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TOOLKIT FOR GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN

INTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

IN EGYPT

December, 2011

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Table of Contents Preface .........................................................................................................................................................4

Chapter 1: BACKGROUND & DEFINITIONS ...................................................................................................5

1.1 Background on Water Resources in Egypt ...................................................................................5

1.2 Gender in Theory and Practice .....................................................................................................6

1.2.1 Definition of Gender.............................................................................................................6

1.2.2 Gender Equity, Equality and Assumptions ...........................................................................6

1.2.3 What is Gender Analysis? .....................................................................................................7

1.2.4 Gender Mainstreaming.........................................................................................................8

1.3 Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM): An Overview................................................8

1.3.1 Defining IWRM .....................................................................................................................8

1.3.2 Guiding Principles of IWRM..................................................................................................9

1.4 Understanding Gender Issues in IWRM in Egypt........................................................................10

1.4.1 Women and Water: Agricultural vs. Domestic Use ............................................................10

1.4.2 Women and Access to Water and Sanitation .....................................................................10

1.4.3 Women, Environmental Degradation and Water Pollution ...............................................11

1.4.4 Women and Decision Making.............................................................................................11

1.5 Value-‐Added of Gender Mainstreaming in IWRM in Egypt ........................................................12

1.6 Mainstreaming & Assessing Gender in IWRM............................................................................13

1.6.1 Key Guidelines for Gender Mainstreaming in IWRM..........................................................13

1.6.2 Assessment of Effective Female Participation in IWRM.....................................................14

Chapter 2: CASE-‐STUDY OF EGYPT .............................................................................................................15

2.1 Egyptian Women in IWRM: Areas of Participation, Success Stories and Gender Gaps..............15

2.1.1 The Role of Female Farmers in Agriculture ........................................................................16

2.1.2 The Role of Female Farmers in Irrigation ...........................................................................17

2.1.3 The Water Management Interests of Female Farmers ......................................................17

2.1.4 Female Farmers’ Knowledge of Water Management Issues ..............................................17

2.1.5 The Coping Mechanisms of Female Farmers......................................................................19

2.1.6 Treatment of the Female Farmers by the Male Farmers ...................................................19

2.1.7 Participation of Female Farmers in the WUAs ...................................................................20

2.2 Gender within the Institutional Framework of MWRI................................................................21

2.2.1 The Gender Equity Unit ......................................................................................................22

2.2.2 Gender Focal Point .............................................................................................................22

2.3 Gender in the Field .....................................................................................................................24

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2.3.1 Bottom-‐Up Instead of Top-‐Down: The Special Role of WUAs in IWRM .............................24

2.3.2 Women’s Participation in WUAs ........................................................................................24

2.3.3 Areas of Women’s Participation in IWRM: The Case of Fayoum and Sharqeya

Governorates......................................................................................................................................25

2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations...........................................................................................31

2.4.1 Increasing the Interest of Women for More Active Participation in IWRM .......................32

2.4.2 Focus on Independent Female Farmers .............................................................................33

2.4.3 Improve Agricultural Literacy .............................................................................................34

2.4.4 Redefine Gender Mainstreaming using Culturally Appropriate Concepts .........................35

2.4.5 Increasing the Social Acceptance of Women’s Involvement..............................................36

2.4.6 Improve Communication Skills among Women .................................................................36

Chapter 3: PRACTITIONERS’ GUIDE TO GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN IWRM ...........................................37

Step One: Test Yourself: Are you Convinced? ........................................................................................38

Step Two: Familiarize Yourself with Your Target Area and Target Groups ............................................41

Step Three: Prepare an Outreach Plan...................................................................................................45

Step Four: Prepare your Communication Messages ..............................................................................48

How to Handle Difficult or Unforeseen Situations .................................................................................55

Suggestions for Follow-‐Up Steps ............................................................................................................59

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Preface Despite increased gender awareness, well-‐documented research findings, and the availability of much more information on women’s and men’s roles in irrigation and water resource management, gender is not yet mainstreamed into this sector. Relevant officials and people who work in the field often lack proper understanding of the importance of gender and the difference between gender equality and women’s empowerment. They also lack practical tools to mainstream gender issues into irrigation and water resource management programs and projects. This toolkit is therefore designed to familiarize the relevant stakeholders working in the field of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) with the current gaps, strategies and methodologies that are of practical use in introducing gender perspectives relevant to the water management sector. The toolkit is addressed to all actors with direct or indirect interest in the topic at hand, whether public or private stakeholders on the different administrative levels (central, governorate and community levels). We understand this toolkit as a hopefully useful addendum to previous efforts and contributions done by other missions, projects and stakeholders (especially by the Dutch Embassy in Egypt) with respect to the notion of women in IWRM. The concept of gender mainstreaming in IWRM is complex and it tackles multiple intertwined areas and issues. This toolkit therefore aims at showing in a holistic manner why attention to gender is important and how such attention can be ensured. The toolkit starts in Chapter I by presenting a theoretical background about gender issues in water resource management. It discusses the key concepts related to gender mainstreaming and IWRM as well as the role of civil society in this regard. Chapter II presents a detailed description of the Egyptian case regarding the current status of gender mainstreaming in the water management sector. This case study is illustrated with concrete examples and discusses efforts made by the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation (MWRI) and other key stakeholders to enhance women’s participation, and the achievements made. Chapter III then illustrates in more detail practical steps that can be taken to enhance women’s participation and the potential obstacles to this enhancement.

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Chapter 1: BACKGROUND & DEFINITIONS

1.1 Background on Water Resources in Egypt

In Egypt, water resources are limited to the Nile River, deep ground water in the Delta, the Western Deserts and Sinai, rainfall and flash floods. Egypt's annual share of Nile water, which is currently at 55.5 billion cubic meters, is the main source of fresh water to meet Egypt’s annual water needs – estimated to be around 68.3 km3 (FAO, 2000). Agriculture is the largest component of the water demand in Egypt, as it consumes more than 85% of Egypt's water use annually, while around 8% goes to domestic use, 6% for industry, and the remaining less than 1% to navigation and hydropower (FAO, 2009).

Water Use Allocation in Egypt (IDRC, 2007)

The agricultural sector contributes approximately 18% to the gross domestic product (GDP), and employs 31% of the total labour force. Non-‐conventional water resources include agricultural drainage water, desalinized brackish groundwater, seawater and treated municipal waste water. Desalination of water has been given low priority due to its high costs.

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1.2 Gender in Theory and Practice

1.2.1 Definition of Gender

The term “sex” identifies the biological differences between men and women, whereas “gender” identifies primarily the social relations between them. Gender is therefore more concerned with roles, rights and responsibilities as well as the problems and challenges associated with men and women and their relationships. The gender role of men and women is context specific and dynamic. Gender is constructed by society and it is influenced by culture, religion, environment, history and economy. Neither women nor men, however, are homogeneous groups, as all individuals are also distinguished by their belonging to other social categories such as class, age, and ethnicity.

1.2.2 Gender Equity, Equality and Assumptions

Gender equity refers to the process of being fair and just to both women and men, while gender equality means that they enjoy the same status and starting conditions for realizing their full human rights and their contribution to the process of development. These concepts, however, are not about empowering women at the expense of their recognized roles and status in local society. They do not encourage a role for women against the wishes and consent of their male relatives.

“Gender equality means that men and women enjoy the same status and starting condition for realizing their full human rights”

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To achieve advanced levels of gender equality and equity, it is essential to put our understanding and assumptions of what women and men do in various communities in a certain context. The danger is that because gender roles differ from place to place and change over time, we might waste development resources for instance by providing agricultural or irrigation training to men in a context where solely or mainly women carry out the tasks. This is where gender analysis plays an important role and can provide up-‐to-‐date information and challenge inaccurate assumptions.

1.2.3 What is Gender Analysis? Gender analysis refers to methods and tools used to understand the social, economic, cultural and legal relationships between men and women, their access to resources, their activities, and the constraints they face relative to each other. Over the years various gender analysis tools have been developed to seek answers to the following questions:

- Who (women/men) does what in his community/institution/organization? - What resources do they use to fulfill their roles? - Who has access to what resources? - Who controls the use of these resources? - Who benefits? Who does not?

More specifically, gender analysis in a development context aims at identifying how gender can best be analyzed as a theme that crosses all sectors where women and men interact. It generally asks the following questions:

- Are women as well as men (target groups, staff, partners) involved in planning and analysis at all levels (e.g. policy dialogue, community consultation)?

- Are organizations working specifically on gender, or with women consulted? - Is qualitative and quantitative data disaggregated between women/men? - Are women’s/men's constraints, needs and views reflected in the objectives, risk and impact

analysis of the intervention to be carried out? - Are processes and approaches participatory for everybody? - Do women and men participate equally in the decision-‐making process? - Do women and men have equitable access and control over resources -‐ e.g. are there

criteria that discriminate against women or men? - Do women and men take part in monitoring of activities they jointly carry out? - Are collected data on the immediate and/or longer-‐term effects of joint activities

disaggregated for women and men? - Are changes in gender relations reported as part of monitoring? - Are «best – and bad – practices» on gender mainstreaming analyzed and disseminated?

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“Gender analysis refers to methods and tools used to understand the social, economic, cultural and legal relationships between men and women.”

1.2.4 Gender Mainstreaming Gender mainstreaming is a comprehensive strategy aimed at achieving greater gender equality. This is possible through integrating a gender perspective into existing institutions, programs, activities or sectors (e.g., trade, health, education, environment, water management, transportation, etc.). According to the UN Economic and Social Council, It is a strategy for making the concerns and experiences of women as well as of men an integral part of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic and social spheres, so that women and men benefit equally. The objectives of mainstreaming gender issues are to:

- Reduce gender inequities that may exist in a given area or sector. - Encourage both men and women to jointly participate in finding solutions to their problems,

ensure that their specific needs are satisfied and that they benefit from joint participation for positive impacts on their lives.

- Create the conditions for men and women to have equal access to resources and benefits. - Create the conditions for equal participation in planning, implementation and decision

making of identified joint endeavors and actions.

1.3 Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM): An Overview

1.3.1 Defining IWRM According to the definition by the Global Water Partnership (GWP), IWRM is a “process which promotes the […] development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to maximize the […] economic and social welfare in an (equal) manner and without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems”.

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Water is Life (Source: Design 21, Social Design Network)

IWRM is thus concerned with the planning, design, implementation, and maintenance of water projects and programs to ensure that water as a resource is efficiently and effectively used by the community, male and female. Water management involves the participatory approach of empowering communities especially women to provide, protect and safeguard their own water sources.

1.3.2 Guiding Principles of IWRM IWRM processes are guided by a number of internationally acknowledged principles and best practices that can be summarized as follows:

- Access to water is a fundamental human right: Access to basic amounts of water supply is understood as a social good and human right that needs to be included in policy formulation, planning, implementation and decision making.

- Ensuring equal access to water through participatory management: This includes for example providing support for effective water user associations, involvement of marginalized groups, and consideration of gender issues.

- Establishing improved and integrated policy, regulatory, and institutional/management frameworks: This should be guaranteed on the level of international conventions, conferences and treaties (e.g. International Conference on Water and Environment 1992, Bonn International Conference on Freshwater 2001, Gender and Water Alliance etc.) as well as on the level of national policies, legislations and regulations for efficient water management.

- Following a cross-‐sectoral approach: Water is an economic, social and environmental good and actions taken in one water sector have an impact on water availability and quality in another (e.g. agriculture, domestic water use, industrial water use, groundwater etc.).

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1.4 Understanding Gender Issues in IWRM in Egypt

1.4.1 Women and Water: Agricultural vs. Domestic Use The roles of women and men in relation to water differ worldwide and this is also the case for Egypt. Men typically require water for irrigation works, raising large livestock or growing and harvesting crops. Usually women and girls collect all water for domestic use such as cooking, washing and cleaning. The water needs of women are also used for home repairs (brick making), and food production. But due to increasing economic hardship forcing many men to seek additional employment beyond their fields, women increasingly got involved in regular irrigation and agricultural work as well, even if this is not yet fully accepted in traditional communities such those in Upper Egypt. Although females are the prime water users worldwide and although females are responsible for over 60% of the agricultural production, women are still marginalized when it comes to decision-‐making in agricultural production and irrigation management. Although females are represented in Water User Associations in some areas in Egypt (e.g. Fayoum), they are still not participating on an equal level to their male counterparts.

1.4.2 Women and Access to Water and Sanitation In certain parts of the developing world women and girls spend up to four or five hours per day carrying heavy water containers that can result in acute physical problems. The total time spent collecting water can be up to 10 hours per day. As a result, the time spent collecting water takes away from the education of women. Further, they miss opportunities for income generation and social participation, further widening the gender gap. In addition to that, lacking appropriate sanitation services and hygiene education leads to millions of deaths each year, especially among the ranks of women and children who are most exposed to lacking sanitation services in their households.

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1.4.3 Women, Environmental Degradation and Water Pollution Polluted waters from industrial effluents, agricultural runoffs, and waste disposal can force women to walk even farther to collect water and can increase the risk of exposure to toxic chemicals and bacteria for them and their children. According to the Gender Water Alliance (GWA), seventy per cent of the world’s blind are women who have been infected, directly or through their children, with trachoma, a blinding bacterial eye infection occurring in communities with limited access to water. Additionally, desertification has a severe effect on women. Desertification further reduces access to water and leaves many women as ‘widows of drought’ caused by the migration of men into urban areas seeking for employment. The trend of migration of male farmers to urban cities like Cairo and Alexandria started increasingly in the 1980s onwards. Male farmers especially from Upper Egypt left their small non-‐profitable fields leaving their families behind.

1.4.4 Women and Decision Making Looking at water management as a process of planning, operation, and management, women certainly take a leading decision-‐making role in these three stages when it comes of domestic water use within the circle of her core family. Although she usually supports men in agriculture related activities such as animal feeding, exhausting irrigation works are still to a large extent a domain of rural men. Only if women are land owners themselves, they usually take over decision-‐making responsibility for all agriculture and irrigation related operations. But even in this case women often rely on their male relatives or neighbors to represent them when problems occur, since irrigation problems naturally affect farmer groups rather than individuals only. Women are also increasingly represented in participatory water user associations and take a leading role in their communities with regard to environmental awareness for better water quality and less water pollution. However, in many countries such as Egypt women face obstacles to increasing their active participation in such bodies. This will be further detailed in the coming sections of the toolkit.

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1.5 Value-‐Added of Gender Mainstreaming in IWRM in Egypt Experiences from other countries (such as Turkey or Indonesia) have shown that mainstreaming gender issues into the management of water resources can have very beneficial outcomes, as well as long-‐term impacts from Egyptian planners and farmer communities alike. Some of the outcomes include the following:

- Provide a more accurate analysis of water resources use as there is a lack of information on women’s role in water management and irrigation, especially in rural regions in Egypt and primarily in Upper Egypt.

- Enhance gender equity, thus increasing equal representation of water users in water management which can lead to a more efficient use of resources and solving of problems.

- Strengthen poverty-‐alleviation programs as the burden of poverty often affects women more than men.

- Increase user participation in water management, as women are not only the primary users of domestic water, but also often contribute heavily to agricultural water use. This has already been achieved partly through the participation of water users in established Water User Associations (WUAs) that started in Egypt several years ago with the Dutch funded technical assistant projects in Fayoum and Beheira and the USAID funded LIFE Project in East Delta.

- Because of women’s traditional role in water management (especially in the Nile Delta and less in Upper Egypt), they often have vast amounts of knowledge and experiences that can be of great value to water-‐management planning.

- Campaigns to reduce water wastage and pollution as well as campaigns to improve health and combat water-‐borne diseases will increase their effectiveness if men and women are targeted equally. Lessons learnt from the Fayoum Farmer Field Schools Project have shown great impact on waste disposal and environmental awareness campaigns since rural female leaders were included as project cornerstones in spreading awareness in the field through the established schools.

- Women prioritize domestic water supply and irrigation structures close to their households in order to more effectively divide their time between productive and domestic responsibilities. Accordingly, their understanding of and influence in water resource management initiatives should be enhanced.

- Women tend to play a less public role in community decision-‐making than men (even if they are members of local WUAs), although they have a great role, especially in domestic water management. Management of water resources should therefore mainstream the gender dimension in the public sphere on the local level.

- Increasing the participation of women in water management will decrease the marginalization of independent female farmers who are often left out from the decision-‐making process.

- In a few years, most farmers will be women due to the migration of men to other more lucrative economic activities in the big conglomerates (Cairo, Alexandria, Assyut, Mahalla, Tanta, Damanhour etc.).

- A woman is both a farmer and a domestic water-‐user, and thus sees many things that men don’t – especially environmental and health issues related to the safety of their children. When it comes to children, the interest of Egyptian women is similar to women in other cultural contexts.

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1.6 Mainstreaming & Assessing Gender in IWRM

1.6.1 Key Guidelines for Gender Mainstreaming in IWRM

Basic principles for achieving gender equality and empowering women in agriculture, irrigation, and water management include the following:

- Ensure equal and easy access to water management related information by both male and female water users.

- Eliminate discrimination against women under the law. Governments have a fundamental responsibility to ensure that their laws and policies guarantee equal rights for men and women to control assets such as land and to receive services such as education, extension and credit.

- Strengthen rural institutions and make them gender-‐aware: Efforts are required to ensure that women and men are equally served by rural institutions such as producers’ organizations, labor unions, trade groups, and other membership-‐based organizations.

- Build the human capital of women and girls: General education and the ongoing transfer of information and practical skills will broaden the range of choices women can make and give them more influence within their households and communities. Building women’s human capital makes them better farmers, more productive workers, better mothers and stronger citizens.

- Improve the collection and analysis of sex-‐disaggregated data: Understanding of many gender issues in agriculture including crop, livestock, and fisheries sectors – is hindered by the lack of sex-‐disaggregated data, and inadequate analysis of the data that exist. Agricultural censuses should focus more attention on areas in which women are relatively more active and collect sex-‐disaggregated data on ownership, access and control over productive resources such as land, water, equipment, inputs, information and credit.

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- Make gender-‐aware agricultural and water management policy decisions: Any agricultural policy related to natural resources, technology, infrastructure or markets will affect men and women differently because they play different roles and experience different constraints and opportunities in the sector. Good agricultural policy requires an understanding of the gender dimensions.

- Gendering policy-‐making at community and national levels: At community level, field officers need to be given a clear understanding of gender analysis. At national level, all water related policies should include a gender perspective.

1.6.2 Assessment of Effective Female Participation in IWRM

More effective participation of females in IWRM can be assessed through a number of indicators. The indicators listed below include quantitative and qualitative attributes that qualify for getting a comprehensive picture on the situation of females in IWRM. These indicators also fit as a basis for proper gender mainstreaming policies and advanced participation of females in IWRM processes and decision making. These indicators should look at the status of women in relation to men to get a more accurate picture and to avoid becoming biased only to women:

- Percentage of farms run by females - Percentage of cultivated area run by females - Percentage of the average size of farms run by females compared to those of males - Percentage of female labor contribution to agriculture - Average number of females / males days used in a average - Percentage of women employed in a selected ministry - Percentage of decision making women employed in a selected ministry - Shared costs between men and women for safe domestic water - Women’s participation in community decision-‐making - Women’s participation in water-‐related decision-‐making - Women farmers’ participation in Water User Associations - Women farmers’ access to water for productive purposes at farm level - Availability of detailed gender-‐disaggregated data - Women’s Access to and Control over Water-‐dependent Enterprises - Sharing in Water-‐related Employment and other Benefits - Women’s education and inclusion in public governance

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Chapter 2: CASE-‐STUDY OF EGYPT

2.1 Egyptian Women in IWRM: Areas of Participation, Success Stories and Gender Gaps

According to a study undertaken by the Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation (MOALR), Egyptian women constitute 20% of the economically active population in Egyptian agriculture. Recent surveys, however, show that more than 50% of rural women are involved in farm activities, including fertilizing, weeding, harvesting, sacking, marketing and storage. Some also undertake plowing and irrigation. Despite the scarcity/absence of statistical data on the involvement of women in agriculture and IWRM, several qualitative research studies have been conducted aiming at identifying and analyzing the areas of female participation in IWRM. In general and according to Radwan (2009) seven main parameters/areas of female participation in IWRM can be identified:

1. The role of female farmers in agriculture; 2. The role of female farmers in irrigation; 3. The Water Management Interests of Female Farmers; 4. Female Farmers’ knowledge of water management issues; 5. The Coping Mechanisms of Female Farmers; 6. Treatment of the Female Farmers by the Men; 7. Participation of Female Farmers in Water User Associations (WUAs)

During the preparation of this toolkit, fieldwork was conducted in Fayoum and Sharqiyya governorates, as well as a number of central-‐level interviews with key persons, to gather primary data on women’s participation in water-‐resource management. The following paragraphs will rely on data gathered directly from the field, as well as past studies, to shed light on achievements and obstacles Egyptian female farmers face for each parameter, taking into account however that experiences, gaps, success stories and progress achieved differ from region to region.

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2.1.1 The Role of Female Farmers in Agriculture What distinguishes women in Egypt from women in most African countries is that although they both farm, in Egypt the woman plays a support role, while the man takes on the lead responsibility. Even if a female farmer is single, she tends to rely on male relatives to lead the farming process. What also makes Egypt unique is that every governorate, or even a village or hamlet, is different. Thus, nothing can be generalized when it comes to rural Egypt. For example, in some areas in the delta it is acceptable for women to plant, but in Upper Egypt she has to rely on someone else, even if she is destitute (with the exception of Minia and Fayoum governorates). In areas like Nubareya female farming is very acceptable because in that area land was given to graduates, and so education levels are much higher leading to a difference in cultural perception and acceptance of women’s participation in general. Nowadays women can participate in all areas of agriculture, and they can even plant rice – which was traditionally considered inappropriate for women. The only thing that women cannot do for themselves is turning on the handpump as it requires a lot of physical strength. However, this process was facilitated through the Dutch funded Irrigation Improvement Project (IIMP) . According to a study carried out by Radwan (2009) within the framework of the Egyptian-‐German Water Resources Management Reform Program, the majority of female farmers asked stated that they are involved in almost all activities related to agriculture except for the preparation of lands. This includes for instance the planting of seeds/seedlings, adding fertilizers, harvesting (especially cotton), weeding, transport of harvest and spraying of insecticides. Even women who have rented out their lands were found to be involved in supervision of certain tasks such as adding fertilizer. Theoretically and according to Islamic Law women own and inherit land. However, in reality she often does not want to be responsible for the planting so she will hire someone else. Even so, in the Delta women go to the Agricultural Association and obtain seeds and fertilizers themselves. Planting vegetables is one of the most active fields for women in planting and decision-‐making, especially in the delta. But even in Upper Egypt, men usually take women’s opinion when it comes to planting vegetables.

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2.1.2 The Role of Female Farmers in Irrigation Most of the female farmers interviewed mentioned that they do not irrigate; but upon further dialogue and discussions, it appeared that they take part in many activities and decisions related to irrigating their lands, e.g. by deciding when to switch the pump on and off, by asking the assistance of men to switch on the pump for them and by channeling water in the fields. Their activities actually indicate that they irrigate themselves. Most of them however share the misconception that the person who irrigates is the one who operates the pump, and that all other tasks – which are perhaps more important – are secondary. Often, when there is a man available to handle irrigation women are all too willing to hand over the responsibility, as they are already over-‐burdened with other tasks. It is not because they are oppressed, but more because they trust their male relatives and neighbors, and because all farmers are in the same boat, and so there is no reason for them not to trust that the male farmers will represent their best interest in water users’ meetings. The main issue in planting, irrigation, and water management is the lack of information among women which can prevent them from having a real say in things and encourages them to follow what their male peers decide.

2.1.3 The Water Management Interests of Female Farmers

The main water management interest of all farmers is to obtain more water for irrigation, especially during peak times. The biggest problem they suffer from is that of water shortage. Here the interests of the selected males and females are identical, although usually male farmers were more eloquent and precise in expressing their problems and needs than the females. Besides water shortage, the farmers complained of lack of proper maintenance, the restriction of water flow owing to the dumping of solid waste (especially female farmers suffer from this since it threatens the health and hygiene of their children), and the need for infrastructure such as bridges. Women are often simply not interested to engage in water management as they feel overburdened with other tasks and see no need to take on additional responsibilities when they trust their male peers to represent them. However, although they are not interested in maintenance works, they take an active interest when it comes to water quality. In this role women do awareness-‐raising for other women – for example, not to throw solid waste in water – or if there is construction next to a residential area her opinion becomes very valuable.

2.1.4 Female Farmers’ Knowledge of Water Management Issues

Female farmers usually have more knowledge about water management issues than they are willing to admit. The majority of the female farmers are knowledgeable about the aspects directly related to irrigation, namely when to switch the pump on and off, the best times for irrigation, and the entity responsible for maintaining the waterway. Many of them – especially those who farm – also know the name of the branch canal. However, it was noted that there are some few areas of water management in which female farmers lack knowledge and information such as the rotation cycle on the branch canal, the name of the District Drainage Engineer they can contact in case problems occur and when the maintenance is performed.

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Female farmers – even those who do not manage their lands – are thus not ignorant of the water management situation in their areas. Male farmers however are usually more able to express their water management needs and problems more accurately than the women. The gender discrepancy in the domain of knowledge is most noticeable when it comes to the participation of females in WUAs. In those areas where WUAs have been established (e.g. in almost all districts across Fayoum and some areas of West and East Delta such as Beheira and Sharqiyya), only a handful of female farmers were aware of this organization in terms of its activities and members. This contrasts heavily with the knowledge of the male farmers. It is important to note that while there was a significant difference in the strength of WUAs in Fayoum and Sharqiyya (much stronger in the former than in the latter), and there was also a stronger involvement of women in WUAs in Fayoum than in Sharqiyya, this discrepancy did not seem to make a difference in the women’s overall level of information which is still marginal in both governorates. This points to a significant gap in projects that aim to enhance women’s participation that indicates a strong need to focus on women’s access to information.

Most rural women in Egypt (and here all governorates and regions show similar patterns) still obtain their information from other sources, and not directly from district engineers or concerned water authorities. These sources are usually men – i.e. relatives, neighbors, and other villagers. This clearly points to a gender discrepancy. Although the women are not totally ignorant, their sources of information are secondhand, as opposed to the men who obtain their information directly from the sources concerned. This is a gender gap and points to the fact that women have weaker access to information than men.

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2.1.5 The Coping Mechanisms of Female Farmers The majority of farmers (male and female) cannot solve their water management problems themselves as individuals and resort to various coping mechanisms. Most of the farmers have stated that when it comes to problem solving of water management problems, it is the responsibility of the men and not the women. The female farmers say that they almost always resort to the men to help them solve their water management problems. These men are either well-‐known and respected people (or neighbors in the field) who help them with individual issues or men delegated by the rest of the community to contact the concerned officials at the MWRI or other institutions. However, two coping mechanisms have been noted to be used only by a particular gender. For the male farmers, the mechanism of contacting officials and making collective decisions about a common water management situation is strictly their domain and women are happy to leave that responsibility to them. For both genders, however, all these coping mechanisms are judged as unsatisfactory. What they seek is direct and frequent intervention from the MWRI. To them, they are just a means of survival, and in some cases, of preventing their water management situations from worsening. In other words, the farmers do not perceive themselves as active role players and participants in water management improvement.

2.1.6 Treatment of the Female Farmers by the Male Farmers

Conflicts and rivalries between male and female farmers are not absent. Indeed, some of the female farmers have complained of the predominance of men, especially in cases where women have to rent pumps from them and they refuse to oblige. However, as the women themselves admit, there is no hostility or gender bias in such treatment. If women are being sidestepped or bothered, it is because of overall water management problems that force everyone to seek their interests over others, without regard to gender differences. In fact, female farmers in most cases are given preferential treatment by the community and by local officials because of their fragile status and owing to social traditions that require men to assist women in need.

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2.1.7 Participation of Female Farmers in the WUAs

Most of the farmers interviewed in Fayoum and Shariqyya had no knowledge of the WUAs established and operating in their areas. The case in Fayoum is slightly better than in Sharqiyya (where WUAs are still under establishment and have not covered all governorate districts), especially knowing that Fayoum was the “pioneer governorate” with respect to the formation of WUAs as a mean to enhance farmer participation in water management (in Upper Egypt the establishment of WUAs is still in a very pre-‐mature phase). Local female farmers for the most part still regard their Water User Association as an organization that could be useful to them; yet, most of these women would not like to be active members of the WUAs. Although it could be an effective coping mechanism for them, they prefer that their water management interests in the WUAs be represented by men. Although resistance to participation of women was recorded among the men interviewed, it is the female farmers themselves who expressed the strongest hesitation. Participation of women in community activities (other than directly related to the households) is in general not looked upon favorably by rural society, which is not used to such a platform. To avoid alienation from the community, the majority of Egyptian female farmers accepts this and still prefers the option of representation through trusted men.

Women are often keen to participate in WUA meetings when health and safety of their children is at risk

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The main findings from the seven parameters examined can be summarized as follows: • Women play a significant role in agriculture. • Women are involved in irrigation activities. • Female farmers have the same water management interests as the men. • The knowledge of female farmers on water management issues does exist, but it is

noticeably less articulated than that of the male farmers. • The coping mechanisms resorted to by female farmers are not entirely similar to those

adopted by their male counterparts. While the male farmers employ direct and formal mechanisms – such as organizing meetings, contacting officials, writing complaints and collecting local contributions – the women mostly prefer to delegate men for problem solving, and willingly abide by their decisions.

• In general, female farmers do not feel misrepresented or discriminated by their male counterparts. It is often, for various reasons, their own decision not to actively participate in decision-‐making leaving this task for their male relatives.

• Most of the female farmers interviewed in Fayoum and Sharqiyya (two governorates where WUAs are either fully established or still under establishment) do not wish to participate in the decision-‐making of WUAs.

2.2 Gender within the Institutional Framework of MWRI

Research conducted during the development of this toolkit shows that gender discrimination at

MWRI within higher management positions is limited to individual cases, and cannot be said to be widespread and systemic. Interviews conducted with top female officials in the ministry indicate that institutionalized discrimination was not a problem for women since there are large numbers of

female managers and heads of departments within the ministry which have traditionally been held by men. Field research has shown that there are many examples of women holding important positions at MWRI, e.g. Head of the MWRI Groundwater Sector, Head of the Central Irrigation

Advisory Department, MWRI Undersecretaries in Menufiyya, Port Said and Damietta.

On a decentralized district level, many female engineers are involved in direct interactions with farmers. However, and especially after marriage, women cannot continue travelling around from project site to project site and doing periodical inspections from field to field, due to their increasing

obligations as mothers and housewives and the need to care for their children regularly. This is why after marriage many women prefer to shift to administrative desk positions to avoid travelling to far places from their families. The same also applies to women in higher positions being promoted to a

higher rank but in another Governorate. Many women prefer to stay settled in their Governorate and refuse higher positions for these reasons, although, in some cases, they are more suitable for a certain post than their male counterparts. There are exceptions like a MWRI employee agreeing to

move from the Delta to Matrouh Governorate (on the border to Libya) with her family.

Thus, the focus of gender mainstreaming activities need not be at decision-‐making and management levels but rather at lower level positions. In these positions women sometimes lack certain skills that make them good field engineers and require some capacity-‐building. In addition, the stereotype that

women aren’t fit for the field still exists, and female engineers often have to be twice as good as their male counterparts to reach the same point in their careers.

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2.2.1 The Gender Equity Unit

The gender equity unit was established by Ministerial decree in 2002 and is concerned with women who are working within the ministry. The unit is directly supported by the office of the minister and can be considered the epicentre of gender mainstreaming efforts in the ministry and at the community level (see below graph “Gender Equity Unit”). It deals with issues of discrimination as well as capacity-‐building and raising awareness of female rights and responsibilities, in addition to how gender can be mainstreamed into the ministry’s plans.

The mandate of the gender equity unit includes various roles such as establishing a database for the employees of the ministry (both male and female) and all the units and entities within the ministry, as well as identifying problems (if any) and analysing them and reporting and coming up with solutions. It also contributes to the identification of training needs for male and female employees and monitoring their progress, and it is responsible for monitoring and ensuring equality between male and female employees. It is the main coordinator between various units and directorates in the ministry regarding gender issues.

2.2.2 Gender Focal Point

The gender focal point was established In November 2001 by Ministerial Decree at the Central Department of Irrigation Advisory Services (IAS). The mandate of the Gender Focal Point is primarily to coordinate and communicate with all IAS activities, the training centers of MWRI and projects and activities related to participation in irrigation and drainage management through promoting the exchange of information and experiences. It is tasked with coordinating the gender mainstreaming process in all the different activities of the ministry. It builds the capacity of ministry field workers to support the participation of women in water user organizations. The gender focal point also conducts workshops and public seminars to enhance and develop thinking and skills around gender mainstreaming. It gathers and analyzes relevant data from the field to monitor and track women’s participation in the field. It also contributes to the policy-‐making process in the ministry to ensure that gender issues are mainstreamed.

The gender unit in the MWRI has conducted several workshops and training sessions for both women and men related to understanding the concept of gender and how to mainstream gender into one’s activities. These trainings were for people within the ministry, including some of the

leaders within the ministry, as well as people in the field. The unit also coordinated with the media unit within the ministry to disseminate messages about gender, and it also gathered data from the field to monitor and analyze gender issues. The activities of MWRI’s gender unit dealt with women’s

participation in the field through various stages, described below.

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Although the unit has conducted some impressive activities, the structure itself is not the most effective because it is an isolated unit, so it does not actually mainstream gender as much as impose

gender onto other activities. What it could do to be more effective is to act as an information and M&E center for women in irrigation and agriculture. In the trainings they should speak to people practically. Rather than recite slogans and international agreements in separate “gender trainings”,

they should mainstream gender into all ministry trainings. It is too early for the Focal Point to supervise gender in all ministry activities, but rather it should focus on mainstreaming and conducting M&E. It should try to expand beyond the format of an isolated “women’s unit” and

involve itself in non-‐gender-‐related activities in order to mainstream gender in non-‐gender activities rather than conducting “women’s projects”. This can be done in coordination with different units and activities and information can be disseminated to everyone. The GFP can also fill the

information gap about women in agriculture and irrigation as there is a huge gap in such information. For example, there is no accurate data on women landowners. The GFP should coordinate with other ministries, and it can lobby and network and take the initiative for gender

mainstreaming. This becomes even more important in light of the Integrated Water Management Districts. Thus, the GFP can play a lead role in Advocacy, Information Gathering and Dissemination, Monitoring and Evaluation, Networking and Awareness-‐Raising with other ministries like Ministries

of Agriculture, Housing, Environment, and the Holding Company for Water and Wastewater.

Gender equity unit: Epicenter of Gender Mainstreaming at MWRI and Community Level

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2.3 Gender in the Field

2.3.1 Bottom-‐Up Instead of Top-‐Down: The Special Role of WUAs in IWRM Until recently, the Egyptian state was the major and sole player in managing water resources. Centralized control of water resources led consequently to a number of failures (e.g. unrepaired and rundown water systems and wasted funds). The top-‐down water resources management approach was questioned in favor of a participatory approach of empowering communities to manage their own water resources equitably and sustainably. While the state plays a critical supportive, supervisory and regulatory role, civil society and water user associations play a greater role nowadays in mobilizing, sensitizing and training the community to manage water more efficiently (not in all areas yet though). This community based system of water management evolved in the 1980's as a response to the international crisis of water scarcity and dwindling resources. The system emphasizes equitable and sustainable management of water as a community resource and involvement of women in the resource's management, while drawing on their traditional roles as key water users. This led to the establishment and worldwide spread of different forms of water users’ groups as a mechanism to strengthen the active involvement of the most important stakeholder in the management of water resources: the water users themselves.

2.3.2 Women’s Participation in WUAs

The idea of Water User Associations (WUAs) was introduced de facto in Egypt in the late 1990s within the framework of the Dutch funded Water Board Project and in line with MWRI’s reform vision to apply the concept of Integrated Water Resources Management at the secondary canal level in the old and new lands in Egypt through the integration of irrigation and drainage activities.

The aim of establishing Water Users' Associations (WUA) is to develop the participatory irrigation management concept for increasing water use efficiency, through the involvement of all stakeholders, as much as possible, in the various management activities. A WUA is a group of farmers, all served by a common source of water, who join together to allocate, distribute, and manage water in direct contact and consultation with MWRI government officials and district engineers. A WUA therefore allows farmers to perform activities that are more difficult or impossible to do individually and at the same increases the water management efficiency and incorporates the farmers’ communities into the process of public decision-‐making.

In present day Egypt, WUAs are fully or partially established and operating in the Governorate of Fayoum and to a certain degree in the Nile Delta. Upper Egypt still remains behind in terms of number of WUAs established and their financial and decision-‐making autonomy achieved. In Fayoum for instance and since Fayoum is the only Egyptian Governorate with WUAs covering all geographical districts, participation of women as members in WUAs is well-‐advanced compared to other regions, but still low in comparison with other countries.

The participation of women in WUAs was carried out by MWRI “from the top”. This was pursued through affirmative action (female quotas) by reserving two seats in the Association for female members. The quota system was seen as necessary due to many cultural barriers that led to a lack of acceptance of having female members, both on the part of women and men. However, without the proper capacity building, the female members ended up being passive members and their existence in the Association did not lead to actual participation. However, although the two female members were not particularly engaged during the meetings, they were relied upon to lead the awareness-‐

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raising activities within the villages. Eventually, this led to a decision to remove the quotas and to have female members elected through the same mechanism as the male members.

Having female members in the association that are elected was not an easy task as it was required getting women interested to elect female representatives to the board. In Fayoum for instance, female committees were established to search for key female village leaders and they decided to have a woman representing domestic water users (residential cluster) rather than representing field water users (agriculture cluster). A woman was indeed elected to represent the residential cluster, and some progress has been made in electing women to represent agricultural clusters as well. Also in Fayoum, a man represented a residential cluster while a woman was elected to represent an agricultural cluster.

However, in order to get women to run for a WUA position, a lot of effort had to be made by the ministry field workers who had to more or less go door to door convincing women of the importance of electing a female representative. This strategy is not sustainable over the long run especially since the Irrigation Advisory Service is lacking in female outreach officers. Overall, the experience was more or less successful once the female members were given intense capacity-‐building focused on communication skills and awareness of relevant issues, and once they spoke with female villagers themselves and got a strong understanding of the problems they face.

Another important point is that even after women are elected, often their participation is non-‐effective because: i) they are still not used to participating in open meetings with men; and ii) their interests – related to water quality – have not been addressed by the WUAs or the MWRI.

2.3.3 Areas of Women’s Participation in IWRM: The Case of Fayoum and Sharqeya Governorates

The Governorate of Fayoum is a large fertile oasis located about 130 km in the southwest of the capital Cairo. It has a population of roughly 2,5 million inhabitants (in 2006) and is split into 6 administrative districts and cities and 61 main villages. Total agricultural area is about 165,000 feddans with wheat and onion leading the list of agricultural products. Other key economic activities are related to aquaculture/fish farming revenues from local Qaroon Lake and tourism in the Wadi Rayyan environmental protectorate. But despite its natural and economic diversity, Fayoum is still considered one of the poorest regions in Egypt (together with Bani Swaif and Sohag in Upper Egypt) in terms of GDP per capita and lacking employment opportunities.

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Geographic Location of Fayoum

The Governorate of Sharqiyya is located in the north-‐east of Cairo and is considered the third most populated Governorate in Egypt according to the 2006 census (around 5.3 million inhabitants). 77% of the population lives in rural areas and 23% are located in urban neighbourhoods, most notably in the capital Zagazig. Shariqyya is one of the key agricultural regions in Egypt and is considered the second largest Governorate in terms of agricultural areas cultivated (a total of 825,000 feddans of agricultral lands) behind Beheira Governorate. Shaqrqiyya is well-‐known for its cotton, rice, wheat and citrus fruit production which depends to a large extent on irrgation water from the Ismailiyya canal. It consists of 13 administrative districts and 15 cities and hosts the 10th of Ramadan City, Egypt’s largest industrial complex famous for its textiles, furniture and ceramics products.

Geographic Location of Sharqiyya

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In August 2011, a number of tailored Focus Group Discusions (FGDs) and In-‐Depth Key Informant Interviews were carried out by the Consultant team in the Governorates of Fayoum (Senuris, Tameyya and Itsa districts) and Sharqiyya (Bahr Al-‐Husan and Del Al-‐Musalmeyya secondary canals) with the aim of gathering updated “real-‐life” information from the field to complement the findings from the secondary literature available. A total of four FGDs and four In-‐Depth Interviews involving both rural men and women were conducted in each Governorate. Key Informant Interviews were held with selected female and male rural leaders (“natural leaders”) and FGDs were organized separately, 3 female FGDs and 1 male FGD per Governorate to allow the participating women to share their opinions frankly without any feeling of intimidation possibly caused by the presence of men.

Female and male farmers discussing water management issues in Fayoum

It is already know from recent secondary literature and from interviews conducted with gender and water resources specialists that female participation in IWRM is generally low in Egypt. However, Fayoum and Shariqyya were chosen as case studies because they differ in terms of institutional frameworks available for females to participate. Whereas Fayoum has been a pioneer in promoting the concept of WUAs and participatory water management for more than a decade now, the experience is not as advanced in Shariqyya with WUAs covering only certain geographical districts within the Governorate. Therefore, a comparison between both Governorates seemed interesting in terms of identifying reasons and forms of women’s participation given different institutional contexts.

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Focus-‐Group Discussion in Sharqiyya

The selected participants from Fayoum and Sharqiyya (about 50 people, women and men) were asked a number of questions on their roles in Integrated Water Resources Management, obstacles they face in water management and solutions and recommendations they suggest for improvement. Although both Governorates are different in terms of availability and efficiency of WUAs as institutional frameworks for more female participation, we surprisingly received similar insights from the selected women in both Governorates on their responsibilities and activities in the field and their relationships vis-‐a-‐vis their male counterparts. These insights can be summarized as follows:

• “We are involved in agriculture and we support our husbands”: Around 40% of the female

participants in both Governorates stated that females play an important role in IWRM in about 50% of irrigation, water management and agriculture activities. They said that there are still tasks that men predominantly do, but in many cases women are involved in

supporting their husbands and families in the field and in exceptional cases they do hard irrigation works themselves.

• Whether WUAs are available or not, women still rely on informal sources of information: In

Fayoum women are usually allowed to participate in meetings of WUAs and they inform other members on decisions taken. In Sharqiyya however, the participation of women in WUAs is not yet as advanced. Not all Governorate districts are covered yet with WUAs, thus

the institutional framework for female participation is still largely missing. Access to information is difficult and limited to traditional channels (e.g. through their husbands, community leaders or district engineers stopping by). Where an institutional framework is

missing, informal information networks are the most important source of knowledge. Once WUAs spread across the Governorate, female farmers will have more access for water planning, management and decision making, but the challenges towards more participation

remain the same like in the Fayoum case.

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• Some few female interviewees in Fayoum (female members of WUAs) are also involved in conflict resolutions around water plans and water use and they are in direct contact with

district engineers to discuss and follow up on canal purification and maintenance works and regarding the financing of smaller water projects in their communities. The majority of women in both Governorates however receive WUA decisions and information either

through their husbands or through active female members. • Women in key positions? Still an uncommon pattern: In Fayoum, some of the female

members of WUAs hold coordinating/management positions within the WUAs (e.g.

accounting and financial management), but they remain a minority. • Women’s role in environmental awareness: Also in Fayoum and in some few districts of

Sharqiyya, some women join internal WUA committees which are usually related to

environmental and anti-‐pollution awareness. This is often seen as a complementary activity since rural women are already active as individuals in raising environmental awareness in their communities.

• Female members of WUAs and their role in representing other women’s interests: Women represent other community women in WUAs and convey to Water Boards the specific problems those female farmers and their households face related to irrigation and

agriculture. This is the case for a bit less that 25% of the selected female farmers in Fayoum which is a quite low rate given that WUAs are functioning in almost all villages across the Governorate. The rate is of course much lower in Shariqyya since the experience of WUAs

there is still new to the selected farmers. • Women, the use of clean water and waste disposal: Whether members of WUAs or not, in

Fayoum or in Sharqiyya, the selected rural women in both governorates are the most active stakeholders when it comes to how to use clean water, safe waste disposal and purification of water canals from solid and agricultural wastes and means for efficient water

conservation. The women also play a vital role in liaising with the Irrigation Advisory Services to collect and remove wastes.

• Women in agriculture and irrigation: Although private households are still the main domains

of involvement for rural women, they increasingly participate in irrigation and agriculture works (canal and mesqa cleaning, use of irrigation machine, pesticide control, fertilization, seeding, ensuring that water reaches irrigation inlets, harvesting, environmental awareness,

animal feeding and production, marketing and selling agricultural products, buying seeds and fertilizers, paying workforce, etc.) regardless whether they are members of WUAs or not and regardless of the Governorate the respondents belong to. Due to worsening socio-‐

economic conditions, high inflation rate and decreasing quantity and quality of agricultural products, many male farmers are forced to seek for additional employment, either as day laborers in the private sector or as low-‐rank public servants. In this case, women get

involved in almost all irrigation tasks; even in those activities that need high physical fitness and night irrigation to compensate the loss of male manpower. In more economically stable farmer households, the absence of male farmers can be compensated by hiring other

individual farmers in return of daily labor fee.

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Although field interviews and Focus Group Discussions from Fayoum and Sharqiyya have underlined that rural women are de facto involved in IWRM and agricultural field work, there are still several

obstacles they face and that can be summarized as follows (relevant to both the Fayoum and Sharqiyya cases alike):

• There are still some barriers related to how the rural communities look at the role of women Thus, it is crucial that more active participation of women is “sold” in a culturally sensitive way in order to avoid presenting it as a “Western” paradigm imported from abroad. This

issue was present in both governorates although perhaps slightly less perceptible in Fayoum. • Illiteracy, especially among rural populations, is also a major reason why the overall

participation of women in IWRM and WUAs is relatively low. Intensive literacy campaigns

are urgently needed. • Women do not have full access to information related to water management, water hours

for irrigation, maintenance of water canals among others. Women have to be linked directly

to sources of information, either through WUAs or through a direct connection to a district engineer or to the Irrigation Advisory Services at Governorate level.

• Although women have started benefiting from WUAs (in Fayoum for intance), there are still

gaps that could be improved. WUA members should be sustainably trained on gender and the importance of women’s participation, women should be increasingly involved in planning and decision-‐making of WUAs, women should be duly informed and updated about

WUA decisions and WUA meetings should be organized in places convenient and close to women’s residential areas. Women should also be more involved in being integrated in

official links/connections with public water authorities (e.g. with district engineers) in order to have regular and fresh access to information. More awareness sessions should be provided to rural women on water pollution and safe waste disposal to minimize the

negative effects of pollution on females, their children and their households.

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• Empowerment of women in WUAs is a key issue. Women should be given an incentive to

participate more actively in WUAs and to influence decision-‐making and problem solving. More awareness sessions and workshops need to be provided by women to women for more active involvement and representation in WUAs.

2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations

This chapter will begin with a summary of the main obstacles and recommendations to enhance the mainstreaming of gender in IWRM in Egypt, followed by a detailed explanation of the key recommendations.

Some of the main obstacles in the way of gender mainstreaming and enhancing women’s participation are as follows:

• The locally understood role of water management as being the prime responsibility of the male members of society. In fact, many women are content to relegate this role to the men.

• Lack of awareness of the potential benefits of becoming more involved, which is linked to a lack of awareness of the role of water organizations.

• Lacking interest of women to participate in WUAs since they already play multiple other roles in their families and communities, and their preference to focus on issues they see as directly related to the safety and health of their children.

• Traditions and culture which often lead to the husbands being against the participation of their wives in open meetings with men, and leads many women to also be against it.

• The spread of illiteracy in general, and especially environmental illiteracy. • The remote locations of the meetings as well as holding meetings at a late hour.

• Males usually dominating the decision-‐making process and not allowing women to participate in this process.

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• Not giving women the correct information which leads to their further marginalization. • Only giving women very specific responsibilities when it comes to irrigation, which are usually

limited to assisting their husbands in the field.

The main recommendations for more efficient and sustainable gender mainstreaming in IWRM can be summarized as follows:

1) Information dissemination and awareness-‐raising to combat environmental illiteracy. Information should be easily and readily accessible to female water users, who are not as mobile or socially interactive as men.

2) Find a point of interest for males and females to jointly engage in discussing and planning IWRM processes.

3) Focus on female-‐headed households because they are more involved in agriculture and irrigation, and at the same time the most economically vulnerable in terms of income generation.

4) Focus on the merits of gender mainstreaming on the well-‐being of the family as a whole. 5) Tackle the issue of female participation through “natural leaders” who are accepted by their

local communities. 6) Capacity building of women to enhance their communication skills. 7) Institutional capacity building for local women’s committees or local female leaders who can

take charge of outreach activities.

These obstacles and recommendations are elaborated in more detail hereunder.

2.4.1 Increasing the Interest of Women for More Active Participation in IWRM

Gender mainstreaming strategies often point to enhancing women’s participation in water associations in general. However, field research conducted during the development of this toolkit indicates that one of the key obstacles towards enhancing women’s participation is their own lack of interest.

Although women have increasingly been represented in WUAs in their villages, their participation in decision making and planning is not yet fully enforced. Females usually do not show full commitment in association meetings with their male counterparts. The problem arises partially from intimidation, but also from the fact that many women don’t see the point of participating in the presence of men because they are used to the men taking care of the important issues. This, together with the fact that many women don’t see the value-‐added of their presence in the association when they already have somebody else representing their interests, leads to a weakness in active involvement. One suggestion to overcome this problem is to have a separate committee especially for women. This way the women are forced to participate actively and this often generates unique opinions and ideas that did not come out of the general association meetings, as the women feel more free to discuss their problems and how it affects their families, and they feel more confident and interested to identify solutions.

In addition to this, women are not interested in joining the WUAs because they already have a huge burden of running the family and household so they are often happy to delegate to their husbands or even to a relative or neighbour. Often they feel that they are leaving their houses and chores behind, and sometimes they even have to pay transportation, to attend a meeting they don’t sometimes even feel is useless.

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Lacking interest however does not represent the actual and important role women play in Egyptian agricultural and water management: Women have a big role in walling up the water canals and in choosing the locations of bridges, as the locations often go through residential areas. They should also play a bigger role in crop-‐rotation when deciding what to plan. It’s very important for the women to play a part in decision-‐making because they are affected by what other people plant, especially on lands that plant rice or other crops that require a lot of water which floods their land. The very high interest women when discussing issues like child education or vaccination versus their lack of interest when it comes to participation in water associations points to one conclusion: As long as women believe that their participation is of no added value to their families, they will not bother to put in the extra effort in light of their already huge familial burdens. On the other hand, once they are given something they’re actually interested in and an area where they believe they can have a positive impact on the well-‐being of their families, they become very active. At the end it is a matter of triggering the female’s interest to participate more actively.

2.4.2 Focus on Independent Female Farmers

Lately there has been a phenomenon that has been described by some experts as “the feminization of agriculture” in Egypt where more and more women are taking over the field as the men move to other business. Agriculture is no longer as lucrative as before so the men take a day job or rent another land and the women take over the original family land. Hence, more women are getting involved in day-‐to-‐day irrigation and agriculture works to compensate the increasing manpower lost of rural men seeking additional employment elsewhere for extra income generation. This has led to an increase in the number of Female Headed Households, which in this case are not limited to divorcees and widows, but rather any family where the woman is the main person in charge of managing the family land.

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Women see themselves also forced to do heavy irrigation fieldwork (e.g. maintaining water canals) causing severe physical hardship. Bigger agricultural households can usually afford employing other farmers on their field to help with the heavy work in return of a daily fee, but for poorer households where women are the sole irrigators and cultivators, support schemes have to be thought of (for instance helping women to market their products). Such incentives would allow poor smallholder farmers to afford an extra workforce working on the field in the absence of the husband.

2.4.3 Improve Agricultural Literacy

Women often depend on their husbands or male relatives as the sole source of information about agriculture and irrigation. This is how they often get inaccurate or incomplete information since they do not directly get exposed to information delivered from the water user association, the irrigation department, or IAS services. The impact literacy has on female participation becomes more pronounced when comparing with an area such as Nubareya where women have been much more active because they are well-‐educated so they are able to understand the issues at hand and have strong opinions.

This issue can be greatly improved through intensifying of IAS awareness-‐raising activities. However, the lack of female outreach officers in the IAS poses a serious obstacle to the success of such activities. One suggestion to deal with the lack of female staff capable of being field outreach officers is to rely on local village leaders (whether male or female) or any popular figures in the community in general that has a regular and open communication channel with local women. Another suggestion is to rely on those working with the agricultural associations who are already trained on awareness-‐raising and have actual experience in conducting outreach activities during the bird flu pandemic. This also applies to the local health units who also have awareness-‐raising and outreach experience.

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Cooperation between the MWRI and the MALR in this respect is very important. It not only promotes institutional integration but reduces the burden on the MWRI with respect to the availability of trained female staff who can disseminate information and mobilize female water users. Moreover, female farmers can also benefit by receiving important information related to agriculture and increasing farm yield through these extension workers and this in turn will have a positive impact on the management of water in their farms.

2.4.4 Redefine Gender Mainstreaming using Culturally Appropriate Concepts

Gender should be presented to and discussed with rural communities as a tool for overall development that respects the cultural and religious particularities of the target audience. Thus, the discussion of gender issues in conservative societies must take place in close cooperation and advice from natural leaders who know best how to present critical issues to the beneficiaries to avoid resentments over gender being seen by some people as a tool to undermine male dominated societies.

It is thus recommended to link gender to issues interesting to men and women alike, and issues that can be linked to the overall well-‐being of the family and children especially. For example, the experience of focusing on the importance of the mother knowing what is planted and when for the food security of the family, and knowing where the irrigation comes from, has been effective in the past at changing the perception of the concept of gender mainstreaming. Knowledge on how to deal with gender and how to present it is therefore crucial in order to avoid presenting the concept as one intending to achieve female dominance over men.

A sound gender strategy focuses on the roles and interests of both male and female water users. In some areas, particularly Upper Egypt, female water users prefer to be represented by the men in their society.

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2.4.5 Increasing the Social Acceptance of Women’s Involvement

Social acceptance is a problem both from the men and women’s side. In addition to the abovementioned issues leading to a lack of interest, there is also sometimes an impression that women who join the WUAs belong to the richer segments of farmers who participate in order to co-‐opt smaller farmers in an institutional framework they can control.

Another cultural barrier facing some females in agriculture is that irrigation and working in the field are sometimes considered inappropriate for religious reasons, especially in ultra-‐conservative farmer families. Although females often help, it is primarily that their husbands work in the field. All women in the villages help their husbands in the field with planting and irrigation but do not necessarily have a say in managing or deciding the process, especially in financial matters, unless their husbands seek extra employment beyond his family field. In his case, women are usually delegated responsibility for the field.

Another challenge lies in convincing men of the merits of gender mainstreaming. Men do not necessarily oppose female participation because they are hostile, but rather because they do not fully understand the logic of female participation since they feel they already represent the needs of their families effectively. Many women agree to this perception and do not fully realize that they themselves play a vital role in IWRM that needs to be strengthened and supported.

All these issues can be dealt with through a more widespread and comprehensive information campaign. Awareness is the key because scarce information about many important gender issues has led in the past to deficient awareness.

The issue of women’s participation is often presented to men as a necessity for women to participate solely because they are women. The focus should be more on women participating because they are water users. Furthermore, men’s wishes should also be respected, and if women and men can’t be together in the same meeting, then implementers should be willing to conduct separate meetings.

2.4.6 Improve Communication Skills among Women

Many women lack the communication skills necessary to voice their opinions during meetings and to

engage in decision-‐making discussions. A prime example of this is that often when meetings are held in remote locations or late at night hindering women’s ability to attend, they are not always willing to voice this concern. This happened in Fayoum but after some capacity-‐building by ministry field

workers, women were urged to voice all their concerns, and the location and timing of the meetings were subsequently changed to be more convenient. This type of capacity-‐building, if replicated on a wide scale, could have a resounding effect on women’s ability to actively participate in association

meetings. Equally important is providing training on presentation and negotiation skills as well as meeting organization for women. That would provide them with the confidence to partake a more active role as WUA members.

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Chapter 3: PRACTITIONERS’ GUIDE TO GENDER MAINSTREAMING IN IWRM

How to Use this Booklet

This booklet provides practical steps for public and private stakeholders involved in the water management process on both decentralized and central levels. By consulting it carefully, you will be

able to:

1. Discover whether you are genuinely convinced of the benefits of including women in water management;

2. Carry out a simple baseline study to gain information on the characteristics of your target area and groups, as well as an understanding of the status of women and their actual roles in farming and water management;

3. Prepare an outreach plan for locating your target water users (men and women) and mobilizing them;

4. Prepare and practice the messages that you will need to communicate to your target groups to gain their support and participation in a gender water management strategy;

5. Learn the do's and don'ts of communicating with your target groups; 6. Acquire useful tips on addressing issues and problems that may come up during the course

of your work; 7. Organize and implement a simple and practical gender training program for yourself and

your colleagues.

The booklet presents four essential steps that are required for mobilizing your target groups and

communicating messages on gender participation in water management. Naturally, there are many more activities involved in a gender strategy. However, experience has shown that the first stages of mobilization and communication are the most fundamental components.

Since this booklet presents steps that are required in implementing a gender responsive strategy, it

is recommended that you read and follow it sequentially.

Getting Down To Your Task

You have been assigned to promote a gender strategy in water management in a specific area in Egypt. At first, it may seem a daunting task.

Many questions will come to your mind and probably discourage you. But first, there is one question that is more important than all of the above; how you answer it will influence the degree of success

of your work:

Are you yourself convinced of the importance of women's participation in water management?

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Step One: Test Yourself: Are you Convinced?

One of the main problems encountered in the implementation of a gender strategy is that often the field agents (and even their superiors), particularly the men, are themselves skeptical of the need for

a gender sensitive approach that encourages the participation of women.

In other words, how will you be capable of convincing your target groups of a notion with which you yourself disagree or feel uncomfortable about? It is therefore essential at the beginning to test your inner beliefs and find out whether you will be able to pursue your work with confidence or with

hesitation and frustration.

Here is an exercise that will help you to find out whether you truly agree with the concept of female participation.

Personal Checklist

Fill the checklist below. It is comprised of a series of questions to which you will reply whether you agree, disagree or are unsure about a gender issue. Each response carries a score; after filling the

checklist, count your scores and then refer to the analysis below the checklist.

NOTE:

• Do not be tempted to read the analysis before filling the checklist. This is not an exam but a way to help you familiarize yourself with your innermost beliefs about the work that you are

about to perform.

• Do not consult a colleague or any other person when filling the checklist.

• Be honest with yourself. No-‐one will penalize you or judge you incorrectly.

1. The participation of women will not add any substantial value to improving water management. What will they do that the men can't do? a. I agree. (0 points)

b. I disagree. (10 points) c. I am not sure. (5 points)

2. Women should not be encouraged to participate in water management because it would distract them from dedicating their time to household tasks. a. I agree. (0 points)


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3. Women are not as well informed about water management issues as men are and they will therefore be incapable of participating effectively in addressing them.

a. I agree. (0 points) b. I disagree. (10 points) c. I am not sure. (5 points)

4. Women have a right to be informed about the water management issues that affect them

and their families' livelihood.


5. Local customs and traditions make it difficult for women to attend meetings where men are

present. Therefore, there is no point in encouraging women to participate in WUAs.


6. Water management issues are too complicated for women to understand.

a. I agree. (0 points)


7. Most women in rural Egypt are illiterate or have very basic education. They will thus never

be capable of participating in any important decisions or community work.


8. A woman's participation in water management will bring benefits not only to her male

relatives but her neighbors and fellow villagers as well.


9. I can accept the participation of a woman in meetings and activities but only if she is

accompanied by a male relative.


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10. The participation of females in public and social tasks is a western concept and does not apply to our society.


Analysis and Next Steps

If your score is between 70 and 100, then

Analysis: Congratulations! You are committed to the idea of female participation in water management and will be able to perform your duties with confidence.

Next Step: You are ready to begin your field work and other tasks that are appointed to you. Proceed with the next steps outlined after this section.


Analysis: you are not fully convinced of the importance of female participation in water

management and there are doubts that may prevent you from communicating messages and performing other tasks with ease. You may also be lacking information on the topic and as a result feel undecided and unsure about certain aspects.

Next Step: Ask yourself what aspects give you doubts about the topic (go back to the checklist and

check the questions to which you marked "I am not sure") so that you are familiar with the issues that trouble you most. Acquiring more information on the topic (by attending a gender training program, interviewing female farmers, learning from the experiences of field agents in other areas in

Egypt) can help you dispel some of these doubts. In the final analysis, however, your conviction will become stronger once you get down to performing your tasks, but try not to take a leading role at

first in important activities like presenting communication messages until you fully agree with the concept.


Analysis: You disagree with the notion of female participation in water management and you will find great difficulty fulfilling your tasks. Your target groups will sense your skepticism and may not

respond positively to your messages and other efforts.

Next Step: Before you proceed with the next steps outlined in this toolkit, you need to first work on changing your beliefs on the topic. You can do this by enlisting yourself in a training course on gender (an example of a training program is included in this booklet), talking to another colleague

who favors the idea, and/or interviewing an independent female farmer who is experiencing water management problems. If all these options fail to convince you, it is recommended that you do not take a leading role in gender activities and confine yourself to tasks that do not require creativity or

initiative. For example, you can accompany a colleague on visits to mobilize women but you will not be able to prepare strong communication messages or provide effective presentations if you are skeptical of the topic.

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How the Personal Checklist can be Used

This checklist can be used in several ways:

• Each field agent can use it individually to assess his/her stance towards the notion of gender participation.

• The checklist can be used by the field supervisor to determine and select field agents that are more enthusiastic and committed than others to the notion of gender participation.

• The checklist can also be used in a training program that targets different stakeholders (eg. local officials, male water users, even the women themselves) to test their commitment to the importance of female participation in water management.

Step Two: Familiarize Yourself with Your Target Area and Target Groups

Once you are sure of your beliefs and stance on the notion of gender participation, you can embark on implementing a gender sensitive water management strategy. The first step that you need to take is to familiarize yourself with the area and the target groups you will be dealing with.

To help you gather the required information, a series of questions have been formulated below. The

answers to these questions will provide sufficient background data with which to proceed with a gender strategy. (In fact, these questions can form the foundation of a baseline study that you may want to conduct to outline the situation before implementing gender sensitive activities; the study

can be repeated during or after implementation to assess the impact of these activities on promoting gender participation).

Purpose of the Baseline Questions

The baseline questions will help you to:

1. Familiarize yourself with the water management conditions of the area in which you will work.

2. Work with ease and comfort in the target area by making you familiar to those residing and farming in it.

3. Obtain information on the key leaders and other channels through which the water users can be reached and mobilized. This will be useful to you in developing your outreach plan.

4. Obtain an insight of the status of women in the area and how they are perceived by the men in their society. This will enable you to formulate communication and awareness messages that you will need to disseminate to the different target groups.

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The Baseline Questions

Following are the most pertinent questions that you will need to ask before implementing a gender strategy in water management:

Characteristics of the Area

1. What are the main crops grown in the area? What is the percentage of water consuming crops that are grown (eg. rice, bananas, etc)?

2. Are there economic activities besides farming in the area, particularly those that employ women (eg. poultry farms, food packaging industries, etc)?

3. What are the main water management issues/problems in the area and what is their degree of importance (eg. insufficient water at the secondary canal or mesqa, lack of regular or proper maintenance, dumping of solid/liquid waste in open waterways, conflict between farmers over water distribution, water does not reach tail end areas, etc)?

4. What is the level of infrastructure and basic services in the area? Is the area served by potable water, waste water systems, solid waste disposal, education, health, etc?

5. Who are the key leaders in the area? Can they help in reaching and mobilizing the women?

6. Are there local organizations or entities within the village that women seek or visit (eg. Community Development Associations, literacy classes, health clinics, etc)?

7. Are there any projects (local or foreign funded) in the area that serve women? If so, how do they mobilize the women in the area? Is there a possibility of cooperation with these projects for outreach and awareness activities to women?

Characteristics and Roles of the Male Water Users

1. What is the approximate percentage of men in the area who are educated (literate and above)?

2. What is the approximate percentage of men who are landowners? 3. What is the approximate percentage of men who are tenants/sharecroppers? 4. What is the approximate percentage of men who are day laborers?

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5. What are the farming tasks of men? 6. What is the typical daily routine of a man who farms? 7. What is the percentage of male day laborers in the area? 8. Are male day laborers affected by water management issues? If so, how? 9. What is the approximate percentage of men who are not farmers or seek salaried

employment? 10. What are the irrigation and other water management tasks performed by the men? 11. What are the problems or issues that men find most pressing about the conditions of

farming and water management in their area? 12. Do men consult with their farm neighbors or other farmers on water management issues? If

so, what are examples of these issues?

Characteristics and Roles of the Female Water Users

1. What is the approximate percentage of women in the area who are educated (literate and above)? How does it compare with the percentage of men who are educated?

2. What are the characteristics and approximate percentages of the women who farm? How many are: husband's wives, young girls, widows or other women who do not have male relatives to help them, older women, day laborers, etc?

3. What are the farming tasks of the women? 4. What is the typical daily routine of a woman who farms? 5. What is the approximate percentage of female independent farmers in the area? 6. How do these independent female farmers obtain their agricultural inputs? Who helps them

with farming and irrigation? Who helps them in marketing their produce? Are there any particular problems related to agriculture and water management that they encounter?

7. What is the percentage of female landowners in the area? 8. Do women who own land go to the agricultural cooperative to receive their share of

fertilizer and other inputs? 9. If women do not farm, are they at least aware of the problems related to water

management in their area? What is their level of knowledge? 10. What is the percentage of female day laborers in the area? 11. Are female day laborers affected by water management issues? If so, how? 12. Do women go to the market to sell produce? 13. What are the irrigation and other water management tasks performed by the women? How

do they compare to those that are performed by the men? 14. What are the problems or issues that women find most pressing about the conditions of

farming and water management in their area? 15. Do women consult with their farm neighbors or other farmers on water management

issues? If so, what are examples of these issues?

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Perception of Female Participation by the Local Community

1. What do the men think about women farming? Do they consider it shameful and only to be done out of necessity?

2. What do the men and women think about the idea of participation in water management decision making through institutions such as Water User Associations? Do they think it would be beneficial in addressing the water management issues in their area? If so, how? If not, why not?

3. What do the men think about women participating in Water User Associations (by attending and participating in meetings)? Do they think it will be beneficial? If so, how? If not, why not?

4. What do the women themselves think about participating in Water User Associations (by attending and participating in meetings)? Do they think it will be beneficial? If so, how? If not, why not?

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NOTE:

• Depending on the area in which you are working and your experience, you can add more questions to this list, which serves as a guiding tool that you can start with.

• There are different sources that can provide the data and answers to the above questions. Examples of these are: local MWRI officials (for water management information), the agricultural cooperatives (for land tenure and farming information), the Local Unit offices (for information on infrastructure and basic services), key leaders (for information on perceptions of the local community and characteristics of the water users), and the water users (for information on farming and water management tasks, and opinions on water management participation).

• Even if you will not compile the data acquired in a written study, it is recommended that you record the information in an organized fashion so that you can consult it later on when you require it.

Step Three: Prepare an Outreach Plan

Once you have obtained sufficient information on your target area and stakeholders, you need to

develop a practical plan that helps you locate and mobilize your target groups.

This plan need not be complicated and should not take too much of your time to develop. However, experience has shown that without such a plan, your activities in the area will be haphazard, unorganized and may end up consuming more time than if you had originally planned for them.

To develop your outreach plan, you need to ask two fundamental questions:

1. Who are my primary target groups (i.e. those who will directly participate and be directly

affected by the activities that will be implemented)?

2. Who are my secondary target groups (i.e. those who will not directly participate but who can assist in mobilizing the primary target groups and in influencing their attitudes and

behavior)?

Examples of primary target groups are:

• Female water users: these can be subdivided into:

o Women independent farmers; o Women landowners who farm their lands; o Women farmers who assist their male relatives; o Women day laborers; o Women who reside in areas located close to the canal/drain.

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• Male water users1: these can be subdivided into:

o Landowners; o Tenants/sharecroppers; o Day laborers; o Men who reside in areas located close to the canal/drain.

• Local officials: these may include:

o MWRI officials at the governorate level (eg. the Undersecretaries and Directors-‐General for Irrigation, Drainage and IAS);

o The head and staff of the Integrated Water Management District; o District Irrigation Engineer; o District Drainage Engineer; o District IAS head; o Head of the Agricultural Cooperative (appointed and elected); o Head of the Local Unit;

Examples of secondary target groups are:

• Key leaders: these are male and female figures that are known and respected by the local

community, and may include:

o The omdah; o The mosque sheikh; o Sheikh el-‐balad; o Head of a well-‐known family; o Any individual who is revered and trusted by the people.

• Male relatives: these are the husbands, fathers, brothers, sons and other relatives of the female water users who are targeted by the gender strategy.

• Members of local institutions such as:

o Community Development Associations and other NGOs operating in the area; o Agricultural extension workers; o Health extension workers; o Literacy teachers; o Members of other projects working in the area.

1 It is important to remember that an effective gender strategy targets both males and females and is not biased solely towards female participation. The presenter should be able to speak to a group without shyness

or hesitation and she should practice her presentation at least once before giving it.

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Normally, you would start your outreach activities by contacting the secondary target groups, to obtain their assistance and support in locating your primary target groups and in mobilizing them

and communicating the messages to them. For example, a visit to the omdah will help you in locating your female water users and since he is in many places respected by the local community, he can help you in mobilizing them and in communicating your messages.

However, do not feel confined to a rigid approach. Depending on the situation of your area and

stakeholders, you may want to begin by directly contacting the primary target groups or you may want to approach both types of groups simultaneously.

Once you have identified your primary and secondary target groups, you need to develop a timetable for your visits to each. The table below can be a useful tool. It has been filled with one

example for illustration:

Stakeholder Type of Group

(Primary /

Secondary)

Number of Visits

Required

Date of visit(s)

Visit Completed (check)

Date of Follow-‐up Visit(s)

Comments

Om Ahmed (female

landowner who does not farm

but who is respected by other

women in the area)

Secondary 2 (before and after a

large meeting with the

female water users)

November 2

Done November 14

Om Ahmed

will provide a list of

women in her area who farm

on their own).

Developing a schedule like the one cited above facilitates your outreach tasks in several ways:

• It provides you with an idea of the total number and frequency of visits required. Knowing this will help you organize your time and prepare logistical requirements (such as vehicles, meeting places, handout material, etc).

• It helps you visualize and regulate the number of visits that would be required for each target group; that way, you would not be focusing too much on one group at the expense of the other and you would take into account all the social categories and individuals that need to be approached and who may be offended if you do not contact them.

• It is an effective monitoring tool with which you can assess the number and type of stakeholders that you have included in your gender strategy.

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Remember!

• Your outreach plan should not take too much time than is required. There are other activities that would need to be implemented in a gender strategy (eg. training, elections for Water User Associations, implementation of irrigation or drainage activities, awareness raising, etc) and these should also be given adequate time.

• You can't reach everybody. Rather than aiming on mobilizing the greatest number of stakeholders, focus on reaching those that will be most responsive to your messages and activities and those that are likely to continue with you to the end. In most cases, if you start with a small enthusiastic group, others will be attracted to join your activities and you will have a ripple effect.

• You should be ready to amend your outreach time schedule more than one time, depending on cancellation or postponement of appointments.

• Your target group list may increase. While implementing your outreach activities, you are likely to discover stakeholders that you had not originally taken into account. Do include them if they are important, but do not let these new additions make you over-‐extend the time allotted to implementing your outreach plan.

Step Four: Prepare your Communication Messages

Often times, a field agent may follow a well construed plan and be fully convinced of his/her work.

However, previous experience has shown that failure to communicate the right messages on the topic at hand is perhaps the major cause behind the weakness or lack of impact of many activities.

Below you will find a model introduction presentation that can serve as a guide to the most pertinent messages and information that should be communicated to each target group category, in

order to convince them of the importance of gender participation.

Much of the information that needs to be communicated at the beginning is the same for all target groups, since it deals with general issues on the importance of gender participation and on the concept of Water User Associations. However, certain statements need to be made at the beginning

and end of your presentation to conform to the characteristics and interests of each type of group.

Read each presentation once. Then imagine yourself talking to each of the target groups below and re-‐read the presentation. This time, you may want to add or delete certain items or statements depending on your particular situation.

You do not need to memorize each presentation. But it would be highly useful and effective if you

could revise the contents and perhaps rehearse them on your own or with a colleague before you actually attend the meeting.

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Note:

You do not have to follow the model presentations below word for word. If you feel more comfortable preparing your own presentation, then do so. The presentations provided in this toolkit

serve mainly as a guide that you can use to communicate the important introductory messages to the target groups.

Remember!

Don't underestimate the importance of introduction presentations. Take them seriously and prepare well for them. If prepared well, these can be very instrumental in motivating your target

groups and facilitating any activities that you will later undertake. Conversely, if they are not well prepared or provided adequate attention, they may undermine your credibility and the importance of what you are trying to implement.

Model Presentations

Female and Male Water Users

[Start with the common local greeting] Peace be upon you. [Then follow by introducing yourself,

stating your name and position] I’m …, I represent ….

[Next, state the purpose of your visit] Thank you for coming to this meeting. I will not take too much of your time I’m here concerning an issue that is important for you, since it affects your daily livelihood and affects the production of your land.

Before meeting you, I visited this area several times and I am familiar with the problems you have

such as lack of water [usually the water users will interrupt here; let them complain, but don’t let them take too much time and get embroiled in the argument]. I know that these problems are serious and in all honesty I can’t promise that they will be solved overnight, but the idea I’m offering

you now is an idea that will assist you all to solve this problem together, as the saying goes “One hand alone cannot clap”.

Before I tell you about this suggestion, I would like to inform you that the problems that you have

mentioned are not particular to your area only, in fact they are present in many villages all over Egypt. And surely you as villagers have gone and complained to the local district engineers about them and even went up as high as officials in Cairo but, very little was solved, right? [Wait for the

response and be patient]. I know that this has been going on for a long time and that you as villagers have done all that you can but, the problems continue to exist.

[This would be the perfect point at which you can introduce the concept of water management participation]. The officials at the Ministry of Water Resources and Management know this and that

is why they have started to implement a new strategy. Why do I say that this is new? Because in the past, the means to solve problems usually took the form of contacting officials and leaving all matters up to them. This hasn’t worked as you know. The Ministry realizes that your problems can

only be solved if you as water users participate in the steps needed to solve them.

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You will ask me “how can we solve them, when all decisions are taken by the government?" I will tell you that the government itself is welcoming and allowing water users to share some decisions with

it. How can you do this? You can do this through a mechanism called Water User Associations.

What are Water User Associations? The idea is simple: all water users within the area of a mesqa or secondary canal get together to elect a board of representatives who will speak on their behalf and co-‐operate with the government in managing these waterways (canals and drains). That way, the

burden on the Ministry managing of all the waterways in Egypt will be reduced and you as water users will get a chance to manage your own affairs and participate in solving your problems.

You will ask me “what do the women have to do with all of this?” The answer is simple: this is an issue that affects your daily income and which in turn affects the well-‐being of your families. Even if

women don’t farm, they will at least know that the problems in your area are serious. And if they do farm then these problems are bound to affect them directly. The Ministry wants all water users to participate in these WUAs because all water users are affected by the problems related to water.

During my earlier visits to your village, I have learned that there are women amongst you who farm

and we want these women to be representatives in these associations. Let me point out to you very clearly that we are NOT aiming to reverse the authority of men over women and we fully realize that men have always been the decision makers in these matters. But we highly respect the opinions of

all water users and we would like you to co-‐operate with us in electing your representatives in the WUA to ensure that these are the people that you really trust in addressing your problems.

I would like to repeat and emphasize again that we are not empowering women at the expense of the men and we respect your local traditions, but our experience in other areas in Egypt has shown

that when all users, men and women, sit together, think about their problems together and make decisions jointly, then they make up a very strong working team that the government can trust as a

partner in decision making.

So, all I am asking of you is to be patient with us in implementing this strategy for your benefit. We ask that you give us some of your time to attend a meeting to elect your representatives in the WUA. The meeting will be held [specify the date, time and location].

I would also be very grateful if you can communicate what I have just told you to your relatives,

neighbors and any other villager that you meet. I thank you very much for your time and look forward to seeing you at the meeting [allow time for questions].

1. Local officials

[Start with the common local greeting] Peace be upon you. [Then follow by introducing yourself, stating your name and position] I’m …, I represent ….

[Next, state the purpose of your visit]. Thank you for giving me time for this meeting. As you know,

the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation is implementing a nationwide strategy for managing water through Water User Associations. The WUA have been successful in many respects, mostly in getting all the water users together to make joint decisions and participate with the government in

planning and implementation.

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However, most of these water users have been the men. As you know, more and more women are taking up farming either on their own or by assisting their male relatives. They are therefore counted

as water users just as the men are; however, their role in water management decision making has so far been weak and needs to be enforced so that their opinions can be heard and so that the government can benefit from their participation.

We know that it is not an easy task to encourage the women to participate, especially since this is

considered by the local communities to be a new phenomenon. However, our experience in many areas in Egypt has shown that when they are given the chance and the right tools, they add great benefit to the activities of the WUAs.

One of the greatest obstacles in implementing this strategy is lack of information which will help us

formulate solid plans that reflect the reality of the areas we will work in. We therefore request that you provide us with data and statistics that can be helpful to us in implementing this strategy. The type of information that we would need includes … [State the information required, eg: the

percentage of female landowners in the target area].

[Information request to the head of the Agricultural Cooperative or a key leader]: During my previous visits to your area, I have noticed that there female farmers who manage their lands on their own. Those are the ones that we are mainly targeting because they are the ones most affected by water

management issues since their access to information and participation in decisions is usually weaker than for other women. Do you have a rough estimate of their number and locations? The information that you will provide for us will assist us in locating such women and others and inviting

them to attend the local WUA meetings.

I thank you very much for your time and I hope that you can provide us with the required information.

Important Points to Remember for Effective Mobilization and Communication

The four steps outlined above are essential for locating and organizing the target groups and for

communicating the right messages to them. Following are some tips that help you in performing these activities with confidence and success:

Mobilizing the target groups:

The mobilization process is quite challenging since in most cases you will be going door to door in an attempt to invite villagers to a meeting to discuss a subject that is new to them and that might be sensitive. To be successful in this process, you must be alert to your actions and selective in your

speech.

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Below is a list of direct and simple recommendations and warnings on what you should and shouldn’t say or do.

1. Be sure to consult with one or more key leaders before approaching the water users. Key leaders will be helpful in guiding you to the water users that are most likely to respond positively to your mission and thus, they will make your job much easier and will save you time and effort.

2. If you are targeting a house where a female water user lives, be sure to speak to her male relative(s) at first and explain your mission to them, to gain their trust and acceptance in letting their female relatives participate in your activities. If the person that meets you at the door is not an adult male, then ask to speak to one, as it is more appropriate to address the man of the house first.

3. Once you are inside the household, choose a seating that does not offend the residents; if they are seated on the ground, do the same.

4. When speaking to the resident(s), maintain an average speed of speech to ensure that they can follow you clearly.

5. Speak loud enough for clarity but not too loud as to disturb the residents of the household. 6. Do not use any sophisticated words and phrases that might confuse the listeners. Be especially

aware of using terms and terminologies that you are accustomed to using within your own working environment but that may be unfamiliar to those who do not belong to it.

7. Limit your physical movements as much as possible to avoid sending across the wrong signals or making false gestures. (For example, place your mobile phone in a silent mode to avoid reaching for it if it rings; have your notebook and pen ready on hand).

8. Be as friendly and brief as you can be and don’t let your visit last too long. If a resident starts to argue insistently, try to address his/her words in a way that does not take too much time or start a heated debate. Instead, tell him/her that you would be grateful if they attended the public meeting for further information and discussion.

9. Make sure that you end the conversation in a manner that leaves the residents keen to find out further information, which would be communicated to them in the public meeting.

10. Invite one or more key leaders to the public meeting with the water users. The presence of key leaders will benefit your cause greatly and lend it credibility.

11. If you were successful in inviting key leaders to the meeting, then inform the residents that these individuals will be present at the meeting; this would encourage the water users to attend the meeting.

12. When you are inviting the residents to the public meeting, be sure that you clearly inform them of the date, timing and location of the meeting and its intended duration.

Organizing a Public Meeting for the Target Groups:

During the process of mobilizing, you will be inviting and gathering villagers to a meeting where you are to present them with the concept of participation of women in the WUA. That meeting must be

well planned and organized in order for your mission to be successful. Following is a list of recommendations and aspects to be aware of when you organize a public meeting for the water users:

1. Consult with key leaders to assist you in selecting the most suitable date, time and location for the meeting as they are most familiar with the village and the circumstances of the residents.

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2. Be careful to choose a date, timing and location that are suitable for the majority of the meeting participants. Do not hold the meeting at a location that is too far, or is inaccessible for the villagers. Ensure that the location is easy to find and is close to the residential area. Avoid scheduling the meeting on days (eg. the weekly market, harvest days) and timings (eg. times when women or men are busy their individual tasks) that are unsuitable to the participants.

3. Repeat the information about the date, time and location of the meeting more than once to each of the expected attendants to ensure that they have the correct information.

4. If there are any adjustments to the date, timing or location of the meeting, then inform the expected attendants about these adjustments at least a day in advance.

5. If you are organizing the meeting together with one or more colleagues, then be sure to share all information and planning with them before making any decisions.

6. Try to limit the number of participants that you invite to a public meeting. If there is a large number of villagers that you wish to invite then it is preferable that you organize more than one meeting. Having too many participants attend a single meeting is likely to lead to chaotic arguments, noise and several other types of distractions that would affect the end result of the meeting.

7. Once you have picked a location for the meeting, make sure that there is an adequate number of chairs and any other equipment that you might need before the day of the meeting (eg. electrical connections for audio-‐visual equipment) to avoid unexpected errors during the meeting.

8. Organize the seats and the entire area where the meeting is held to ensure that the participants can all see and hear the speakers easily. Avoid putting the participants in a situation where they have to find chairs and position their own seats randomly.

9. If you will be using audio-‐visual aids or other equipment, then make sure you test it in the meeting location before the day of the meeting or at least an hour earlier to ensure that the equipment functions properly and is compatible with the location.

10. Be well prepared! Review the contents that you will be presenting to your audience before the day of the meeting to be sure that they are well organized and that they will fit adequately into the duration of the meeting.

11. Organize the meeting agenda in such a way that provides adequate time for questioning and discussion at the end.

12. If you are working with one or more colleagues, then divide the duration of the meeting between them and yourself so that each of you speaks for an equal share of time or about certain topics. This should help you avoid any confusion amongst you during the meeting.

13. Discuss your presentation with your colleague(s) beforehand to avoid any repetitions or disagreements amongst you during the meeting.

14. If you will be using any visual aids, do not include text which might alienate illiterate participants. Even if you use text, make it brief so that participants are not distracted from your words by reading it. Equally important, make your text and illustrations big enough so that participants seated at the back in a large meeting can see them clearly.

Inside the meeting:

This is the main event, so all the time and effort that you have spent organizing and mobilizing your target groups should now be in your favor. The effort and planning you put into a public meeting will

determine whether the participants emerge from it with a sense of motivation and support, or whether they will become skeptical about your mission. Following are some recommendations and precautions that should be taken during a public meeting:

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1. You must be present at the location of the meeting at least 15 minutes before the due time of the meeting. This will give you time for last minute checks and will also project the image that you are serious and dedicated.

2. Wait for all the participants to be seated before you begin your presentation. 3. Do not show any signs of hesitation or nervousness while speaking. Maintain a calm and

peaceful attitude. 4. Do not forget to introduce yourself and your partner, if you have one. 5. Make sure that your voice is heard by all participants. If they are numerous, stop after a few

statements and check with those seated at the back if they can hear you well. 6. If a participant creates unnecessary noise or any other form of distraction, ask them politely

if they would kindly refrain from it. 7. Loot at all your audience. Do not focus your gaze on one or a few only. 8. Use polite humor to keep the participants in a positive mood and make them comfortable

with your presence. 9. Try to keep the participants engaged in your topic by involving them in the presentation. You

can do this by asking them quick questions or making brief comments to which they can answer.

10. Do not use sophisticated language which is likely to alienate you from the participants. 11. In your presentation, use examples as often as you can. It would be preferable to use

examples that emanate from the area itself or that the participants can relate to. 12. If some participants arrive late and interrupt the meeting (eg. by shaking hands with most of

those present), stop your presentation and wait briefly for them to be seated. 13. Quickly recap the topics that you have covered as you go along with your presentation to

refresh the participants’ train of thought and to allow any late comers to catch up with your presentation.

14. Always give attention to the full group of attendants and avoid neglecting one side and paying attention to another.

15. Allow the participants to ask questions or give slight comments, but do not let them get carried away and derail the purpose of the meeting.

16. If you are using visual aids, then use them wisely. Remember that visual aids are there to simplify ideas and not complicate them.

17. Always keep a notebook and a pen with you or your colleague. In most meetings, important items of information or comments are raised that if noted can be beneficial for you later on.

18. If one or more participants offend or provoke you, try as best as you can to remain calm and avoid letting such incidents distract you or the rest of the participants from the discussion.

19. Never make promises to the participants, especially those that you will not be able to fulfill. On the other hand, do not make them feel hopeless about their problems. Instead, always steer the arguments towards the need for all water users to work together to address their water management interests and needs.

20. If colleagues are present with you, do not openly disagree with them. Instead, postpone discussions after the meeting and keep them between yourselves.

21. Do not end the meeting without clarifying to the participants the next steps and any activities that you require them to perform before the next meeting or event.

22. Do not be the first to leave the location of the meeting. If possible, be amongst the last to leave.

23. Be sure to end the meeting on a light hearted note and thank the participants for coming, especially the key leader(s) or others that have helped you organize the meeting.

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How to Handle Difficult or Unforeseen Situations

In a domain such as water management that requires frequent contact with diverse individuals and communities, you are bound to encounter difficult or unforeseen situations, even if you had planned

all your steps in detail. Below you will find examples of such situations and suggestions for managing them effectively.

Situation 1: Accurate information is not available within local institutions

Suggestion(s):

Often times, information at local institutions such as agricultural cooperatives and local units is dated and requires updating or does not exist at all. However, without such data it would be difficult

for you to formulate a solid gender strategy. Examples of such data are: number of female landowners in a command area; number or percentage of female independent farmers; number of tenants, sharecroppers and day laborers, etc.

A possible solution to fill your information gap is to try to obtain the data from key leaders and other

villagers, then forming a rough estimate that can at least guide you towards planning some actions. (For example, if you learn from the local omdah in a conservative village in Upper Egypt that the percentage of women assisting their male relatives in farming is very low whereas the number of

female day laborers is high, then you would orient your outreach and communication plans towards this latter category instead of wasting time and effort seeking the former category).

Remember!

This method is not as accurate as official records so you would need to verify the information you

have obtained either from varied sources at the village or by your personal observation. In all cases, be sure to emphasize and take into account the information gap when planning and presenting the results of your work.

Situation 2: You are unable to locate a key leader.

Suggestion(s):

This is a common obstacle, especially in new reclaimed areas and other regions in Egypt where the

water users are not homogeneous.

If you cannot find a key leader, then establish one. When collecting data on the village during your first visits, identify and select one or more active individuals who would be willing to help you locate and mobilize the water users, especially the women, and make him/her your focal point. You can

later express your appreciation to these individuals by thanking them formally during a public meeting with the water users. You can also express your gratitude by making them your contact persons, sharing with them all your field activities, and seeking their opinions.

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Situation 3: Deciding on an appropriate time and/or location for a public meeting is difficult due to different preferences of the target groups.

Solution(s):

In situations like this, it is better to ask a key leader to help you in reconciling the different

preferences. If a key leader is not present or does not succeed, then go with the opinion of the majority. If all else fails and you can make adjustments to your plan and schedule, then organize two meetings instead of one.

Situation 4: During the mobilization process, a woman's male relative speaks to you in an improper

manner or opposes the idea of women participating in the WUA meetings.

Suggestion(s):

Do your best to listen to him till the end, respond calmly and not provoke him further. Try to explain the purpose of your mission as professionally as you can, assuring him of the benefits that will accrue to the water management situation of his area if all water users, men and women, take an

active role in it.

If he is still skeptical, suggest that he can accompany his female relative to the meetings and activities proposed so that he feels more comfortable. If that does not work, enlist the help and intervention of a key leader or a person that he trusts.

If all these efforts fail, do not spend more time in convincing difficult individuals. With time, and

when they see other men allowing their female relatives to participate, these individuals are likely to change their minds favorably.

Remember!

Do not spend more time than you can afford in winning over reluctant target groups. If you consider

them to be important players in your activities, then do exert the effort, but make sure that this does not cause delays in your implementation plan. In the final analysis, professional experience has shown that skeptical and reluctant target groups can be won over with time and as the work

proceeds and they see the benefits for themselves, or when they feel left out by seeing others participate.

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Situation 5: The water users who show up at the public meeting are far fewer than anticipated.

Suggestion(s):

If you had relied on a key leader or someone else to gather the water users for the meeting, then contact these individuals and seek their assistance in a last minute mobilizing process.

You could also participate yourself with them in calling on water users who can be located close to

the meeting location. However, it would be more useful if you engage those who are already present in a small discussion. This not only serves to maintain their attention and save them from boredom while the rest of the participants are being called on, but it can provide you with an opportunity in

learning from them more information that might be useful for your work.

If after half an hour or so you do not succeed in mobilizing more participants, then apologize to those who did show up and consult with your contact persons for another date.

Remember!

It is important that you investigate the reasons for the poor attendance, so that this situation does not get repeated. Also, make sure that the meeting date and time does not coincide with market

days, harvest seasons, public holidays, and other occasions when the water users are busy.

Situation 6: An angry participant provokes the presenter during the public meeting.

Suggestion(s):

Before you go into the meeting, anticipate that this could happen and prepare yourself for it. Be patient with the participant: listen to him/her until s/he finishes and then speak to him/her calmly. If that does not work, try to enlist help from other participants in calming him/her down.

If all these efforts fail and the participant continues to speak aggressively, then just remain silent

until s/he vents out all his/her anger and then either proceed with the meeting or postpone it if the situation worsens.

Generally, while planning for a public meeting, it is advisable to consult with those who are helping

you mobilize the participants and to obtain information from them about individuals who are likely to be aggressive during the meeting. In that case, it is recommended that another colleague accompanies you to act as a moderator or if you request that a key person assists you in managing

difficult participants.

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Situation 7: A side discussion is raised during the meeting and the participants drift away from the meeting's topic and purpose.

Suggestion(s):

Try to guide them back to the purpose of the discussion and take control again. You can do this by

saying the following: "The issues that you are raising are indeed important and it would be great if we had the time to discuss them. However, because I don't want to keep you too long at this meeting and there are still topics that we need to discuss, I request that we postpone this discussion

till after the meeting or another time we can agree on."

Remember!

It is important at the beginning of the meeting to inform the participants of the agenda and of the time allotted for questions and discussions. This will help you regulate the discussions and intervene with confidence if the participants do not conform to the meeting rules.

Situation 8: There is excessive noise during the meeting.

Suggestion(s):

To best avoid this, be sure when selecting a time and location for the meeting that there would be

minimum possibility for external noise. Keep in mind that internal noise might be a result of lack of attention from the attendants, so always keep the crowd focused and active.

If there is noise from an external source, then ask the host of the meeting or one of the participants to check and control it. If the noise comes from the participants themselves (eg. from babies and

children who come with their mothers), then politely ask them to reduce the noise. Here you can enlist the cooperation of your colleague or your host to help you.

Situation 9: Your colleague openly disagrees with you during the meeting.

Suggestion(s):

Avoid arguing with them even if you believe that they are mistaken and are tempted to correct

them. The appropriate thing to do is to ignore their remark, move on with the presentation and quietly tell them that you will discuss it with them later on.

Remember!

It is important to plan and discuss the meeting agenda and presentation with your colleague(s) in advance and to maintain an agreement on the messages that will be communicated and the need to

present them harmoniously.

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Situation 10: A serious water management problem occurs in the area you are working in (eg. water shortage) and this makes the water users impatient and uncooperative.

Suggestion(s):

When you meet with the water users, take the time to listen to their complaints about the problem

and try to help them in addressing it, without making promises you can't fulfill. Instead, encourage them to plan a joint initiative to address the problem, while providing them with technical advice and guidance. Then when they are calmer and assured, emphasize to them the fact that managing

problems and crisis situations like this is what a WUA can help them do, but they have to be willing to cooperate with you towards that mission.

Situation 11: Some of the women who are active at first lose their enthusiasm or fail to attend meetings or events due to their home obligations.

Suggestion(s):

This is also a frequent problem, especially with the women. At the beginning of your mission, you

may be encouraged by one or more enthusiastic women who promise to cooperate with you in implementing your activities. With time, however, you discover that these women withdraw, either out of lack of interest or due to household or other obligations.

The suggestion to overcome this obstacle is simple: never rely completely on one local focal point.

Always keep a group of enthusiastic supporters so that if some of them withdraw themselves, then the others will remain. Also, try to be understanding to the excuses provided by the women who shy away, but do not lose complete contact with them and emphasize to them constantly that you are

still counting on their support.

Suggestions for Follow-‐Up Steps

The aim of this toolkit is to guide you to practical steps to approach and mobilize female and male water users and to communicate to them the benefits of participation in water management. These

steps are fundamental; without them, any efforts to implement a solid gender strategy will not be effective.

Obviously, however, these are not the only steps that make up a gender strategy. Further steps are required to elect female representatives, build their capacities, provide technical assistance to them

in performing their tasks, and monitor the progress of their input.

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Each institution or project within the MWRI may follow its own gender approach. However, below are suggestions for follow-‐up steps that can be applied irrespective of the institutional set-‐up of the

water management institutions that you will work with.2

Step One: Create a Contact Group of Water Users

As was mentioned earlier, it is highly recommended in the mobilization phase that you start with a smaller focused group of enthusiastic water users who can form your contact group, rather than aim at reaching all water users in the command area.

This contact group can assist you in outreach and other activities where you are required to

communicate frequently with the target groups. It also lends a participatory character to the gender strategy, by involving members of the community in formulating and implementing the activities.

The contact group can be comprised of male or female key leaders as well as water users who express interest and commitment to gender participation in water management (eg. by asking

important questions during meetings, attending meetings regularly, or simply by requesting that they be directly involved with you in your activities). They can also be members of local institutions such as agricultural extension and CDAs.

Your contact group need not be comprised solely of women; depending on the command area in

which you are working, it can incorporate both male and female water users.

If, during a meeting or other encounters you identify a potential contact person, take him/her aside and suggest the idea to them without making them feel that it would be a huge responsibility or burden on them. Take their contact information (telephone numbers, addresses, etc) and inform

them that you will contact them shortly.

Depending on the size of the command area and other factors such as the number of independent farmers, your contact group can range from 5 to 15 persons. It is not recommended that the group

members exceed this number otherwise they will not be easily manageable. In some command areas that are small or where the number of enthusiastic water users is not substantial, you may have a contact group of less than 5 or it may even be one person. In any case and as mentioned

earlier, the number of individuals is not important as the degree of commitment: one cooperative contact person can be more effective in assisting you with your activities than a large number.

2 The suggestions provided in this toolkit are based on the assumption that the department or project that is implementing the gender strategy has already defined the institutional framework for participation in water

management. In some governorates, this takes the form of mesqa WUAs with elected board members; at secondary canal level, Branch Canal Water User Associations (BCWUAs) are set up with Representative

Assemblies and Executive Committees, others do not have Representative Assemblies. As for Integrated Water Management Districts, these can accommodate representatives of female water users through individual

members or committees.

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Remember!

You should not set rigid criteria for water users that can be eligible to become members of your contact group. For example, they need not be educated, young or hold a high status in the village.

What is more important is their commitment and support to the activities that you are implementing.

Moreover, as mentioned earlier, you should be inclined to accept the fact that some of them may withdraw or express less enthusiasm during the course of your work. Since this is voluntary work

that takes them away from their daily duties and through which results may not appear immediately, drop-‐outs are expected.

Step Two: Orient your Contact Group to the Gender Strategy3

Once you have identified the members of your contact group, call them for a meeting at a time and location that is convenient to them. This meeting serves the following purposes which you should

achieve:

• Familiarize yourself with the capabilities of your contact group members

• Encourage the members of your contact group to work as a team

• Explain the purpose and detailed steps of the gender strategy

• Divide tasks and responsibilities between members of the contact group4

Step Three: Set Up a Gender Responsive Institutional Framework

Depending on the gender strategy that you are adopting, the next step involves the activities required to set up an institutional framework that allows for gender participation in water

management.

If you are setting up a mesqa WUA or a BCWUA, this step may involve the procedures necessary to elect water user representatives, followed by orientation and training of the elected members.

3 Depending on the size of the command area, the availability of funding and the sustainability of the contact

group, this step can be followed by one of training. Contact group members can be trained in presentation skills, negotiation skills, formulating internal regulations, action planning and other tasks that they may be

required to take up in a formal manner. If this is the case, it is recommended that they also be given a Trainer of Trainers program that can allow them to transmit their skills and experience on a wider scale in a broader

strategy.

4 Preferably, this component should be relegated to a separate meeting that follows the initial one of orientation. However, experience has shown that water users always prefer to emerge from meetings with

concrete results, and their time and personal constraints may not allow for frequent meetings.

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In the case of Integrated Water Management Districts, the next step may involve nomination of a member or formation of a sub-‐committee to represent female water user interests.

A gender responsive institutional framework also includes networks developed with related

institutions such as agricultural extension, local NGOs such as CDAs, and other projects working in the area. Advocacy with such institutions is a very essential component to ensure the sustainability of any strategy. Members of these institutions can contribute to the gender strategy by cooperating

in communicating messages and implementing joint activities such as awareness raising and solid waste disposal.

Depending on their commitment, skills and availability, the members of your contact group can assist you in this step by organizing the water users, arranging meetings and brainstorming ideas

related to this phase.

Step Four: Monitor the Progress of the Gender Strategy

For a gender responsive strategy to make effective impact, practical indicators need to be developed to monitor the progress of work and assess whether gender has been mainstreamed into the water management activities. If these indicators have not been developed at the beginning of the gender

strategy, it is recommended to allocate time and resources during the course of implementation to formulate them, as they will be crucial in assessing the impact and sustainability of the activities.

Monitoring the progress of the gender strategy also involves regular technical assistance and follow-‐up of the activities implemented. This also serves the purpose of providing guidance to the

implementers and target groups on the means to address obstacles and problems that may arise (of which examples have been provided in this booklet; see section entitled How to Handle Difficult or

Unforeseen Situations above). Here, members of the contact group can be helpful in communicating information and acting as a liaison between your institution and the water users. However, it is important to remember that the members of your contact group are also water users and may

figure amongst your primary target groups. These individuals should not be given prerogatives or powers that may alienate them from the rest of the water users or create disparities between them.

Step Five: Evaluate the effectiveness of the gender strategy

If you have conducted a baseline study at the initial phase as was recommended earlier in this booklet, then repeating it at the middle or towards the end of implementation is an effective

method to evaluate the impact of the gender strategy. Again, it is important to emphasize that this study need not be complicated or take up excessive time and resources, but it is imperative that an assessment is made of the impact of the gender responsive activities on the water management

situation in general and the target groups in particular.

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Although evaluation indicators are beyond the scope of the toolkit, a few evaluation questions are suggested below:

• How has the level of knowledge of the water users – particularly the women -‐ of water

management issues in their area changed?

• Have female water user representatives been elected to the WUAs and participated effectively and harmoniously in the Integrated Water Management District? What achievements have they made and what challenges did they face?

Has the WUA or Integrated Water Management District implemented activities that are gender

responsive and address the interests and needs of female as well as male water users? Have these activities been successful? If not, why not?

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Back cover photo: http://www.ecology.com/wp-‐content/uploads/2011/10/environment-‐web524.jpg

Illustrations by: Mohamed Shennawy

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