic admission of Kenneth Clark’s psychological experiment on dolls

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 & the Section 402 stipulation

“The commission shall conduct a survey and make a

report to the president and the Congress, within two

years of the enactment of this title, concerning the

lack of availability of equal educational opportunities

for individuals by reason of race, color, religion, or

national origin in public educational institutions at all

levels in the United States, its territories and

possessions, and the District of Columbia.”

(Civil Right Act 1964, Section 402)

The U.S. Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954

Forensic admission of Kennth Clark’s psychological experiment on dolls

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 & the Section 402 stipulation

US Office of Education commissioned a survey on the availability of equal educational opportunity among social group (April 1965)

James S. Coleman's study on Equality of Educational Opportunity (to be completed in July 1966)

Late James S. Coleman’s odyssey

The odyssey of the First Coleman Report: From research report to summaries

Jeanette Hopkins’ summary Alexander Mood’s summary Helen Rowan’s summary

The myth of the Busing Policy: Judge J. Skelly Wright ruled in the case Hobsen v. Hansen, in the District of Columbia (Washington D.C.) that "the school board (should) integrate its facilities …and to provide busing to take children from overcrowded black schools to less crowded, mainly, white ones." (Hunt, 1985, p. 79)

From research finding to policy implementations


The odyssey of the First Coleman Report: From research finding to policy implementations

Nixon’s Message on Education Reform of March 3 1970Delay Impact or “just a simple rationalization for

spending less money.”Busing controversy spread


Invitation to the 1975 AERA annual conference "White Flight": the unwanted consequence of the

desegregation policy The odyssey of the Second Coleman Report:

Among waves of criticism from fellow educational researchers and sociologists, there was the president of ASA Alfred M. Lee's campaign to the ASA's Committee on Professional Ethics to regard Coleman's research effort and advocacy on "Trends in School Segregation" as unethical

Elected as President of ASA 1991-92


1980 Public and Private School Study commissioned by the National Center for the Educational Statistics of the Department of Education: The argumentative turn


“There are two fundamentally different schools of thoughts concerning the role of scientific research. … One school of thought sees policy research as private dialogue between the policy maker and the policy researcher. The policy makers poses the problem and the questions, and the policy researchers acts as adviser to the prince, to answer the questions on the basis of existing scientific knowledge if possible, and if not, to gather the right kind of data and analyze it properly to arrive at a conclusive answer. This conception of a clear, orderly process, with the final stage being implementation of the policy researcher’s results. The scientific answers are conclusive, sources of controversy are stilled by the conclusiveness of the research results, and rational action based on scientific evidence replaces interest group

politics.

“The other school of thought – the one to which we subscribe – see policy research as a largely public activity, one in which there is no ‘policy maker’, and in which the policy researcher’s role is that of the servant of multiple interests. …The contribution of the policy research to the end result is that of raising the level of discourse which leads to policy: facilitating disposal of false issues, narrowing attention and political conflict to the important issues. The research results cannot specify policy to be implemented; they are only one of a number of input which makes that process a more open one, helping to provide a window to the consequences of policy that enables more persons to effectively press for their interests and ideals.”

(Coleman, et al., 1982, p.220-221)

Policy research on New Right Education Reform in the UK

Policy studies as text analysis

Policy studies as discourse analysis

Stephen J. Ball's personal review of “policy sociology”


Education Reform: A Post-Structural Approach “Policy is clearly a matter of the ‘authoritative

allocation of values’; policies are the operational statements of values, ‘statements of prescriptive intent’. But values do not float free of their social context. We need to ask whose values are validated in policy, and whose are not. Thus, ‘The authoritative allocation of values draws our attention to the centrality of power and control in the concept of policy’. Policies project images of an ideal society (education policies project definitions of what counts as education).” (Ball, 1990, p.3)


Education Reform: A Post-Structural Approach In another occasion, Ball specifies his own approach

to policy study that “in current writing on policy issue I actually inhabit two very different conceptualization of policy. …I will call these policy as text and policy as discourse. …The point I am moving to is that policy is not one or the other, but both: they are ‘implicit in each other’.” (1994, p.15)


In his personal review, Ball quoted Grace’s distinction between two approaches of policy research prevailing in post-WWII UK, namely policy science and policy scholarship approaches (Ball, 1997) A policy science approach "attempts to extract a social

phenomenon from its relational context in order to subject it to close analysis. …The concern of a policy science approach is to understand present phenomena in order to formulate a rational and scientific prescription for action and future policy." (Grace, 1995, pp.2-3)


…..policy science and policy scholarship approaches A policy scholarship approach "resists the

tendency of policy science to abstract problem from their relational settings by insisting that the problem can only be understood in the complexity of those relations. In particular, it represents a view that a social-historical approach to research can illuminate the cultural and ideological struggles in which schooling is located." (Grace, 1995, p. 3)


Policy Scholarship Policy Science

a. Design and Scope Policy oriented Practice oriented Multi-focus Single focus Multi-level Single level Temporal Atemporal Global/local National/general Linked focus Detached b. Embedded Context rich Context barren Conceptually 'tick' Conceptually 'thin' c. An ethics of research Social justice Social efficiency Critical Incorporated d. Peopling policy Voiced Silent

(Ball, 1997, P. 264)

C.Development of Policy Studies in Education

in the 21st Century: Neoliberalism under

Global-Informational Paradigm

The rise of Neo-liberalism

The advent of the Global-Informational Paradigm

The Internal Tension between Grobalization and Glocalization in Education Policy

Stephen J. Ball’s emerging approach to policy text, policy enactment, policy discourse, policy network and policy governance

END

Topic 2: Development of Policy Studies in Education: In Retrospect & Prospect

Topic 2 Development of Policy Studies in Education: In Retrospect and Prospect PEDu 6209 Policy...

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