To Mars and Beyond…Search for the Origins of Life

A Resource Package for TeachersI

Image: Courtesy NASA

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Acknowledgements

The material in this resource package was prepared by Lyn Beasley and Merrillee Chignell,School Programs Officers at the National Museum of Australia, and Geoff Moore, EducationOfficer at Melbourne Museum.

Some of the material has been adapted from information contained in the following MelbournePlanetarium education kits: The Planets, The Stars, The Seasons, Toys Watch the Sky, and Out ofDarkness. The table of solar system statistics and several illustrations were taken fromMelbourne Planetarium kits, and are acknowledged where they appear.

The section entitled ‘Origin of Life’ is adapted from the text of the Melbourne Museum exhibitionScience Arcade.

Patricia D’Agrosa, Education Officer at Melbourne Planetarium, reviewed the text and providedseveral of the illustrations. Colleen Boyle, Education and Visitor Programs Officer at MelbourneMuseum, advised on the location and selection of some of the images.

First published January 2002

© National Museum of Australia and Melbourne Museum

Teachers may copy the material in this package for educational purposes.

Contents

Introduction to the Exhibition 5

Background Notes for Students and Teachers 7

1. Searching the Heavens 72. Origin of Life 93. Rocket Power 114. Australia’s Contribution to Rocket Research 115. Space Race 156. Leaving Home 197. Close Encounters 258. Destination Mars 279. Beyond the Edge 2910. Anyone out There? 3111. Back to Earth 3212. Andy Thomas, an Australian Astronaut 33

Resources 35

Curriculum Links 37

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Introduction to the Exhibition

To Mars and Beyond……Search for the Origins of LifePeople have searched the night sky for thousands of years to answer the question What is life?Throughout history, the patterns made by stars, planets, comets and asteroids have traced ourorigins, destinies and futures. The night sky has indicated the mood of the gods and provided avast storybook for people around the world. The desire to know, to understand, and to searchbeyond the confines of our planet is part of what makes us human. From the time humans firststood upright, they have gazed at the stars and wondered about the place of humanity in thegrand scheme of things.

It is not surprising that astronomy was the first science. Ancient civilisations studied and mappedthe heavens and religions were built upon the movement of the stars. However, until the telescopewas invented in 1608, human understanding of space was limited by what could be seen with thenaked eye. The telescope changed people's views of the heavens, challenging old ideas andopening the way for new discoveries. Today, there are telescopes that can probe to the very edgeof the observable universe, billions of light years distant.

More recently, new ways of exploring the heavens have become available. The development ofrockets that produced the tremendous thrust needed to break free of the Earth's gravity and sendvehicles into space was particularly significant. In the early days of the ‘space race’, militarymotivation was high, culminating in the Apollo moon landings. While important scientificachievements resulted, it was soon recognised that no important military advantage was gainedand so manned exploration ceased.

The benefits of space exploration began to be seen in a more scientific light in the 1970s. TheHubble Space Telescope has returned pictures of the universe that are wonderfully clear anddetailed. Photographic images of Mars and Saturn with their associated data have allowedscientists to assemble a reasonably detailed history of the solar system. The Hubble SpaceTelescope has also added to our knowledge of the formation and early history of Earth.

To Mars and Beyond: Search for the Origins of Life is based on our fascination with all thingsspace -- from early astronomy to the superpower space race and the futuristic InternationalSpace Station.

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Background Notes forStudents and Teachers

1. Searching the Heavens

Astronomy and AstrologyIn most parts of the world, there was originally no distinction between astronomy and astrology.The astronomers of classical times studied the heavens, but also believed that the Sun, Moon andplanets were symbols of the gods, and were able to influence the fortunes of kings and nations.Most of the planets were therefore given the names of Greek and Roman gods. The ancientChinese astronomers also had detailed and accurate records of the sky, because the emperorsbelieved that the heavens sent signs and good omens for their dynasties. The ancient Greeksextended this notion to the belief that the planets influenced each and every person, not just thenobility — an idea that was formalised by Ptolemy in 110 BC. Many centuries later, the famousastronomer, Tycho Brahe (1546 – 1601), made his living by drawing horoscopes for the wealthywhile he pursued his research of measuring the movements of the stars and planets.

Today, astrology and astronomy are quite distinct. Astronomy can be defined as the scientificstudy of celestial bodies, whereas Astrology is the interpretation of the movements and relativepositions of celestial bodies…..as an influence on human affairs.1 In Western societies, mostpeople don’t take astrology very seriously, whereas the science of astronomy is taught in schoolsand universities.

Signs of the ZodiacIn Ptolmey’s time, the Sun, Moon and planets, as viewed from Earth, moved through 12 imaginarypictures, or constellations. In whichever of these 12 constellations the Sun lay when a child wasborn became that child’s star sign. These are known as the zodiac constellations (from the Greekword for animal), and are still used by astrologers today. However, over the last 2000 years, thepath of the Sun across the sky (the ecliptic) has changed due to slight ‘wobbles’ in the axis of theEarth (precession). As a result, the Sun now appears to move through a 13th constellation –Ophiuchus, the Serpent Holder. Moreover, the amount of time the Sun spends in each of the 13constellations is now not equal, as is supposed by astrologers, but varies greatly.

Aboriginal ConstellationsFor thousands of years, people throughout the world have used the patterns of the stars to formimaginary pictures. The Aboriginal people of Australia, for example, have many stories associatedwith the animals and other beings they find depicted in the sky. These stories vary regionally; theyinclude stories about the seven Maya-Mayi sisters, (which astronomers know as the Pleiades, inthe constellation of Taurus, the Bull), and stories about Mirrabooka, the man in the southern partof the sky that we know as the Southern Cross. The constellation of the Southern Cross is alsointerpreted by Aboriginal people as a stingray or as the footprint of a wedge-tailed eagle. For more information on Aboriginal constellations, visit Thinkquest athttp://library.thinkquest.org/C005462/index2.html1 The Australian Concise Oxford Dictionary, Melbourne, 1992.

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The 88 ConstellationsAstronomers have long used the constellations developed by the ancient Greeks and Romans assignposts to describe the location of the various astronomical bodies they observe and describe.This system was regularised in 1930, when the International Astronomical Union formalised thedivision of the sky into 88 constellations, and precisely defined the boundaries of each.

The constellations cover the whole of the sky, day and night. However, which constellations canbe seen depends on the time of night, the time of year, and the part of the Earth from which youare observing. At any time, it should be possible to see approximately half of the 88 constellations.The others will be visible:

• several hours later, when the Earth has rotated to allow more constellations to rise in the east,or

• later in the year, when the Earth is on the other side of the Sun, or

• from the other hemisphere of the Earth. This is why the Pole Star can’t be seen from Australia,and the Southern Cross can’t be seen from northern Europe.

Activities• Research some of the constellations of the Aboriginal people.

• Buy a planisphere (star map) to use next time you have a dark night sky.

• Choose a constellation. Research its mythology, main features and location.

• Debate: ‘That astrology is nonsense’.

Star map centred on the South Celestial Pole, showing 77 of the 88 constellations. The dotted line marks the ecliptic, the imaginary path of the Sun, Moon and planets through the sky. Constellations are labelled in upper case type (ORION), while prominent stars are labelled in lower case type (Betelgeuse). (Source: Melbourne Planetarium education kit ‘The Stars’)

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2. Origin of LifeLife arose at least 3500 million years ago, at a time when the Earth’s environment was verydifferent from that of today. There was intense volcanic activity and the atmosphere containedmethane and sulfurous gases but little oxygen. It was in this seemingly inhospitable environmentthat the first life forms developed — in fact some of today’s bacteria still exist in hot springs andother environments similar to those of the ancient Earth.

Many of the individual chemical components necessary for life occur spontaneously inenvironments like that of the ancient Earth. Cell-like structures, made from membranes, and aminoacids, which are the building blocks of proteins, can also arise spontaneously. Life occurred whencomponents such as these joined to make the first cells.

Where did life begin?Life on Earth could have begun in ancient seas, or in hot springs. Perhaps life arose deep withinthe Earth’s crust, or even among crystals.

Ancient seasThe Earth’s ancient seas were awash with organic molecules. The atmosphere was thin, so thesebuilding blocks of life were bathed in ultraviolet rays. The transition from non-living to living mattermay have been favoured in such an environment.

Deep UndergroundChemicals and constant heat emanating from the Earth’s core provide a suitable environment forthe formation of organic molecules. This could have been where life on Earth originated.

Black SmokersHot springs on land and thermal vents in the deep sea were probably widespread on the ancientEarth. Today, many of the most primitive bacteria live only in these environments — a clue towhere life could have originated.

CrystalsMineral crystals can grow and replicate spontaneously. Such crystals could have formed atemplate to which simple organic molecules became attached. These could have led to the firstlife-forms.

When did life begin?

The Earth Forms

The Earth was formed 4700 million years ago. Its crust solidified about 4100 million years ago, butthe oldest known rocks are from about 3700 million years ago.

Life appears

The oldest evidence of life is from fossils that are about 3500 million years old. These are of simplecells that resemble bacteria.

Oxygen levels increase

When life first arose, there was very little oxygen in the atmosphere. Significant levels of oxygenwere present from about 2000 million years ago.

Complex cells evolve

The earliest known fossils of complex cells are at least 1800 million years old. The firstmulticellular organisms may have appeared shortly after.

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Stromatolites: Evidence of early lifeStromatolites are formed by primitive bacterial communities, and occur in structures that look likesheets, mounds or columns. These structures are made of a hard limestone-like substance andrange in size from a centimetre to several metres across. Inside, they are made of many fineconcentric layers.

Stromatolites are the most common fossils in Precambrian rocks. They can be up to 3500 millionyears old, although they were most common between 2500 million and 700 million years ago.Stromatolites are rarer in younger rocks, probably due to the evolution of grazing invertebratessuch as snails, which ate the bacteria depositing the stromatolites. Though rare at the presentday, modern stromatolites can still be found in environments where grazing invertebrates areuncommon (eg. Shark Bay, Western Australia). Scientists think that the earliest stromatolites werephotosynthetic, like their present-day descendants, and may have helped to increase the level ofoxygen in the early atmosphere.

Stromatolites at Shark Bay, W.A.Source / Photographer: Malcolm Wallace

Activities• Research the Geological Time Scale. Then make a simple time-line of life on Earth.

• Research environmental conditions on one of the planets of our solar system. Design a life form that could live in these conditions.

• Research some of the recent discoveries of planets revolving around stars. Could any support life? Would life on these planets be like life on Earth?

• Life on Earth continues to evolve. What will life on Earth be like in the future?

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3. Rocket PowerRockets burn fuel to produce exhaust gases that are forced out through a narrow opening in therocket’s base. For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, and the outward thrustpushes the rocket forward.

Fireworks were invented in China at least 1000 years ago. By the 1400s, the use of ceremonial andmilitary rockets had spread to the rest of Asia and Europe.

In 1804 Colonel William Congreve of the British army built versatile war rockets that could be usedon land or sea as artillery, incendiaries or signals. Propelled by gunpowder, Congreve rockets hada range of up to 2800 metres.

Modern space launch vehicles and missiles evolved from the German Vergeltungswaffe 2 (V-2)rocket, the world's first long-range missile. Fully operational in 1944, the V-2 was far larger andmore powerful than any previous rocket and represented a giant leap forward in rockettechnology. It used liquid oxygen and alcohol as propellant and had a range of 300km.

4. Australia’s Contribution to Rocket ResearchThe Woomera Rocket Range was set up in South Australia in 1947. The site was selected by anAustralian-United Kingdom joint committee as a British experimental land-based missile range. It was chosen because of its remote locality, dry climate and clear atmosphere. Early researchfocussed on missile development, including the development of missile-borne nuclear weapons.

During the 1950s Woomera's role expanded. Australian research into the fields of high-speedaerodynamics, guided weapons and rocket propulsion brought Australia into direct involvementwith space-related activities.

In 1957 British scientists began using Skylark sounding rockets to study the upper atmosphere.The Skylark has been a remarkably successful rocket and has been used for scientific researchby many countries. Many Skylark rockets were fitted with a recoverable nosecone to allow thescientific instruments inside to be safely returned to earth. An advanced version of the Skylark isstill in use today.

In the same year (1957), the first Australian-designed and built sounding rocket, the Long Tom,was launched at Woomera. The Long Tom was a two-stage vehicle which could carry an array ofscientific instruments that could be used to measure the temperature, density, pressure,composition, structure and movement of the upper atmosphere.

In 1968 the Kookaburra rocket carried small instrument packages called dropsondes to the upperatmosphere. These were released from the rocket and measured atmospheric temperature,pressure and ozone content as they fell to earth on a parachute.

In 1962 Australia became part of a venture to develop a satellite launcher called Europa. Ten Europa rockets were launched from Woomera between 1964 and 1970, but no satellite wasever successfully placed into orbit using these rockets.

Between 1958 and 1971 several space launch vehicles were tested at Woomera. In 1967, Australia became only the third country in the world after the Soviet Union and the United Statesto launch a satellite from its own territory and only the fourth in the world to launch a satelliteindependently. The satellite Wresat was launched by a United States Redstone rocket fired from Woomera. Wresat was launched on November 29 1967, transmitted data for five days and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on 10 January 1968. In 1971, Propero became the second andlast satellite to be placed in orbit after being successfully launched from Woomera.

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Tracking stations, built to track space craft, have operated in Australia since 1957. The tracking ofspacecraft has been Australia's longest continuous space activity. When NASA began its humanspaceflight program in 1961, Australia was a vital link in the communication network with stationsat Muchea, near Perth and Redlake at Woomera. In 1969 the Honeysuckle Creek tracking stationand the Parkes radio telescope provided television coverage of the first moonwalk during theApollo 11 lunar landing. Today Tidbinbilla is the only NASA station in Australia, but it fulfills a vitalrole in expanding our knowledge of the solar system.

ActivitiesRockets work by the law of action and reaction. The action is the gas rushing out of the rocketengine and the reaction is the rocket taking off in the opposite direction.

The instructions below tell you how to make a paper rocket and use a balloon to fire it across a room.

Materials:Paper or cardboard either A3 size or 30-35 cm squareCellophane, adhesive tape, scissorsA large drinking strawA long sausage-shaped balloonAbout 20 metres of nylon fishing line

Making the Rocket:The template overleaf shows how you can cut your whole rocket from one piece of paper.Variations are possible, but be sure to make the diameter of the body large enough toaccommodate a small inflated sausage balloon (about 12 cm diameter).

Your rocket will look like this:

Image: Courtesy NASA

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1. Cut the paper into 3 pieces: two squares, A and B and one oblong, C.

2. Roll the oblong into a cylinder to make the body of the rocket. Secure with tape.

3. Cut out the circle. Cut a wedge from the circle, approximately one quarter of the circle. Roll into a cone and tape.

4. Cut along the centre line of the square marked B. Cut a diagonal line from the point marked (a) to the point marked (b). Fold along the dashed lines to make two fins. Cut another diagonal from the point marked (c) to the point marked (d). Fold along the dashed lines to make another two fins.

5. Use adhesive tape to attach the four fins to the body of the rocket.

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Powering the Rocket:1. Tape a long drinking straw lengthwise to the body of the rocket.

2. Thread the nylon fishing line through the straw and secure the ends of the line to the walls oneach side of the room. Make sure it is tight.

3. Slide your rocket to one side of the room.

4. Hold a sausage balloon inside the body of your rocket. Inflate the balloon so that its neck isprotruding out of the bottom of the rocket. Hold the neck of the balloon tightly.

5. Do a countdown to blast-off. Release the balloon and your rocket should shoot across theroom, powered by the balloon.

6. Experiment with rockets of different shapes. See if your rocket is powerful enough to go uphillby adjusting the points where the fishing cord is anchored.

Artwork by Frey Micklethwait

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5. Space Race

Timeline of space exploration1926 First flight by a liquid-fuelled rocket (Massachusetts, USA)

1937 ff. Werner von Braun developed A-4 rockets in Germany

1942 First flights of A-4 rockets in Germany (up to 120 miles)

1944 V-2 rockets launched against London in World War 2

1946 Von Braun’s team launch V-2 rockets from New Mexico (USA)

1957 First artificial satellites: Sputniks 1 and 2, USSR

1958 Explorer 1 and Vanguard 2, Earth orbiters, USA

1959 Luna 1, lunar flyby, USSRPioneer 4, lunar flyby, USALuna 2, lunar impact, USSR

1961 Vostok 1, Yuri Gagarin: first person to orbit Earth, USSR

1962 Mariner 2, Venus flyby, USA

1964 Mariner 4, Mars flyby, USA

1966 Luna 9, lunar lander, USSRLuna 10, lunar orbiter, USSRSurveyor 1, lunar lander, USALunar Orbiter 1, USA

1967 Venera 4, Venus probe, USSRMariner 5, Venus flyby, USA

1968 Apollo 8, crewed lunar orbiter, USA

1969 July 20, Apollo 11: first crewed lunar lander, USA;Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin: first humans to walk on the MoonMariners 6 and 7, Mars flyby, USA

1970 Venera 7, Venus lander, USSR

1972 Pioneer 10, Jupiter flyby, USA

1973 Mars 5, Mars orbiter, USSR; Skylab, crewed Earth orbiter, USA

1977 Launch of Voyager 2, Jupiter/Saturn/Uranus/Neptune flyby, USA

1981 Space Shuttle Columbia, first mission, USAVenera 14, Venus orbiter and lander, USSR

1984-85 Comet Halley flybys by Russian, Japanese, and European craft

1986 Launch of Mir Space Station (de-orbit Feb 2001), USSR

1990 Hubble Space Telescope, Earth orbiting observatory, USA

1996 Mars Pathfinder, Mars lander and rover, USA

1997 Cassini, Saturn orbiter, USA

1998 International Space Station, first component launched, USA, Russia

2001 2001 Mars Odyssey, Mars orbiter, USA

ActivityUse library or Internet resources to prepare a project on a past (or future) space mission.Start at the NASA website: http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/timeline.html

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AstronautsNeil A. Armstrong was born on August 5, 1930 in Wapakoneta, Ohio. From 1949 to 1952, he servedas a naval aviator. In 1971, he joined NACA, (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics),NASA's predecessor, as a research pilot. He pioneered many high-speed aircraft and has flownover 200 different models. In 1962, Armstrong was transferred to astronaut status. He served ascommand pilot for the Gemini 8 mission, launched March 16, 1966, and performed the firstsuccessful docking of two vehicles in space. In 1969, he was commander of Apollo 11, the firstmanned lunar landing mission, and gained the distinction of being the first man to land a craft onthe Moon and the first man to step on its surface. He subsequently held the position of DeputyAssociation Administrator for Aeronautics, NASA 1970 to 1971.

Scott Carpenter, a dynamic pioneer of modern exploration, has the unique distinction of being theonly human ever to penetrate both inner and outer space, thereby acquiring the dual title,Astronaut/Aquanaut. Born in Boulder, Colorado, on May 1, 1925, Carpenter had a naval careerbefore being selected as one of the original seven Mercury Astronauts on April 9, 1959. He servedas backup pilot for John Glenn during the preparation for America's first manned orbital spaceflight. Carpenter flew the second American manned orbital flight on May 24, 1962. He piloted hisAurora 7 spacecraft through three revolutions of the earth, reaching a maximum altitude of 164miles. As Executive Assistant to the Director of the Manned Spaceflight Center, Carpenter wasactive in the design of the Apollo lunar landing.

Yuri Alexeyevich Gagarin was born in Smolensk, west of Moscow, in March 1934. He was amoulder by trade, but continued to attend various technical schools, and joined the Soviet AirForce in 1955. In 1957, he became a fighter pilot, and in 1959, was selected for training as part ofthe first group of Soviet cosmonauts. On April 12, 1961, Gagarin became the first human to fly inspace, when he orbited the Earth for 108 minutes aboard the spacecraft Vostok 1. He died 7 yearslater when a military plane he was piloting crashed near Moscow.

John Herschel Glenn, was born on July 18, 1921 in Cambridge,Ohio. He was assigned to the NASA Space Task Group in 1959after his selection as a Project Mercury Astronaut. On February20, 1962, he piloted the Mercury-Atlas 6 ‘Friendship 7’ spacecrafton the first U.S. manned orbital mission. Almost three decadeslater, Glenn was a crew member on ‘Discovery’ (October 29 toNovember 7, 1998). This was a 9-day mission during which thecrew supported a variety of research payloads includingdeployment of the Spartan solar-observing spacecraft, and theHubble Space Telescope Orbital Systems Test Platform.Investigations on space flight and the ageing process were alsocarried out.

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Image: Courtesy NASA

Judith A. Resnik was born on April 5, 1949, in Akron, Ohio. Upon graduating from Carnegie-Mellon University in 1970, shewas employed by RCA. Her projects while with RCA as a designengineer included circuit design and development of customintegrated circuitry and engineering support for NASA soundingrocket and telemetry systems. Dr. Resnik was selected as anastronaut candidate by NASA in January 1978 and flew as amission specialist on STS 41-D, which was launched on August30, 1984. During this 7-day mission, the crew successfullyactivated the OAST-1 solar cell wing experiment and deployedthree satellites. Dr. Resnik was a mission specialist on STS 51-L,which was launched on January 28, 1986. Tragically, all crewmembers died when Challenger exploded after launch.

Margaret Rhea Seddon was born November 8, 1947, inMurfreesboro, Tennessee. After medical school, Dr. Seddoncompleted a surgical internship and 3 years of a general surgeryresidency. Selected as an astronaut candidate by NASA inJanuary 1978, Dr. Seddon became an astronaut in August 1979.Her work at NASA has been in a variety of areas. A three-flightveteran with over 722 hours in space, Dr. Seddon was a missionspecialist on STS-51D (1985) and STS-40 (1991)

Loren J. Shriver became the Deputy Director of NASA's Kennedy Space Center for Launch and Payload Processing,effective Aug. 17, 1997. Born on September 23, 1944, in Jefferson,Iowa, he had a career in the U.S. Airforce prior to being selectedas an astronaut by NASA in January 1978. A veteran of threespace flights, Shriver flew on STS-51C in 1985, STS-31 in 1990, and STS-46 in 1992, and has logged over 386 hours in space. In October 1992, he was assigned as Deputy Chief of the Astronaut Office.

John L. Swigert, Jr. was born in Denver, Colorado, on August 30,1931. He was one of the 19 astronauts selected by NASA in April1966, and served as a member of the astronaut support crew for the Apollo 7 mission. He was next assigned to the Apollo 13 backup crew and subsequently called upon to replace Thomas K. Mattingly as command module pilot. Apollo 13, Apri11-17, 1970, was initially programmed for ten days, but theoriginal flight plan was modified enroute to the moon due to a failure of the cryogenic oxygen system. The astronautsconverted their lunar module ‘Aquarius’ into an effective lifeboat.Their emergency activation and operation of lunar module systemsconserved both electrical power and water in sufficient quantity to ensure their safety and survival while in space and their return to earth.

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Image: Courtesy NASA

Image: Courtesy NASA

Image: Courtesy NASA

Space Shuttle Discovery being rolled out to the launch padhttp://grin.hq.nasa.gov/IMAGES/SMALL/GPN-2000-000765.jpgImage: Courtesy NASA

6. Leaving Home

Origin of the Solar SystemScientists believe that the formation of the solar system may have proceeded as follows:

1. A giant cloud of gas and dust (the ‘solar nebula’) was disturbed and collapsed under its owngravity. This may have taken up to 100 000 years.

2. As the cloud collapsed it heated up and compressed in the centre. The centre became aprotostar and the rest of the gas orbited around it.

3. The gas cooled off enough for metal, rock and ice to condense into tiny particles.

4. The particles collided to form larger particles. Over millions of years they became larger untilthey developed their own gravity.

5. This accelerated the activity as the gravity pulled in more smaller particles. After ten to onehundred million years the planets had reached a size, depending on their distance from thesun, where they stabilised in orbit.

The Planets and Classical Mythology

The SunThe sun is one of more than 400 billion stars in our galaxy. It is by far the largest object in oursolar system and contains more than 99.8% of the total solar system. It is personified in manymythologies — the Romans called it Sol and the Greeks called it Helios.

The Planets1. Mercury is the closest planet to the sun and the eighth largest. It has been known since

the time of the Sumerians (3rd millenium BC). In Roman mythology, Mercury was the god ofcommerce, travel and thievery. In Greek mythology, Mercury was known as Apollo when amorning ‘star’ and Hermes when an evening ‘star’. Greek astronomers knew it was the samebody. Hermes was the messenger of the Gods and was probably attributed to the planetbecause it moves so quickly across the sky.

2. Venus is the second planet from the sun and the sixth largest. Venus was the Roman goddessof love and beauty. The planet is the brightest, which may account for its name. Like Mercury, it was popularly thought to be two separate bodies: Eosphorus as the morning ‘star’ andHesperus as the evening ‘star’. Greek astronomers knew that it was the one body.

3. Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the fifth largest. It is the only planet whose Englishname does not derive from Greek/Roman mythology. The name has Old English and Germanicorigins. It was not until the time of Copernicus (the sixteenth century) that it was understoodthat the Earth is just another planet.

4. Mars is the fourth planet from the sun and the seventh largest. Mars was the Roman god ofwar. The Greek equivalent was Ares. The planet probably got its name from its red colour. Marswas the god of agriculture before becoming associated with the Greek Ares. The name of themonth March derives from Mars.

5. Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun and by far the largest. In Roman mythology, Jupiter wasthe king of the gods and the ruler of Mt Olympus. In Greek mythology, Jupiter was called Zeus.

6. Saturn is the sixth planet from the sun and the second largest. It has been known sinceprehistoric times. Saturn was the Roman god of agriculture and, in Greek mythology, it wasassociated with Cronus, the father of Zeus. Galileo was the first to observe Saturn with atelescope in 1610.

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7. Uranus is the seventh planet from the sun and the third largest. Uranus was the earliestsupreme god of the ancient Greeks. He was the father of Cronus, Cyclops and Titans, and came before the Olympian gods. Uranus was discovered by William Herschel in 1781.

8. Neptune is the eighth planet from the sun and the fourth largest. In ancient mythology Neptune(Poseidon in Greek) was the god of the Sea. Neptune was first observed in 1846.

9. Pluto is the farthest planet from the sun and by far the smallest. In Roman mythology, Pluto wasthe god of the Underworld, equivalent to the Greek god Hades. The planet received this namebecause it is so far from the sun. Pluto was discovered in 1930.

Comparative sizes of the sun and planetsImage: Courtesy NASA

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Activities• Learn a mnemonic for the order of the planets. For example;

Mercury M MyVenus V VeryEarth E ExcellentMars M MotherJupiter J JustSaturn S ShowedUranus U UsNeptune N NinePluto P Planets

Study the table on the previous page entitled ‘Solar System statistics at a glance’.

• The first three lines of the table describe three different ways of showing the enormous distances between the planets: Astronomical Units, millions of kilometres and distance in light time.

Make a scale model of the Solar System. For example, let 1 minute of light time equal 1 centimetre. (Work out how much paper you will need to show the distance from the Sun to Pluto before you begin!)

You can also do this with toilet paper. Let one sheet equal 10 million kilometres.

• The fourth line shows the time taken by each planet to orbit the Sun in Earth days or Earth years.

How long is a year on Mercury?

How many Mercury years old would you be if you lived on Mercury? (Multiply your age on Earth years by 365 (Earth days in one Earth year) and then divide by 88 (Earth days in one Mercury year).

How many Jupiter years old would you be if you lived on Jupiter?

• The fifth line shows the average orbital speed of the planets in kilometres per second.

Make a graph showing the orbital speed of each planet.

Why does the orbital speed decrease with distance from the Sun? (Think of the amount of gravitational pull exerted by the Sun).

• The sixth line shows the amount of time taken by each planet to rotate once on its axis. A negative number indicates that the planet rotates in the opposite direction from the direction in which it is revolving around the Sun.

Which planets are rotating the fastest / the slowest?

Do the ‘gas giants’ rotate faster or slower than the much smaller rocky planets?

The Orbits of the PlanetsSource: Melbourne Planetarium education kit ‘The Planets’

22

• The seventh line indicates the surface gravity of the planets as a fraction of the surface gravity of Earth.

On which planets could you jump higher / lower than on Earth?

Go outside and measure how high you can jump on Earth. How high could you jump on Jupiter? (Earth jump divided by surface gravity of Jupiter) On Pluto?

• The eighth line shows the equatorial diameter of each planet in kilometres, while the ninth line indicates the size of each planet compared to Earth.

Make a graph of the sizes of the planets.

Make a model of the relative sizes of the planets: If a model of the Sun is 20 cm in diameter, then the following scale applies:

Mercury Pinhead 0.08 cmVenus Peppercorn 0.20 cmEarth Peppercorn 0.20 cmMars Pinhead 0.10 cmJupiter Walnut 2.40 cmSaturn Hazelnut 2.00 cmUranus Peanut 0.80 cmNeptune Peanut 0.80 cmPluto Pinhead 0.04 cm

• The tenth line of the table shows the average temperature of each planet.

Which is the hottest / coldest planet?

Which planet has temperatures most like those of the Earth?

• The eleventh line lists the principal gases in the atmospheres of the planets, while the twelfth line indicates the number of moons that each planet has.

Where is oxygen found in the Solar System?

Which planet has the most moons?

Which planets have rings?

Additional Activities• Survey the planets of the Solar System. Describe each, indicating the conditions

that would be advantageous/disadvantageous for a future visit by humans. Think of factors such as distance from the Earth, temperature, atmosphere, visibility, gravity and surface conditions. Which planet should humans visit first?

• Imagine you are visiting one of the planets in the Solar System sometime in the future. Send a postcard or letter to a friend describing the highlights of your visit. Don’t forget to include the date.

• Design a travel brochure of the future advertising one of the planets as a place for tourists to visit.

More information:The Nine Planets by W. Arnett:http://cedir.uow.edu.au/programs/tnp/nineplanets/nineplanets.html#toc

Melbourne Planetarium: http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/planetarium/23

Crossword

CluesAcross

1. Roof built to protect telescope.3. These float in the sky and sometimes stop you seeing the stars.4. Jupiter's moon ____ has more active volcanoes than any other body in our solar system.5. Earth is the third planet from the sun in our solar _____________.7. Scientist who studies the heavens.8. The sun and the planets orbiting it makes up our __________ system.10. Earth rotates on its axis once each __________.13. Common name for the constellation Ursa Major.14. The sun is a _____________.

Down

2. Most planets in our solar system have one or more _____________.3. A ball with a tail sometimes seen in the sky.6. One of the nearest planets to us, sometimes called the ‘red planet’.9. The sun puts out large amounts of this form of energy.11. Our planet is surrounded by _________, which we breathe.12. Jupiter's Great Red _________ is really a giant storm.

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7. Close EncountersThe Solar System consists of more than the Sun and its nine planets. Thousands of asteroids,comets and meteoroids orbit the Sun and periodically come quite close to the Earth. Smallmeteorites continually crash onto the Earth, and just occasionally, something bigger collides with us. Scientists are now fairly sure that such a collision caused the extinction of the dinosaurs65 million years ago, and in 1908 a smaller impact flattened a large forest in Siberia. Chances areit will happen again, so researchers are attempting to plot the orbits of all asteroids greater thanone kilometre in diameter that cross the orbit of the Earth. They are also considering what actioncould be taken to avert a collision.

AsteroidsThere are millions of asteroids or ‘mini planets’ orbiting the Sun. Most are in a zone between theorbits of Mars and Jupiter, although others are more widely dispersed. They consist of chunks ofrock, and vary in size from Ceres, which is 933 kilometres in diameter, to small pebbles. For moreinformation, consult a reference book or a relevant website eg.http://cedir.uow.edu.au/programs/tnp/nineplanets/asteroids.html

CometsComets are balls of rock and ice several kilometres in diameter that orbit the Sun. The Oort Cloud,which is far beyond the orbit of Pluto, contains hundreds of millions of comets. However, theorbits of some comets bring them into the inner Solar System, within the orbits of the planets,including that of the Earth. As they sweep around the Sun, the solar wind causes these comets todevelop their characteristic ‘tail’ of dust and gas. More information:http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/planetarium/solarsystem/comets2.html

MeteoroidsA meteoroid is the term given to a chunk of rock before it encounters the Earth. When ameteoroid travels through the Earth’s atmosphere, it is moving so fast (60-80 km/s) that frictionusually vaporises the rock. This produces a streak of light known as a meteor, or more commonly,a ‘shooting star’. A typical bright meteor is caused by a meteoroid weighing about one gram,while a brighter trail called a bolide, or a fireball is produced by meteoroids the size of golf balls.Meteor showers of up to 100 meteors per hour occur at various points in the Earth’s orbit aroundthe Sun, and are caused by the Earth crossing the trails of dust left behind by comets.

Meteoroids that are bigger than a bowling ball will probably reach the surface of the Earth, andare then termed meteorites. The largest meteorite found in Australia weighed 12 tonnes(Mundrabilla, WA), while the largest meteorite crater in Australia is 880m wide and 49m deep(Wolfe Creek, WA). More information:http://cedir.uow.edu.au/programs/tnp/nineplanets/meteorites.html

Activities• Find out more about Halley’s Comet, the Asteroid Belt, the Oort Cloud.

• Visit ‘Dinosaurs: Death from Space?’: http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/planetarium/constetour/dds/dds1.html

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8. Destination MarsMars is the fourth planet from the sun. It is further from the sun than Earth and therefore colder. A day on Mars lasts 24 hours and 37 minutes, and it takes 687 Earth days for Mars to orbit the sun.The surface area of Mars is equal to the land area of Earth. Mars has four distinct seasons similarto Earth.

The first mission to Mars was attempted in 1960. At that time, scientists had no evidence ofadvanced life forms on Mars, but many considered that primitive plant life may have been present.The search for life was central to the space program. There have been 33 attempted missions toMars, of which the following is a sample:

In 1962 Mars 1 (USSR) was the first space probe to fly to Mars.

In 1971 Mars 3 (USSR) made the first successful landing on another planet.

In 1976 Viking 1 (USA) was the first successful Mars lander to return substantial data to earth.

In 1997 Pathfinder lander (USA) delivered the first rover to another planet.

In 1997 Mars Global Surveyor (USA) went into orbit around Mars and continues to send data backto Earth.

In 2001 Mars Odyssey (USA) was launched to analyse chemical elements, look for water and mapthe environment.

In 1996 organic compounds were identified in a Martian meteorite. It was suggested that this maybe evidence of Martian microorganisms, but contradictory studies leave the debate wide open.The Mars Global Surveyor has taken pictures of gullies and debris flow features that suggestthere may be current sources of liquid water near the surface of the planet. Much work needs to be done before we will know if there is or ever was life on Mars.

Activities1. Imagine a colony is to be established on Mars and you are one of the colonists.

Available space and weight for the colonists on board the space-craft will be very limited. Write a list of the things you would need to survive.

2. Food must be brought from Earth but it can not be bulky and heavy. Try this experiment to see which foods would be most suitable to take to Mars.

Weigh one apple. Record the weight.

Peel and core the apple and cut into slices.

Hang the slices to dry on pieces of string.

Check pieces daily until they are dry.

Collect all the slices and weigh them.

Compare this with the weight of the original apple.

Would dried fruit be better than fresh fruit for the long trip to Mars? Why?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of dried foods?

What other foods might be taken to Mars using this approach?

3. Keep a record of how many times you use water in the course of a week. Design a chart to show days of the week and uses of water (drinking, bathing, toilet, brushing teeth, washing dishes, etc). At the end of the week see if you can work out how much water you would need to take with you for a journey lasting 6 to 8 months. Now list all the ways you could conserve water.

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The Milky Way GalaxyGalaxies are collections of billions of stars, planets, gas and dust held together by the force ofgravity. They were first classified by their shape in a scheme devised by Edwin Hubble in 1926. Heseparated galaxies into three types: elliptical, spiral and irregular. They are now further classifiedaccording to size (dwarf and giant) and energy level.

Our Solar System is part of the Milky Way Galaxy, which is a normal giant spiral galaxy. The MilkyWay has a diameter of 100 000 light years and contains 400 billion stars, of which our Sun is justone. The Sun and planets are a little over half way from the centre of the galaxy, in one of thespiral arms. They are travelling at a speed of 250 km/s, but even at this rate, it takes 220 millionyears for the Solar System to go around the centre of the galaxy once.

The Milky Way Galaxy is visible on clear, dark nights as a faint milky streak forming a band acrossthe night sky. With this view, we are looking sideways, back into the centre of the galaxy.

The Milky Way Galaxy, viewed side-onSource: Melbourne Planetarium education kit ‘Out of Darkness’

Other GalaxiesThere are hundreds of billions of galaxies, each containing many millions and sometimes evenmany billions of stars. A good telescope enables us to see some of the closer galaxies, and a feware even visible to the naked eye:

• The Magellanic Clouds are two dwarf galaxies that look like hazy patches in the southern nightsky. They are best seen in Australia in summer. The Large Magellanic Cloud is 169 000 lightyears away and the Small Magellanic Cloud is 205 000 light years away. They are the closestgalaxies to our own Milky Way Galaxy.

• The Andromeda Galaxy is the most distant object visible to the naked eye. In Australia, itappears as a smudge low in the northern sky in November and December. The galaxy is 2.2million light years away, and has a diameter of 150 000 light years. With a telescope, itsspectacular spiral nature is revealed.

Activities• On your next school camp, try to locate the Milky Way and the Magellanic Clouds.

If you have a very dark night, you may also be able to see the Andromeda Galaxy.

• Are we likely ever to be able to travel to another galaxy?

• Prepare a project on a galaxy of your choice. Try to include some images: http://www.aao.gov.au/images/general/galaxies.htmlhttp://oposite.stsci.edu/pubinfo/SubjectT.html

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Starburst Galaxy NGC3310 in the constellation of Ursa MajorDistance from Earth: 59 million light years, diameter: 52,000 light years.Image Credit: NASA and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)http://oposite.stsci.edu/pubinfo/PR/2001/26/pr-photos.html

10. Anyone Out There?For millennia, humans have gazed at the stars and considered the possibility of life beyond Earth.Many early civilisations looked to the stars for gods which influenced life on Earth. Then, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, scientists such as Copernicus, Galileo and Brahedemonstrated that the universe was not an unchanging set of stars with the Earth at its centre.We now know that the Earth revolves around the Sun, and that the Sun, in turn, is just one of a vast number of similar stars, some of which have their own planetary systems.

Today the search for life beyond Earth is one of the greatest goals of science. Manned andunmanned spacecraft have explored the moon and parts of the solar system but, with presenttechnology, getting even to the closest star would take many generations. Instead, scientists useradio telescopes to sweep the skies for signs of intelligent life.

SETI is the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence. The mission of the SETI Institute is ‘to explore,understand and explain the origin, nature, prevalence and distribution of life in the universe’. SETI scientists hope one day to pick up a signal directed at Earth by an advanced alien civilisation.

In 1959, physicists Giuseppi Cocconi and Phillip Morrison published an article in which theypointed out the potential for using microwave radio signals to communicate with the stars. In 1960a radio astronomer, Frank Drake, conducted the first microwave radio search for signals fromother planetary systems. In the 1960s the Soviet Union dominated SETI, looking for evidence ofadvanced civilisations. In the 1970s SETI programs were established at two of NASA's centres --one doing targeted searches, the other systematic sweeps. In the early 1990s, governmentfunding for this project was cancelled, but the SETI Institute continues with private funding. Today the SETI Institute conducts full-spectrum research into the possibility of life beyond Earth.

Activities• Consider how we might communicate with an extraterrestrial civilisation. Make a list

of the ways people communicate with each other on Earth. Would any of these be practical for use with an extraterrestrial civilisation? What limiting factors are there? Which methods would work in space? Describe the method you think would be most practical.

• ‘Star Trek’ is a show in which a starship goes to another system in our galaxy. Proxima Centauri, the star nearest to Earth (apart from our sun), is 40 000 billion km away. The speed of light is about 1 billion km per hour. Can you think of practical problems with visiting the stars? List possible solutions.

• Mr Spock was famous for saying, "It's life…….but not as we know it". Humans (Homo sapiens) and trees share an ancestor that lived about two billion years ago. We probably share no biological ancestor with extraterrestrials. That may suggest that it would be easier to talk to a tree than to an extraterrestrial. Consider the types of life that may have evolved on other planets. Animal? Plant? Mineral? Write a paragraph about a meeting with an alien. Provide an illustration.

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11. Back to Earth

Remote SensingRemote sensing is the observation of an object from a distance. Examples are aerial photographyand the use of satellites to observe the Earth. Satellite remote sensing involves gatheringinformation about features on the Earth's surface from orbiting satellites. The digital data acquiredby the satellites is transmitted to ground stations and can be used to build an image of the Earth'ssurface a bit like an aerial photograph.

Satellite data is used to provide timely and detailed information about the Earth's surface,especially in relation to the management of our resources. In case of fire, flood and otherdisasters, high resolution images can be provided to emergency services within 12 hours of asatellite pass.

Remote sensing satellites also record infra red images from Earth. These images are beyondvisible wavelengths, so colours are assigned to these wavelengths to make them visible. These'false colour' images are used to interpret things such as climate change and vegetation growth.

The Australian Centre for Remote Sensing (ACRES), Australia's major satellite remote sensingorganisation, was established as the Australian Landsat Station in 1979.

Activities• Look at the images provided by ACRES, which are included in this resource package.

Write a paragraph describing one of the landscapes you see.

• Imagine a satellite has taken images above the area in which you live. Paint a picture of what you think the image may look like.

• How useful do you think images such as the ones provided by ACRES are? Think of as many uses for these images as you can.

Spencer Gulf and Gulf of St Vincent, South Australiahttp://visibleearth.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/viewrecord?4952Credit: Provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA/GoddardSpace Flight Center, and ORBIMAGE

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12. Andy Thomas, an Australian AstronautAndy Thomas, was born in Adelaide on December 18th 1951. He studied mechanical engineering at the University of South Australia, completing his doctorate in 1978.

His professional career began in 1977 as a research scientist with the Lockheed AeronauticalSystems Company in Georgia, USA. He worked as a scientist, examining various problemsassociated with advanced aerodynamics and aircraft flight tests.

Dr Thomas was selected to join NASA in March 1992, and reported to the Johnson Space Centrein August of that year. In August 1993, following one year of training, he was appointed a memberof the astronaut team and was qualified for assignment as a mission specialist on space shuttleflight crews. He flew his first flight in space on Endeavour in May 1996 as the payload commanderfor STS-77. This was a ten day mission during which the crew deployed two satellites, tested alarge inflatable space structure and conducted a variety of scientific experiments in a Spacelablaboratory module carried in Endeavour's payload bay.

On January 22nd 1998, Dr Thomas was aboard Space Shuttle Endeavour as part of the STS-89 crewwhen it docked with the Mir Space Station. He served aboard Mir as Flight Engineer 2 andreturned to Earth aboard the Space Shuttle Discovery on June 12th 1998, after completing 141days in space and 2 250 orbits of the Earth.

Dr Thomas recently completed his third space flight, travelling to the International Space Stationon STS-102. He has now logged a total of 163 days in space.

Image: Courtesy NASA33

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Resources

The Melbourne Planetarium at Scienceworks Museum2 Booker Street, Spotswood, VIC 3015Tel: (03) 9392 4800Fax: (03) 9391 0100Hours: 8.30 a.m. to 4.00 p.m. dailyhttp://www.museum.vic.gov.au/planetarium/The Scienceworks Shop offers 10% discount for teachers. It stocks a variety of space-relatedbooks and posters, star maps, telescopes and other equipment. Tel: (03) 9392 4806

The Starry Messenger: space related presentations for adult and student audiences.Tel: (03) 5786 1382Fax: (03) 5786 1942Website: http://www.minerva.com.au/mu/starry/

Canberra Deep Space Communication ComplexPO Box 4350, Kingston, ACT 2604Tel: (02) 6201 7838Fax: (02) 6201 7975

Mount Stromlo ObservatoryPrivate Bag, Weston Creek, ACT 2611Tel: (02) 6249 0230Fax: (02) 6249 0233

NASA Central Operation of Resources for EducatorsLorain County JVS15181 Route 58 SouthOberlin, OH 44074, USAhttp://core.nasa.gov/Supplies NASA based educational resources.

Cinemedia loans videos on various space-related topics:Tel: (03) 9920 7040http://www.cinemedia.net

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Internet addressesMelbourne Planetarium:http://www.museum.vic.gov.au/planetariumThis site contains lots of information and links. Monthly sky notes are available for southern Australia.

NASA:http://spacescience.nasa.gov/index.htmThis is an enormous site, containing information and images on all aspects of space.

NASA history of space travel:http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/timeline.html

Latest Hubble Space Telescope observations and photographs:http://hubble.stsci.edu/

The latest in Mars exploration from NASA:http://mpfwww.jpl.nasa.gov/

European Space Agency:http://www.esrin.esa.it/

Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex:http://www.cdscc.nasa.gov

Mount Stromlo Observatory:http://www.mso.anu.edu.au

The Australian Bureau of Meteorology: Includes satellite images.http://www.bom.gov.au/

The Astronomical Association of Victoria provides activities for junior and adult members:http://www.asv.org.au/

Thinkquest on Aboriginal constellations:http://library.thinkquest.org/C005462/index2.html

William Arnett’s site, containing images and links for the Solar System:http://cedir.uow.edu.au/programs/tnp/nineplanets/nineplanets.html#toc

The Anglo Australian Observatory: information and images of galaxies:http://www.aao.gov.au/images/general/galaxies.html

SETI Australia Centrehttp://seti.uws.edu.au/default.htm

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National Curriculum Links

TechnologyLevels 6, 7 and 8; Years 7 to 10

Designing, Making and Appraising

Outcome 6.1 Analyses how needs, resources and circumstances affect the development andapplication of particular technologies.

Outcome 7.1 Analyses the costs and benefits of particular technologies and the values thatunderpin their development and application.

Outcome 8.1 Analyses the design development and marketing of products and processes toidentify needs and opportunities for innovation, and their political, environmentaland economic implications.

ScienceLevels 4, 5 and 6; Years 5 to 7

Earth, Sky and People

Outcome 4.1 Examines ways scientists investigate the Earth, the solar system and theuniverse.

Outcome 6.1 Explains scientific techniques used in monitoring the Earth from space.

Working Scientifically

Outcome 4.16 Reviews the extent to which conclusions are reasonable answers to thequestions asked.

Outcome 5.16 Identifies and considers factors that influence confidence in a conclusion.

Outcome 6.16 Assesses conclusions in relation to other evidence and sources.

Our Place in Space

Outcome 4.3 Locates and describes features of our universe.

Outcome 5.3 Compares and contrasts the conditions that support life on Earth with those ofother planets and our moon.

Outcome 7.3 Examines possible scientific solutions to the problems of supporting life inspace.

Outcome 8.3 Analyses ways in which theories of astronomy have contributed to differentcultures and societies.

Using Science

Outcome Analyses the influence certain scientists have had on the ways we think aboutthe world.

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EnglishLevels 4, 5, 6 and 7; Years 5 to 8

Reading and Viewing

Outcome 4.5 Justifies own interpretation of ideas, information and events in texts containingsome unfamiliar concepts and topics and which introduce relatively complexlinguistic structures and features.

Outcome 4.8b With peers, identifies information needs and finds resources for specific purposes.

Outcome 5.8b Systematically finds and records information.

Outcome 6.8b Gathers, selects and organises information effectively for specific purposes.

Outcome 7.8 Uses reading and viewing strategies that enable detailed critical evaluation of texts.

Years 11 and 12The exhibition would appeal to students in Years 11 and 12 studying:

• Photography

• English Literature

• Physics

• Astronomy

• Biology

• Chemistry

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