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Transcript of IWRM Webinar Slides AUSTAUSCH
Energy provision for
agricultural irrigation
Christian Kimmich
IWRM, 03-08-11
A case study from Andhra Pradesh,
India, and the MENA region
Chapter 5:
The energy-irrigation nexus in
other countries
Christian Kimmich
Cases from West Asia and North Africa
Outline
• Syria: background, energy and irrigation
• Jordan: background, energy and irrigation
• Pricing water? Analyses in Jordan
• The groundwater dilemma and participatory
knowledge
• Local groundwater governance: examples
from Egypt, Yemen and South Asia
• Other strategies
• Literature recommendations: theory
• Literature recommendations: applied
research
03/08/11 3
Syria: background
03/08/11 4
Figure: Irrigated area by source and number of wells
Source: Gül et al 2005
Long subsidization through loans; Limited capacity of aquifers
170.000 wells in 2002 (Salman, Mualla 2003)
Syria: background
Increasing well depth does not necessarily increase productivity (e.g.
shallow aquifers), but still the dominant perception (Gül et al 2005)
03/08/11 5
Figure 1: well depth vs. age in research site
villages in Aleppo province, Syria
Source: Gül et al 2005
Figure 2: total energy expenditure for cotton
irrigation, 1990-1999
Source: Gül et al 2005
Syria: energy and irrigation situation
• GDP in agriculture: 17,7%; Labor in agriculture: 17%
• Energy for irrigation is subsidized (Rodriguez 1999); fuel subsidy (diesel) at
80% of the purchase price in 1999 (Gül et al 2005)
• About to become a net importer of petroleum
• Recent lifting of subsidies on electric energy and diesel has
contributed to groundwater conservation, as well as similar increases
in the early 90s (Salman 2002)
• Flat rate for water based on land (Salman 2002)
• Low on-farm water use efficiency (40-60%) and large scope for micro
irrigation; promoted through tax-free low interest loans. However,
lack of confidence (Salman, Mualla 2003)
03/08/11 6
Syria: energy and irrigation situation
• Licenses required to drill wells, which specify quantity
• renewal every 10 years required
• However, poor enforcement (estimates of 50% illegal)(Salman, Mualla 2003)
Strategies:
• Limiting wells and setting up pipeline distribution
• Shift from private to collective wells is planned
• Energy and water pricing also considered (Salman, Mualla 2003)
03/08/11 7
Jordan: background
03/08/11 8
Figure: Water use patterns in the Lower Jordan River Basin
Source: Courcier et al 2005
Jordan: background
03/08/11 9
Figure: Water use patterns in the Lower Jordan River Basin
Source: Courcier et al 2005
Jordan: energy and irrigation situation
• GDP in agriculture: 3%; Labor in agriculture: 5%
• „Super Green Revolution‟ during the 80s (Elmusa 1994)
• Endowment of renewable blue water: 163 m3/ca (absolute water
scarcity: <500m3/ca) (Venot, Molle 2008), prec.: 600 to <100mm towards
the desert (Cheebane et al 2004)
• Withdrawals at 120% of controllable blue water; 215% of recharge in
the AZB (Venot, Molle 2008), 146-235% (Cheebane et al 2004)
• Drip irrigation is widely applied (Scott et al 2003)
• Groundwater table decline increases pumping costs (Chebaane et al 2004)
• ¼ of electric energy to supply water, Jordan is a net fuel importer
• High costs of pumping (10% of the input costs), 0,11$/m3 for diesel,
and 0,09$/m3 for electricity (Chebaane et al 2004), limiting power would push
farmers to shift to diesel use (Scott et al 2003)
03/08/11 10
Pricing water? A WTP approach
• Empirical analysis in the Marfaq region (marginal, prec < 200mm)
• Indirect measurement through a parametric linear programming
model (optimization model)
• Change in water price to trace out demand function (Hazell, Norton 1986) –
calculate price elasticity at each stage of increased price
• Result: US$ 0,14 to 0,35/m3 is feasible without reducing planted area
• Prices higher than 0,35$/m3 make most agricultural production
alternatives unprofitable
• Income could be used to finance e.g. desalination plantsSource: Salman, Al-Karablieh (2004)
? Total net income in agriculture would reduce from 4,8 to 1,5 mio $,
while water use wouldn„t get reduced
03/08/11 11
Pricing water? An econometric approach
03/08/11 12
Figure: regression analysis for..
Source: Ramirez et al (2011)
Irrigation application rate
(in mm depth applied)
Gross revenue/unit water
(in JD/m3 water)
Pricing water? Regulations
• Licenses were given from 1962, abstraction quotas (since 1984) from
50.000 up to 100.000 m3/well (Cheebane et al 2004), but never enforced
• Difficulty to enforce metering, although 94% have a meter (Venot, Molle
2008)
03/08/11 13
Table: water pricing according to the Bylaw No. 85, 2002
Source: Venot, Molle (2008)
Pricing water? A differentiated approach• Methods: Socio-economic characterization and differentiation of
farming systems (Bedouins, Entrepreneurs, Absentee owners)
(vegetable, fruit tree, olive tree) - Calculation of financial impacts on
each farming system, 4 strategies (BAU+Bylaw, Limit, Optimal,
LandExpansion); Study area: Eastern desert region (LJRB)
• Assumptions: Difference in capital use, management type, goals
• Findings:
– Low financial possibilities prevent profitable investments (debts)
– Technology costs are higher than water expenditure savings; water savings
lead to expansion of cropping area
– Only vegetable farmers could improve water use efficiency, but for vegetable
and intensive stone-fruit tree farmers the fee does not create an incentive to
reduce irrigation
– Out of 606 wells in the study area, only 83 would be effected by law
(Venot, Molle 2008)
03/08/11 14
Pricing and political dimensions• Promotion of irrigated agriculture
– Social integration of Palestinian refugee population
– Settling Bedouins in the 60s (large deep public wells, then in the 80/90s private wells)
– Geopolitical reasons (stability in the Middle East)
– Economic growth(Venot et al 2008)
• Opposition to high water tariffs (occupation of parliament)
• Little potential for long-term reduction of irrigation water use through
demand management (Venot et al 2007, Venot, Molle 2008)
• Fees can‟t be high enough to balance supply and demand (Berkoff 1994)
• “it was anticipated that increased water tariffs would reduce
agricultural water use. This did not happen.” (World Bank 2003:15, cited in Venot
et al 2008)
-> Hence, pricing of energy unlikely to help coping with water scarcity
03/08/11 15
The groundwater dilemma
Knowledge as a crucial factor in
groundwater dilemma situations (e.g. Ostrom 2005, World Bank 2010)
03/08/11 16
Farmer 2
cooperate defect
Farm
er1
cooperate
2
2
4
0
defect
0
4
1
1
Figure 3: the dilemma of groundwater
overexploitation (Prisoners‟ Dilemma)
Figure 1: well depth vs. age in research site
villages in Aleppo province, Syria
Source: Gül et al 2005
0
10
020
030
040
0
1980 1990 2000 2010Age of the well
Depth of the well (feet) Fitted values
Figure 2: Depth vs. age of well
Source: Kimmich 2011
The groundwater dilemma
03/08/11 17
Figure: Satellite image analysis of groundwater-irrigated fields (A), and
mixed (+winter surface; B,C). Example of the Jabal Al Hass region, Syria
Source: Luijendijk, Bruggeman, 2008
The groundwater dilemma
03/08/11 18
Figure 1: Geological analysis of one cross
section
Source: Luijendijk, Bruggeman, 2008
Figure 2: Groundwater level and observation
wells for one period (July-September 2004)
Source: Luijendijk, Bruggeman, 2008
The groundwater dilemma
• Groundwater monitoring is crucial – research needed in
hydrogeology, including all the methods to identify groundwater
tables and fluctuations, water flows, etc. (Chloride Mass Balance,
etc.)
03/08/11 19
Figure: Static water level in two wells
Source: Chebaane et al (2004)
• However: participatory
methods important to
make the dilemma of
the situation
understandable to all
Local groundwater governance: India
An example
from
Andhra
Pradesh
(APFAMGS)
03/08/11 20
Local groundwater governance: India
03/08/11 21
Local groundwater governance: India
03/08/11 22
Local groundwater governance
• Limits to enforcement of regulations: van Steenbergen (2006):
analysis of 6 successful cases of local groundwater governance
Common success factors: – Universal access
– Ability to organize locally (without formal organization)
– Simplicity of rules (and equitable)
– Groundwater monitoring
– Supply and demand management
– Support by local government
– Scale limitations
03/08/11 23
Source: van Steenbergen (2006)
-> Transfer to other cases (example from Andhra Pradesh)
Other strategies
Chebaane et al (2004): Participatory search for solutions:
• Improving extension through Irrigation Advisory Service (IAS)
• Develop water harvesting structures
• Buy-out of wells (half of interviewed farmers willing to sell out for fair
compensation)
• Enforcement of abstraction/cropped area limits
• Recycled wastewater usage
• Groundwater Management Consultative Committee (GMCC) (high
acceptance within farming population)(Chebaane et al 2004)
• Develop exit options / alternative labor markets / social policies to
facilitate reduction of water and energy use
03/08/11 24
Literature recommendations: theory
03/08/11 25
Literature recommendations: applied research
03/08/11 26
Abu-Madi, M.O., 2009. Farm-level perspectives regarding irrigation water prices in the Tulkarm
district, Palestine. Agricultural Water Management, 96(9), 1344-50.Chebaane, M., El-Naser, H., Fitch, J., Hijazi, A. and Jabbarin, A., 2004. Participatory groundwater
management in Jordan: Development and analysis of options. Hydrogeology Journal, 12, 14-
32.Gül, A., Rida, F., Aw-Hassan, A. and Büyükalaca, O., 2005. Economic analysis of energy use in
groundwater irrigation of dry areas: a case study in Syria. Applied Energy, 82(4), 285-99.Kamel, S. and Dahl, C., 2005. The economics of hybrid power systems for sustainable desert
agriculture in Egypt. Energy, 30(8), 1271-81.
Luijendijk, E. and Bruggeman, A., 2008. Groundwater resources in the Jabal Al Hass region, northwest Syria: an assessment of past use and future potential. Hydrogeology Journal,
16(3), 511-30.Salman, A.Z. and Al-Karablieh, E., 2004. Measuring the willingness of farmers to pay for
groundwater in the highland areas of Jordan. Agricultural Water Management, 68(1), 61-76.
Scott, C. and Shah, T., 2004. Groundwater overdraft reduction through agricultural energy policy: insights from India and Mexico. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 20,
149-64.van Steenbergen, F., 2006. Promoting local management in groundwater. Hydrogeology Journal,
14(3), 380-91.
Venot, J.-P. and Molle, F., 2008. Groundwater Depletion in the Jordan Highlands: Can Pricing Policies Regulate Irrigation Water Use? Water Resources Management, 22(12), 1925-41.
Venot, J.-P., Molle, F.O. and Courcier, R., 2008. Dealing with Closed Basins: The Case of the Lower Jordan River Basin. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 24(2),247-63.
World Bank. 2010. Deep wells and prudence : towards pragmatic action for addressing groundwater overexploitation in India. Washington D.C.: World Bank.