Tibet's water and global climate change

BLUE GOLD FROM THE HIGHEST PLATEAU:

Tibet’s water and global climate change

A report by the International Campaign for Tibet

BLUE GOLD FROM THE HIGHEST PLATEAU: Tibet’s water and global climate change

InternationalCampaignforTibet|7

Contents

Executive Summary 7

Part One: The Tibetan landscape and Chinese Policy 11

WhyTibet’senvironmentmatters 11

Thewarmingoftheplateauandglacialmelt 15

China’slandusepoliciesandtheirimpact 16

Disappearingpermafrost 17

Part Two: ‘An internal affair’: Beijing’s policies on Tibet’s environment 21

Tibet’swaterasstrategicasset 21

Tibet’sinfluenceonglobalclimate 24

Part Three: Tibet’s water and Chinese policies 27

‘Thegreatestwatergrabinhistory’:dammingTibet 27

MammothwaterdiversionplanthreatensTibet’secosystem 31

TherushtoexploitTibet’swater:bottlingtheglaciers 32

Thegreatwater-meadowofDzoegeandclimatechange:GabrielLafitte 35

Part Four: The ‘contradiction between grass and animals’: nomadic pastoralists and 41

official policyChina’scounter-productivepoliciesandanalternativeproposal:TseringTsomo 48

Harshwinter,bleakoutlook:aTibetannomad 50

Part Five: The impact of mining on Tibet’s water and environment 55

ApoemtoAmnyeMachen 61

Recommendations for protection of Tibet ‘the Third Pole’ at the Paris climate change 63

conference and beyond

Cover:ThecartoonhasbeenrealizedbyFifi,aliasPhilippeSadzot,wholivesandworksinLiège.Heisateacher

atESASaint-Luc(ArtSchool).SeveralofhisstorieshavebeenpublishedbytheeditorsRequinsMarteaux,Six

PiedssousTerreandCoiffeurspourDames(www.coiffeurspourdames.com).

Geographical note

Theterm‘TibetanPlateau’isusedatvariouspointsinthereport,referringtothevastelevated

plateauthatishistorically,ethnically,andculturallyTibetan.Tibetwastraditionallycomprised

ofthreemainregions:Amdo(northeasternTibet),Kham(easternTibet)andU-Tsang(central

andwesternTibet).TheTibetAutonomousRegion(Chinese:Xizangzizhiqu)wasestablishedby

theChinesegovernmentin1965andcoverstheareawestoftheYangtseRiver(Tibetan:Drichu),

includingpartofKham,althoughitisoftenreferredtonowas‘centralTibet’inEnglish.The

restofAmdoandKhamhavebeenincorporatedintoprovincesofthePRC,andwhereTibetan

communitiesweresaidtohave‘compactinhabitancy’intheseprovinces,theyweredesignated

asTibetanAutonomousPrefecturesandTibetanAutonomousCounties.Asaresult,mostof

QinghaiandpartsofGansu,SichuanandYunnanProvincesaredesignatedbytheChinese

authoritiesas‘Tibetan’.Theterm‘Tibet’inthisreportisusedtorefertoalloftheseTibetan

areasdesignatedbythePRCas‘autonomous’.


Executive Summary

“The impact of climate change in Tibet is harsh. As the world focuses on climate action

at United Nations’ COP21 meetings, Tibet should be central to any progress made.

The Tibetan plateau needs protecting, not just for Tibetans, but for the environmental

health and sustainability of the entire world. As stewards of their own land, Tibetans’

expertise should be part of tackling climate change.”

– The Dalai Lama1

Encircledbyhighmountainsandwithanaverageelevationof4,500metersabovesealevel,the

TibetanPlateauisthelargestandhighestintheworldandaglobalbiodiversityhotspot.Known

astheearth’sThirdPolebecauseofitsstrategicimportanceasthelargestrepositoryoffresh

wateroutsidetheNorthandSouthPoles,itisalandscapeofenormousglaciers,alpinelakes,

andmightywaterfalls.Asastorehouseoffreshwaterandthesourceoftheearth’seightlargest

riversystems,Tibetisacriticalresourcetotheworld’s10mostdenselypopulatednations

surroundingtheplateau.

CoincidingwiththeCOP21talksinParis,whicharecriticaltothesurvivaloftheplanet,this

reporthighlightsastaggeringandlittle-knowndevelopment–Tibetisaclimatechange

epicenterthatiswarmingnearlythreetimesasfastastherestoftheearth.Itsglaciersare

melting,anditspermafrostdisappearing.Andinsteadofseekingtoprotectthisfragilehigh-

altitudeecosystemandaddressthesignificantchallengesitfaces,China’spoliciesarere-

shapingtheTibetanlandscapewithdevastatingconsequences.

Thisreportdocumentsthefollowing:

» Inwhathasbeentermedthe“greatestwatergrabinhistory”,butisalmostunnoticedbythe

restoftheworld,multipledamsarebeingbuiltonallthemajorriversrunningofftheTibetan

plateaubypowerfulstate-ownedChineseconsortiums.

» Plansforamammothwater-diversionschemeacrosssomeoftherestiveareasofTibet

transferringwatertoparchednorthernChinawillinvolveaninfluxofChineseengineers

tunnelingthroughmountains,buildingmoreconcretewallsacrossthewildmountainrivers,

andfloodingoneoftherichestwetlandareascriticaltotheplateau’sfragileecosystem.

» Thehighrisksofdammingandwaterdiversionprojectsinoneoftheworld’smostseismically

1 SeetheDalaiLama’svideomessageonTibet’senvironment,madeinadvanceoftheclimatechangeconferenceinParis:http://tibet.net/cop21/

10|Bluegoldfromthehighestplateau:Tibet’swaterandglobalclimatechange

activeregionshaveintensifiedconcerndownstream,withChina’slandusepolicies

increasinglybeingregardedasamatteraffectingregionalstability.Damsare beingbuilton

highgradientsatthemeetingpointofthreeoftheyoungestandmostunstablemountain

rangesintheworldwithoutevenrudimentaryassessmentsoftheimpactthatgougingout

billionsofcubicmetersofrockandearthtobuilddams,tunnelsandroads,andstoremillions

ofcubicmetersofwater,willhaveonthestabilityoftheearth’scrust.

» Large-scaleminingincopper,gold,silver,chromiumandlithium,signalingtheremote

region’sintegrationintotheChineseindustrialeconomy,ishavingadevastatingimpact,

leadingtorecordlevelsofwaterpollutioninTibet.Tibetanswhoexpressevenmoderate

concernabouttheimpactoftoxicwastes,deforestation,andlarge-scaleerosionriskbeing

imprisoned,tortured,orkilled.

» TheChinesegovernmenthasacceleratedimplementationofpoliciestodisplacenomadic

pastoralistsfromthevastTibetangrasslands,amassivesocialengineeringcampaignthat

threatenstoeviscerateasustainablewayoflifeuniquelyadaptedtotheharshlandscapeof

thehighplateau.ThisisdespiteascientificconsensusinthePeople’sRepublicofChina[PRC]

andbeyondthatindigenousstewardshipandherdmobilityisessentialtothehealthofthe

rangelandsandhelpsmitigateclimatechange.

» InthesamemonthasglobalclimagechangetalksbegininParis,theChineseauthorities

haveannouncedadramaticexpansionofthebottledwaterindustryinTibet,despite

shrinkingglaciersandthealreadyapparentimpactoftherushtoexploitTibet’srivers.

» Acombinationofurbanization,intensifiedmilitarizationlinkedtoChina’sstrategicaims,

infrastructureconstructionandwarmingtemperaturesarecreatingan‘ecosystem

shift’inTibet.Thisinvolvesirreversibleenvironmentaldamage,includingthepredicted

disappearanceoflargeareasofgrasslands,alpinemeadows,wetlandsandpermafrostonthe

Tibetanplateauby2050,withseriousimplicationsforenvironmentalsecurityinChinaand

SouthAsia.

WithTibet’sriverwatersbeingdivertedandtheflowstemmedforelectricitygeneration

inChinesecitiesfarfromtheplateau,mining,irrigation,urbanizationandothereconomic

activitiesfulfillingChina’sstrategicobjectives,thetransboundaryimplicationsofChina’s

controloverTibetarestarkerthanever.

Givenitscriticalimportance,theimpactofclimatechangeontheTibetanplateauisnotonlya

regionalbutaglobalissue,ofuniquesignificanceforthefutureoflifeonearth.

ButbecausewaterisseenasastrategicassetbytheCommunistPartygovernment,andasit

originatesinTibet,Beijing’spoliciesonTibetremainexemptfromgenuinedebateandenquiry.

TheChineseCommunistParty[CCP]authoritiesseektoconveytheimpressionthattheir

devastatingpoliciesinTibetareaimedatconservation.Thestatemediausesasmokescreen

ofopaqueterminologyinordertoconvincegovernmentsgloballythattheirlandusepolicies

areaimedatclimatechangeadaptionandmitigation.Dam-buildingisdescribedas‘water

conservationconstruction’andthedisplacementofnomadicpastoralistsfromtheancestral


grasslandstheyhaveprotectedforcenturiesisframedintermsofenvironmentalprotection,

althoughtheoppositeisthecase.

Inadisturbingnewdevelopment,theChineseleadershipisseekingtogainendorsementfrom

internationalinstitutionsandgovernmentsforthecreationofnationalparksontheplateau

thatarecontingentupontheremovalofnomadsfromtheirpastures.

ThisreportdocumentsincreasingcriticismofthesedevastatingpoliciesbyChinesescholarsand

expertswithinthePRC.Togetherwithinternationalexperts,thereisaclearscientificconsensus

thattheglacier-fedriversandpasturesoftheplateauaresustainedbygrazing,notthreatened

byit.

ThisreportispublishedasworldleadersmeetinParisatCOP21totrytoreachadealtocut

carbonemissions.Failurecouldbecatastrophic.Thestateoftheclimateinthesecondhalfof

thecenturyandbeyondwilldependontheoutcome.

AnewapproachiswarrantedonTibet’s‘bluegold’fromtheChinesegovernment,andthe

internationalcommunitymustdirectlychallengeChina’spoliciesbeforeitistoolate.

Givenitslocation,withthelargestreserveofaccessiblefreshwateronearthandasthesource

ofmostofAsia’smajorrivers,Tibetisofincreasinggeopoliticalsignificance.Assuchitneeds

tobebroughtbacktocenterstageasanissuetiedtoAsianandglobalsecurity,atthecenterof

Asia’sunfoldingfuture.

ConservingtheenvironmentoftheTibetanplateauisanurgenttask.Thisreportsetsout

aroadmapforanewapproach,involvingabetterunderstandingofitsuniqueecologyand

thecollaborationofallofthepeoplewhohaveastakeinthefutureofTibet.Itcallsfor

strengthenedparticipationbyTibetancommunitiesinthedevelopmentprocess,basedonthe

integrationofscience-basedconservationwithTibetanstewardshipoftheland.Italsorequires

thatindigenousknowledgeisbetterunderstood,includingtheefficacyofmanytraditional

naturalresourcemanagementpractices.

Tibetneedsseriousattentioninglobaltalksonclimatechange,andChina’sstrategiesto

addressclimatechangeneedtoinvolvetheTibetanpeople.AstheDalaiLamasaid:“Thisblue

planetisouronlyhomeandTibetisitsroof.TheTibetanplateauneedstobeprotected,notjust

forTibetans,butfortheenvironmentalhealthandsustainabilityoftheentireworld.”

RiversinTibet:imagescourtesyofMichaelBuckley,authorofMeltdowninTibet


Part One: The Tibetan landscape and Chinese Policy

Why Tibet’s environment matters

“Water has emerged as a key issue that would determine if Asia is headed towards

mutually beneficial cooperation or deleterious interstate competition. No country

would influence that direction more than China, which controls the aqua-rich Tibetan

plateau – the source of almost all the major rivers of Asia. The plateau of Tibet holds

more fresh water than any place on earth, other than the polar ice caps. But while the

water in the ice caps is all locked up, much of the water in Tibet is accessible.”

– Brahma Chellaney, a professor at the Centre for Policy Research in Delhi and author of

a major book on water in Asia2

MostofAsia’sbiggestrivers,intheearth’slargestriversystems,havetheirsourceinTibet.The

Brahmaputra,ormoreaccurately,theYarlungTsangpoBrahmaputra-Jamunariver,issourced

intheglaciersofthehighHimalayaandmakesthefamous‘GreatBend’,plungingthroughthe

world’sdeepestgorge,tothenorth-easterncornerofIndia,tothelowlandsofBangladeshand

itsfinaldestinationintheBayofBengal.

TheIndus,whichflowsalongthelengthofPakistan,issourcedinTibetwhiletheMekongrises

highontheplateauandrunsthroughChina’sYunnanprovince,Laos,Thailand,Cambodiaand

Vietnam,whiletheSalween(Tibet:GyalmoNgulchu)issourcedinQinghaineartheheadwaters

ofMekongandYangtze.3

2 CommentmadeatacloseddoorroundtablewiththeDalaiLama,theHagueCentreforStrategicStudies,June5,2009,

publication‘WaterontheTibetanPlateau:EcologicalandStrategicImplications’,fordownloadingseehttp://www.hcss.nl/or

http://www.tibetpolicy.eu/water-on-the-tibetan-plateau-ecological-and-strategic-implications-for-the-region/

3 SeemapofriversoriginatinginTibetonMichaelBuckley’sMeltdowninTibetwebsite

http://www.meltdownintibet.com/images/plateaumap_lg.jpg,reproducedinthisreport.Foradetailedsummaryabouteachriver,

seethislinkonthesamewebsite:http://www.meltdownintibet.com/f_riverbyriver.htm


TheYellowandtheYangtzerivers,lessglacially-dependentfortheirflowthanotherrivers

sourcedontheplateau,bothruntocoastalChina.Althoughforthefirsttimeinitshistory,in

1972,theYellowRiverdriedupsomuchthatitevenfailedtoreachthesea.4

TibetisencircledbythepeaksoftheHimalayanrangetothesouth,theKarakoramrangetothe

west,theKunlunrangetothenorthandtheHengduanrangeintheeast.

WhenTibetanscrossthehighpasses,theyofferprayerflagsandshout‘LhaGyalo!Victoryto

theGods!’reflectingasacredsenseoflandscapethathas,untilnow,helpedtoprotectTibet’s

fragileecosystem.Thisconceptofsacredmountains,lakesandvalleyswherefloraandfauna

weretobeleftuntouchedemergedfromtheanimistfaithofBon,whileBuddhistsbelievethere

isaverycloseinterdependencebetweenthenaturalenvironmentandthesentientbeingsliving

init.5Thisconceptofinterdependencebetweenhumanbeingsandnaturehasinfusedmuchof

thedistressamongTibetansattheminingofmountainsperceivedassacred,ordammingof

holylakes.

TheDalaiLama’spromotionofglobalinterdependenceandprotectionoftheenvironment

wasoneofthereasonsthathewasawardedtheNobelPeacePrizein1989.Inhisacceptance

speech,hesaid:“BothscienceandtheteachingsoftheBuddhatellusofthefundamentalunity

ofallthings.Thisunderstandingiscrucialifwearetotakepositiveanddecisiveactiononthe

pressingglobalconcernwiththeenvironment.”6

InasimilarreflectionoftheimportanceofBuddhistbeliefininterdependenceandtaking

responsibilitytoprotecttheenvironment,Tibetanreligiousleaderthe17thKarmapa,headof

theKarmaKagyuschoolofTibetanBuddhism,providesconservationleadershipthroughthe

organisation‘Khoryug’(Tibetanfor‘environment’)acrosstheHimalayas.7

TheKarmapa,whoisfromanomadicfamily,wrote:“IcomefromaregionofTibetthatis

consideredbackwardbypeoplewholiveinLhasa,letaloneintheWest.Myfamilylivedin

conditionsthatmanywouldthinkveryharshandundeveloped.Andyetmyfather,whonever

attendedschool,knewfromhisownfatherthatifyouwanttoprotectaspring,youshould

planttrees.Ithinkwewillfindthatindigenouspeople,wholiveclosesttonature,areoftenour

greatestalliesintryingtoprotectit.”8

4 LeadingChinesewateractivistMaJunsaid:“Theoncemighty[YellowRiver]hasbynowbecomeasmall,filthystreamthatcannot

evenflushmuchofitssedimentintothesea.”Citedin‘ThirstyChina:ItsKeyResourceConstraintisWater’,WaterRisk,2006,

chinawaterrisk.org

5 ForexampleseetheDalaiLamaon“ecologyandthehumanheart”,

http://www.dalailama.com/messages/environment/ecology-and-the-human-heart

6 SecretAmericancablesrevealedbyWikileaksandpublishedbyTheGuardiansaidthattheDalaiLamatoldUSdiplomatsin2009that

theinternationalcommunityshouldfocusonclimatechangeratherthanpoliticsinTibetbecauseenvironmentalproblemsweremore

urgent.TheGuardian,‘WikiLeakscables:DalaiLamacalledforfocusonclimate,notpolitics,inTibet’byJasonBurke,December16,

2010,http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/16/wikileaks-dalai-lama-climate-change

7 Khoryug,foundedbythe17thKarmapa,whoescapedintoexileinIndiafromTibetin1999-2000,isanon-sectarianassociationofTibetan

BuddhistmonasteriesdedicatedtoenvironmentalprotectionontheBuddhistprincipleoftheinterdependenceofallsentientbeings

andtheearth.http://www.worldwildlife.org/stories/tibetan-monasteries-at-work-for-the-environment).

8 ‘WalkingthePathofEnvironmentalBuddhismthroughCompassion&Emptiness’bythe17thKarmapa,Talkat23rdMind&Life

conference,‘Ecology,Ethics&Interdependence’.Videoat:http://www.ecobuddhism.org/wisdom/interviews/hhk2011.Whatthe

KarmapaissuggestingisinlinewithglobalexperiencewhichshowsthatthemosteffectivewayofachievingREDD(Reducingemissions

fromdeforestationandforestdegradation)objectivesisbyincludingpastoralistsaspartofthesolutionratherthanexcludingthemas

partoftheproblem.


Tibetfromspace.TheHimalayanRangelookingfromeasttowestwithTibetontheright.NamTsoLakeis

visibleonthelowerrightoftheimage.ImagecourtesyofNASA,takenonDecember4,1988.AlsoseeDaniel

J.Miller,DanielMiller’sbook‘TibetfromSpace:AstronautPhotosoftheTibetanPlateauandHimalaya’.

Tibet,whichisknownasaglobalbiodiversityhotspot,istheprimehabitatofsomeofthe

world’srarestwildlifespeciessuchastheTibetanantelopeandthesnowleopard,andhometo

morethan5,760speciesofplantsofwhichmorethan1,000varietieshavecommercialutilityas

medicinalherbs.9Thefaunaisuniquelysuitedtothealtitude.Bar-headedgeese,forinstance,

knownas“astronautsonthewing”,10migrateacrosstheHimalayastwiceayear,soaringhigh

enoughtoclearMountEverest(Tibetan:Chomolungma).

Tibet’sgloballysignificantbiodiversityisdividedintothreeecologicalzones:highaltitude

steppegrasslands;theforestsoftheeasternandsouth-easternplateau,andthemixedshrub

andagriculturallandsofsouth-centralTibet–allinterspersedwithhighmountainrangeswith

extensivealpinezones,glaciersandicefields.

9 DetailsgivenduringaroundtablewiththeDalaiLama,theHagueCentreforStrategicStudies,June5,2009,publication‘Wateronthe

TibetanPlateau:EcologicalandStrategicImplications’,ibid.

10 MichaelBuckley,‘MeltdowninTibet:China’sRecklessDestructionofEcosystemsfromtheHighlandsofTibettotheDeltasofAsia’,

PalgraveMacmillan,2014,p24.


Leftandbottomright:SinceawaveofoverwhelminglypeacefulprotestssweptacrossTibetfromMarch2008

theChineseleadershiphassteppedupitsmilitarybuildupandstrengthenedthepoliciesandapproachesthat

aretherootcauseoftheacts,suchasaggressivecampaignsagainstloyaltytotheDalaiLama,indicatingtheir

determinationtoensureimplementationoftheirstrategicandeconomicobjectivesontheplateau.Thisimage

showstroopsatKumbummonasteryinQinghaiinMarch,2015,aspilgrimsgatherforareligiousceremony.

Topright:MilitaryinthestreetinLabrang,Gansu(theTibetanareaofAmdo)infollowingtheself-immolation

ofaTibetanonOctober22,2012inthemainstreetofLabrang,Sangchucounty,KanlhoTibetanAutonomous

Prefecture,Gansu.Dhondup,aTibetanmaninhisfifties,becamethe57thTibetantoself-immolatewhenheset

firetohimselfinprotestonOctober22,2012outsideLabrangTashikyilmonstery.Since2009,morethan140

Tibetanshaveself-immolatedinwhathasbecomeoneofthebiggestwavesofsuchpoliticalprotestworldwide

inthepast60years.

HydroprojectsonorneartheTibetanPlateau.MapcaptionedinEnglishfromauthorMichaelBuckley’s

website,www.meltdownintibet.com


FromPakistanintheWesttoVietnamintheEast,theseglaciersandmountainsprovidewater

forhumanconsumption,irrigatefarmlands,generatehydropowerandprovidefoodandwater

fortherapidlyincreasingpopulationandexpandingindustriesacrossAsia,includingIndiaand

China,thefastestgrowingeconomiesofthe21stcentury.

The warming of the plateau and glacial melt

Itislittle-knowngloballythatTibetisnowwarmingnearlythreetimesasfastastherestofthe

world.11A2007studybytheTibetAutonomousRegion(TAR)MeteorologicalBureaufoundthat

theTARisexperiencinga0.3°Cincreaseintemperatureeverydecade,12overtwicetheglobal

averagewithfourofthefivewarmestwintersinthelast35yearsintheTARoccurringsince

2000.13IcecorerecordsfromtheDasuopuglacierinTibetrevealthatthelast50yearshavebeen

thewarmestin1,000years.14

Citinglackofdataasanimpedimenttodetailedresearch,amorerecentsurveyconfirmedthat

inthepast20years,temperaturesabove4,000metersoftheplateauregionhavewarmed

nearly75percentfasterthanthatinareasbelow2,000meters.Thestudy,producedbyglobal

changeresearchbodytheMountainResearchInstitute,highlightedthatwithoutsubstantial

information,theworldisatriskofunderestimatingtheseverityofanumberofproblemslike

watershortageandthepossibleextinctionofsomealpinefloraandfaunaspecies.15

GlaciersintheHimalayasareshrinkingfast.“Theglaciersarevirtuallybeingdecapitatedfrom

thetopbyawarmingclimate,”saysKangShichang,aglaciologistatChineseAcademyof

Sciences’InstituteofTibetanPlateauResearchinBeijing.16

RajendraK.Pachauri,chairmanoftheIntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange,wascited

assaying:“Atleast500millionpeopleinAsiaand250millionpeopleinChinaareatriskfrom

decliningglacialflowsontheTibetanPlateau.Thisisoneofthegreatconcerns–astaggering

11 TheChinaMeteorologicalAdministrationcalculatesthattemperaturesontheplateauhaverisenanaverageof0.58degrees

Fahrenheitperdecade,morethanfourtimestheaveragewarmingrateinChinaasawhole.“Aplateauisalmostlikeafrying

paninthesky.Ithastodowiththewaythelandinteractswiththeatmosphere.Everywhereintheworld,themountains

areheatingupfasterthanthelowlands,”saidBarryBaker,aclimatechangeexpertwiththeNatureConservancy,whois

alsostudyingtheglaciersinYunnanprovince.CitedbyBarbaraDemick,LosAngelesTimes,December15,2009.Alsosee:

http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat6/sub38/item1734.html

12 Xinhua,November20,2007

13 AsianNewsInternationalreportarchivedbyNewScientist,July25,2007

14 ‘EnvironmentalinformationrecordedinshallowicecoreofDasuopuglacierintheQinghai-TibetanPlateau’,CuilanHuang,TandongYa,

JianchenPu,KeqinDuan,NinglianWanandLideTian(http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF02883475)Correspondence,

ChineseScienceBulletinNovember1998,Volume43,Issue22,pp1935-1936

15 ‘HighaltitudeareasofTibetanPlateauwarmingfasterthanlowerregions’,byJyontsaSingh,May27,2015,

http://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/high-altitude-areas-of-tibetan-plateau-warming-faster-than-lower-regions-49939

16 KangShichanghadexaminedicecoresdrilledfromtwoTibetanglaciersatabout6,000meters,heexplainedatthe28thHimalayan

KarakoramTibetWorkshopandthe6thInternationalSymposiumonTibetanPlateauJointConferenceinTubingen,Germany,inAugust,

2013.Atthesameconference,AchimBräuning,apalaeoclimatologistattheUniversityofErlangen-NuremberginGermany,said:

“Higherelevationstendtohavecoldertemperaturesyear-round.Weusedtothinkthatglaciersathighelevationswereprettysafe,but

thisstudyshowsthatthismightnotbethecase—atleastatcertainlocations.”‘Tibetanglaciersareshrinkingattheirsummits’by

JaneQui,Nature,September13,2013,http://www.nature.com/news/tibetan-glaciers-are-shrinking-at-their-summits-1.13767


numberofpeoplewillbeaffectedinthenearfuture.Therearen’ttoomanyresearcherswho

havelookedatthiswatersituationanditsfar-reachingimpacts.”17

Themeltingofglaciersmeansmorefloodingintheshort-termandmoredroughtsinthelong-

term.AccordingtoChinesescientistLiuShiyin:“Theshrinkingofglaciershaspickedupspeed

inthepastdecades.Whiletheremightbemorewaterintheriversatpresentbecauseofthe

increasedmelting,inthelongrun,theglacierwaterwilldecrease,anddroughtswillfollow”.18

DrKatherineMorton,aspecialistinclimatechangeandregionalsecurityinTibetwhoisbased

attheUniversityofSheffieldintheUK,writes:“Glacialmelthasdramaticadverseeffectson

biodiversity,peopleandlivelihoodswithlong-termimplicationsforwater,foodandenergy

security.Itcanalsotriggerahigherincidenceofnaturaldisasters–landslides,floodingand

glaciallakeoutbursts–thatcan,inturn,leadtointernaldisplacementandthedestruction

ofcriticalinfrastructure.Overthelongerterm,highertemperatureswillincreasefloodingin

therainyseasonandreducewaterinthedryseason,thusaffectingfoodproductioninthe

provincesdownstream,aswellasthelivelihoodsofover1billionpeopleinChina,India,Nepal

andBangladesh.Eventuallywatershortageswilloccuronamassivescale.Theconsequences

foraregionthatisalreadyhighlypronetobothfloodsanddroughtaredire.Weare,ineffect,

facingahumanitariancatastropheintheworld’smostpopulousregion.”19

China’s land use policies and their impact

ScientistsbelievethatinTibetaselsewhereonedriverofclimatechangemaybelandcover

andlandusechangesrelatingtoagricultureandurbanization.Thesefactorsmayeven

outweigh‘greenhousegasforcing’.20“Themanycivilengineeringprojectscurrentlyunderway,

suchastheconstructionoftheQinghai-Xizangrailroad[completein2006],combinedwitha

consciouseffortbyChinatourbanizetheTibetanplateau,willleadtofurtherandlikelygreatly

acceleratedpopulationincreasesandlandsurfacechangesinthefuture,”saidscientistsOliver

17 InterviewwithCircleofBlue,‘China,Tibet,andtheStrategicPowerofWater’,May8,2008,byKeithSchneiderandC.T.Pope,

http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2008/world/china-tibet-and-the-strategic-power-of-water/TheUNIntergovernmental

PanelonClimateChangeissometimesquotedassayingthattheAsianglacierswoulddisappearbytheyear2035,butthis

turnedouttobeanerrorbasedonthetranspositionofnumbersfromtheyear2350to2035.Butitisequallypossiblethatthe

icewilldisappearsooner.See‘TheIPCC’s2035predictionaboutHimalayanglaciers’,postedon21January2010byJohnCook,

http://www.skepticalscience.com/IPCC-2035-prediction-Himalayan-glaciers.html

18 LiuShiyinfromtheChineseAcademyofScience’sColdandAridRegionsEnvironmentandEngineeringResearchInstitutewasquotedin

‘Glaciersmeltingatalarmingspeed’,ChinaDaily,July24,2007,availableat:www.chinadaily.com.cn.

19 ‘AnuncertainfutureonthePlateau’byKatherineMorton,April28,2009,

https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/2961

20 Anthropogenic’greenhousegasforcingisgenerallyconsideredtobethemaincauseoftheobservedwarminginhigh-elevationareas.

Anthropogeniceffects,processes,objects,ormaterialsarethosethatarederivedfromhumanactivities,asopposedtothoseoccurring

innaturalenvironmentswithouthumaninfluences.OliverW.Frauenfeld(NSIDC/CIRESCPP)andTingjunZhang(NSIDC/CIRESCPP)

write:“Likeelsewhereontheglobe,anequallyimportantanthropogeniccomponenttoclimatechangemaybelandcoverandland

usechangesontheTP[TibetanPlateau].Theselocal—regionalsurfaceeffectsrelatedtoagricultureandurbanizationpotentially

outweighgreenhousegasforcing.Infact,ourrecentresearchhasshownthatplateau-averagedstationrecords,biasedtowardlow-

lyingpopulatedregions,showawarmingtrendof0.16°Cdecade—1overthelast50+years.However,plateau-widetrendsfroman

independentdatasourcefreeofsurfacecontaminationindicatenotrend.Thishasledustohypothesizethat,indeed,landuse/cover

change(LUCC)couldlargelyaccountforthereportedwarmingontheTibetanplateau.”From‘IsClimateChangeontheTibetanPlateau

DrivenbyLandUse/CoverChange?’,awinningproposalfortheCooperativeInstituteforResearchinEnvironmentalSciencesInnovative

ResearchProgram,2005,jointlysponsoredbytheUniversityofColoradoatBoulderandtheOfficeofOceanicandAtmosphericResearch

atNOAA.


W.FrauenfeldandTingjunZhang.“Accordingtosomestudies,thecarryingcapacityofparts

oftheTibetanPlateauhasbeenfarexceeded,partlyduetoinappropriatelandmanagement

practicesimplementedinthe1950s.Additionally,urbanization,whichcanresultin8–11°C

highertemperaturesthaninsurroundingruralareas,hasoccurredontheTibetanplateauin

citiessuchasLhasa,Golmud,andXining.”21

Scientistshavenowwarnedofan‘ecosystemshift’ontheplateauduetoclimatechange

andhumanactivities,reducingfuturewatersupplytoChinaandSouthAsia.Warming

temperatures,combinedwithadramaticinfrastructureboom,agrowingpopulationand

overgrazingarecombiningtopushfragileecosystemsontheworld’slargestandhighest

plateaufromonestatetoanother,accordingtoscientistsfromtheKunmingInstituteof

Botany.22

Thisirreversibleshiftwillmeantheregionwouldnolongerbeabletoprovidekey

environmentalservices–suchaswaterandcarbonstorage–totherestofAsia.Itwould

meanthatareasofgrasslands,alpinemeadows,wetlandsandpermafrost,essentialtoTibet’s

biodiversity,willdisappearontheTibetanplateauinthenext35years.

21 ‘IsClimateChangeontheTibetanPlateauDrivenbyLandUse/CoverChange?’awinningproposalfortheCooperativeInstitutefor

ResearchinEnvironmentalSciencesInnovativeResearchProgram,2005,jointlysponsoredbytheUniversityofColoradoatBoulderand

theOfficeofOceanicandAtmosphericResearchatNOAA.

22 ‘BuildingecosystemresilienceforclimatechangeadaptationintheAsianhighlands’byJianchuXuandR.EdwardGrumbine,August28,

2014,http://wires.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WiresArticle/wisId-WCC302.html

NomadicpastoralistsacrossTibetarebeingdisplaced

fromthegrasslandsandresettledinoftenbleak

concreteencampmentsinremoteareasfarfrom

communityamenitiesornearnewroadsandurban

areasaspartofChina’sambitiousandelaborateplans

thatarere-shapingtheTibetanplateau.


Disappearing permafrost

Permafrost,thefrozenlayersofsoilthatunderpintwothirdsoftheplateauandprovide

essentialcarbonandwaterstorage,isdegradingrapidlyinTibet.AccordingtoarecentChinese

scientificreport,about81percentofthepermafrostontheTibetanplateaumaydisappear

around2100duetothewarmingclimate.23

OnlyweeksaftertheopeningoftheQinghai-Tibetrailwayin2006,theChinesestatemedia

announcedthatfissureshadbeguntodevelopinitsconcretestructuresduetothesinkingand

crackingofitspermafrostfoundation.24Chinesescientistshavesinceadmittedthatthesafety

oftheGolmud-Lhasarailway(andotherraillinksacrosstheplateau),couldbethreatenedby

meltingpermafrostonwhichthetracksarebuilt.25

Whileglaciersandpermafrostmelt,areascoveredbynaturalvegetationcouldexpand;making

morelandavailableforfarmingandraisinglivestock.However,themismanagementof

expandingfarmingandpastoralareas,coupledwiththeincreasedchancesofdroughtdueto

climatechange,couldinsteadresultinincreaseddesertification.26

23 Xinhua,November18,2015,inEnglish,http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-11/18/c_134828505.htm

24 FordetailsoftheengineeringworkandexpenditurerequiredforbuildingontheshiftingpermafrostoftheTibetanplateau,seeAbram

Lustgarten,‘China’sGreatTrain:Beijing’sDriveWestandtheCampaigntoRemakeTibet’,TimesBooks,2008.Arailwaytechnology

websitestated:“Some550mofitstracksareonfrozenearth,passingthroughboththeworld’smostelevatedtunnel–Fenghuoshan

Tunnel(4,905m)–andthelongestplateautunnel–KunlunMountain(1,686m)–tobebuiltonfrozenearth.[…]Aroundhalfofthe

GolmudtoLhasasectionwaslaidonbarelypermanentpermafrostwithwintertemperaturesthatplummetto-35ºC,whilethe

summer’s30+ºseestheupperlayersthawingtomud.Theengineersapproachedthisproblembyconstructingelevatedtracksand

causewaysoversomeofthemostdifficultterrain,whileinotherareas,pipeshavebeeninstalledtocirculateliquidnitrogenbelow

therailbedtokeepthegroundfrozen.”(http://www.railway-technology.com/projects/china-tibet/)SeemoreatICTreport,‘New

strategicrailnetworktoTibet’sbordersendangersenvironment,raisesregionalsecurityconcerns(Updated)‘,November12,2014,

http://www.savetibet.org/new-strategic-rail-network-to-tibets-borders-endangers-environment-

raises-regional-security-concerns/#49

25 Reuters,citingChinaMeteorologicalAdministrationheadZhengGuoguang,May6,2009:

http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/05/06/us-china-climate-tibet-idUSTRE5451IM20090506

26 ClimateChange2007:Impacts,AdaptationandVulnerability’,contributionofWorkingGroupIItotheFourthAssessmentReportofthe

IntergovernmentalPanelonClimateChange(IPCC),Cruz,R.V.,H.Harasawa,M.Lal,S.Wu,Y.Anokhin,B.Punsalmaa,Y.Honda,M.Jafari,

C.LiandN.HuuNinh,2007;Eds:M.L.Parry,O.F.Canziani,J.P.Palutikof,P.J.vanderLindenandC.E.Hanson,CambridgeUniversityPress,

Cambridge,UK,pp.469–506;p.486.

Beijing’spoliciesonTibetremainexemptfromgenuinedebateandenquiry,andthereislittleacknowledgementofhowlandusepoliciesaredangerously

impactingenvironmentaldegradation.Scientistshavelinkedmajorinfrastructureprojects,suchasthehigh-altitudetraintoLhasapicturedhere,with

warmingoftheplateau.


Part Two: ‘An internal affair’: Beijing’s policies on Tibet’s environment

Tibet’s water as strategic asset

“At a deeper level, the threat of large-scale environmental catastrophe reaffirms the

need for a twenty-first century view of progress that moves imperatively beyond the

nineteenth century model of nation-building based on the expansive exploitation of

natural resources. Rather than simply a strategic buffer zone caught between the

ambitions of great powers, the Tibetan Plateau could become a strategic conservation

zone acting as a buffer against environmental catastrophe that threatens one-fifth of

humanity.”

– Dr Katherine Morton, expert on climate change and regional stability27

Thereportsaboutthecracksintherailwayfoundationsduetodisappearingpermafrost,

andothersimilarreportsintheChinesestatemedia,aresignsthatthegovernmentis

acknowledging,toanextent,thechangingconditionofTibet’swatersupply.Butthereisa

strikingdiscrepancybetweenofficialadmissionsoftheenvironmentalcrisisinTibetbyChinese

leaders,andtheapparentrefusalbytheChinesegovernmenttoacceptthatthishasany

implicationsfordevelopmentstrategyinTibet.

Beijing’spoliciesonTibet,includingoncriticalenvironmentalquestions,remainexemptfrom

genuinedebateandenquiry.Thereislittleornoacknowledgmentofhowlandusepoliciesare

dangerouslyimpactingenvironmentaldegradation.

Whenjournalistsforawebsiteontheworld’sresourcecrisessoughttointerviewscientistsin

China,theyobservedthat“WhilemostscientistsintheregionagreethattheTibetanPlateau’s




waterresourcesarecrucialtothefutureofChinaandSouthernAsia,manydeclinedtobe

interviewedforfearoflosingaccesstotheirresearchsites.”28

ThisisbecauseTibet’swaterisviewedasan‘internalmatter’fortheCCPofcriticalimportance

toitsnationalsecurity,anditsstrategicandeconomicobjectives.Thepro-damlobbyis

powerfulandalignedwithmajorChineseconsortiumsinvolvedintheimplementationof

ambitiousandelaborateplanstore-shapeTibet.Waterisseenasastrategicasset,and

becauseitoriginatesinTibet,hasanaddedpoliticalsensitivity.TheCCPattemptstodeflect

genuineinternationalenquiries,usingterminologyintendedtoconveytheimpressiontheir

policiesareaimedatconservation,withoutacknowledgingtheintensifyingdegradationofthe

environment.Forinstance,asthisreportshows,buildingmega-damsaredescribedas‘water

conservation’projects.Inanextremeexampleof‘green-grabbing’,nomadsarebeingremoved

fromthegrasslandstheirindigenousknowledgeprotects,tomakewayfornaturalparksthat

Chinaframesaspartoftheirclimatechangemitigation.

Thepoliticalstakesarehigh,meaningthatevenmoderatecriticismisoftennotpossible.Atthe

‘SixthWorkForum’inAugust2015,thefirstmajorpolicymeetingonTibettobepresidedover

byPartyleaderXiJinpingsincehecametopower,itwasmadeclearthatTibetisnotofmarginal

concernbutamatterofthehighestprioritytotheleadershipoftheChineseCommunistParty

(CCP).

Totheleadership,TibetisviewedasanissueofChina’s‘nationalsecurity’,withseniorChinese

politicaladvisorYuZhengshengstatingatarallyinLhasainAugust(2015):“Tibetplaysan

importantroleinsafeguardingnationalsecurity,anditisintheinterestsofallTibetanpeople

tomaintainnationalunityandethnicsolidarity.”29

Partyofficialsequatepolitical‘stability’intheTibetAutonomousRegion-politicallanguagefor

theeliminationofdissentandenforcementofcompliancetoChineseCommunistPartypolicies

-withthesecurityoftheentirePRC,partlybecauseTibetisanimportantborderarea.30Many

ofthedamsinTibetarebeingbuiltintheNyingtriarea(Kongpo,Chinese:Linzhi),intheTAR,a

highlymilitarizedareathatbordersArunachalPradeshinIndia.31

28 ‘CircleofBlue’,awebsiterunbyleadingjournalistsandscientists,providingon-the-groundinformationabouttheworld’sresource

crises,http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2008/world/china-tibet-and-the-strategic-power-of-water/

29 ICTreport,September8,2015,

https://www.savetibet.org/tough-warnings-on-anti-separatism-from-party-leaders-at-political-anniversary-in-tibet/

30 ChairmanoftheTibetAutonomousRegion’sPeople’sCongressPemaThinley(referredtoasPadmaCholing

byChinesemedia)underlinedthisapproachonChina’sNationalDay,October1(2015),whenhesaid:“Tibet’s

stabilityistiedtonationalstability,andTibet’ssecurityistiedtonationalsecurity.”(TibetDaily,October3,2014,

http://epaper.chinatibetnews.com/xzrb/html/2014-10/03/content_572862.htm).SeeICTreport,September8,2015,

https://www.savetibet.org/tough-warnings-on-anti-separatism-from-party-leaders-at-political-anniversary-in-tibet/

31 AsananalysisofthepoliticalrepercussionsofplanningfortheYarlungTsangporiver,PremShankarJhawritesthatfollowingthe

announcementofsomeofthewateruseplans,theChineseAmbassadorinNewDelhimadeastatementsayingthatChinaconsidered

thewholeofthenortheasternstateofArunachalPradeshtobeapartofTibet.Thiswasareversalofitsearlierposition,developed

inasuccessionofbilateralnegotiationssince1994,thatChinawaspreparedtosettleforasubstantialmodificationofsomepartsof

theexistingtemporaryboundary,calledtheLineofActualControl.TheannouncementtooktheIndiangovernmentbysurpriseand

wasfollowedbythreeyearsofrisingtensionalongtheborder.ChinabegantorefertoArunachalas“SouthTibet”,andtoitsprincipal

monasteryatTawangasTibet’ssecondmostimportantmonasteryafterLhasa.ItalsobegantodenyvisastoIndianofficialswhowere

fromArunachalPradesh.Thetensionwasnotdefuseduntiltherewasameeting between then premier Wen Jiabao and prime minister

Manmohan Singh,atHuaHin,Thailand,inOctober2009,designedspecificallytopreventitsspilling overintomilitaryconflict.”

(https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6753-Why-

India-and-China-should-leave-the-Yarlung-Tsangpo-alonewho)


China’scurrenteconomicimperativesemergefromtheCCP’sambitiousandtransformative

campaignof‘Xibu da kaifa’,thestrategytodevelopthewesternregionsofthePRC.The

ChinesetermkaifainthiscontextisoftenrenderedintoEnglishas‘development’;however,

standarddictionariesdefinekaifaas‘develop’,‘openup’and‘exploit’,whichreflectshowthe

PartyperceivesthewesternareasofthePRC-essentiallyasprovidersofresourcesinorderto

facilitatedevelopmentinthecentralandeasternregions.

China’sleadershopethatthePRC’swesternregion’sresourcescanhelptosatisfythenation’s

risingdemandforwater,mineralsandenergy–andnow,additionally,asadriverfortourism.

Xibu da kaifaisahigh-profilepoliticalcampaign,initiatedbythethenChinesePresidentand

CCPChairmanJiangZeminin1999–2000.AsoneofthemajordynamicsofcontemporaryChina,

itisanenormousundertaking,affectingmorethan70%ofthePRC’slandareaandalmost

aquarterofitsvastpopulation,includingTibetans,UyghurMuslimsandother‘national

minorities’.Thedriveisnotrestrictedtothe10westernprovincesofthePRCbutincludes

underdevelopedprovinceswithlargeethnicpopulationsinotherregions,especiallyInner

MongoliaandGuangxi.

TheintegrationofTibetanareasintoChinaandexploitationofthenaturalresourcesof

theTibetanplateauhavebeenprioritiessincethefoundationofthePRC,andtheWestern

DevelopmentStrategyrepresentedanaccelerationofthisprocess.

Forthe13thFive-YearPlanperiod,whichbeginsin2016,theChineseauthoritiesarefocusingon

“therelocationoftheworld’sfactoryawayfromChina’seastcoasttonewhubsfarinland,at

thefootoftheTibetanPlateau,whichwilldrawtheirrawmaterialsfromTibetratherthanfrom

imports”,accordingtoenvironmentalspecialistGabrielLafitte.“Tibet,Asia’snumberonewater

tower,istoprovidethewater,copper,gold,silverandmanyothermetals,plusenormousflows

ofhydropowertothefactoriesofChongqing,Chengdu,LanzhouandXiningthatmakeallthe

bigbrandconsumerproductsinourpockets.ThistooistransformingTibet,asChina’sresource

nationalismfindsdomesticsourcestosubstituteforimports,primarilyinTibetandelsewherein

westernChina.”32

ManyChineseeconomistsandanalystsinthePRChavecriticizedthecurrentformof

infrastructural,GDP-orientedgrowth,pointingoutthatitispotentiallydangerous,probably

unsustainable,likelytodamagelocalresourcesandenvironment,andencouragesoutside

migrationandprofitextraction.ItisimposedfromthetopdowninBeijing,withscantregard

forlocalneeds,viewsandlivelihoods.33

Thismodelofdevelopment,basedonresourceexploitationandinfrastructureconstruction,

isincreasing,ratherthandecreasing,Tibet’sdependenceonsubsidiesfromthecentral

government,especiallyintheTAR.Callingthisthe“disempowereddevelopmentofTibet

inChina”,34developmenteconomistDrAndrewM.Fischerdrawsattentiontothesurgein

subsidiesintheTAR,withoutaccompanyingeconomicgrowth.Fischerstatesthatsubsidy-

32 ‘PitchingTibetinanewkey’postedbyGabrielLafitteonhiswebsiterukor.org,November21,2015

33 Forfurtheranalysis,seeICT’sreport,‘TrackingtheSteelDragon:HowChina’seconomicpoliciesandtherailwayaretransforming

Tibet’,availablefordownloadingathttp://www.savetibet.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/TrackingTheSteelDragon.pdf

34 ‘TheDisempoweredDevelopmentofTibetinChina:Astudyintheeconomicsofmarginalization’,byAndrewMartinFischer,Lexington

Books,2014


drivengrowthhasalsobeenassociatedwitharapidtransitionofthelocalTibetanlabourforce

outoftheprimarysectorofherdingandfarming,andintoconstructionandurbanservice

sectoremployment,takingplaceatafasterpacethananywhereelseinChina,butithasbeen

withouttheproductiveeconomicfoundationsorlocalpoliticalautonomytosupportthese

changes.35

“Tosaythattheperversecharacteristicsofthissubsidy-driveneconomicmodelaresomehow

relatedtomarketisation,orneoliberalism,divertsattentionawayfromthecentralroleof

thestateinshapingthedeeplystructuralcharacterofthesetransformations,”writesAndrew

Fischer.“Thestatecoulddramaticallychangethesituationbyadoptingadifferentpolicy

approachinTibet.Thismustgobeyondsimplyincreasingculturalsensitivityinthedeliveryof

economicdevelopmentstrategies.Itwouldneedtoembrace,forinstance,afarmorepro-

activeapproachtopreferentialemployment.Butultimatelythesocialtensionsandinequities

associatedwiththecurrenteconomicstrategywillcontinuetopersistaslongasthestructures

ofownershipandpowerinthelocaleconomyremainunaddressed.”36

ThesepoliciesarenotonlytransformingthephysicallandscapeofTibet,butalsotheinner

landscapeofTibetanlives,theiridentityandculture,asthisreportshows.

Tibet’s influence on global climate

ItisincreasinglyrecognizedthatTibet’sclimateandlandusepoliciesshouldnotbetreated

solelyasan‘internalaffair’oftheChinesegovernment.Althoughmanyspecificdetailsremain

elusive,atleastinpartduetolackofdata,scientistsareincreasinglyacknowledgingthe

keyroleplayedbyTibetintheglobalclimatesystem.WhathappensontheTibetanplateau

influencesclimateandatmosphericchangesnotonlyinAsia,butasfarawayasEastAfricaand

evenEurope.

ArecentChinesescientificreportstatedthatworseningheatwavesinEuropeandnorth-east

Asiaarelinkedtothinnersnow-coverontheTibetanPlateau,highlightingtheplateau’skeyrole

inglobalweathersystems.37

Environmentspecialist,AustralianscholarGabrielLafitteexplainedtoEuropean

ParliamentariansinameetinginadvanceoftheParisclimatechangetalks:“TheTibetan

plateauisthesizeofWesternEurope,anditsbulk,itsseasonalcoolingandheatingdirectly

affecttheatmosphere,rightacrossthenorthernhemisphere.Thejetstreamthatmeanders

acrosstheplanetisdeflectedbythesheerbulkandaltitudeoftheTibetanPlateau,whichis

35 ‘Tibet’seconomicgrowthanaccountingillusion?’byAndrewM.Fischer,InstituteofSocialStudies(TheHague),July9,2015,

http://www.eastasiaforum.org/2015/07/09/tibets-economic-growth-an-accounting-illusion/

36 AndrewM.Fischer,ibid

37 ProfessorWuZhiweiandherteamofscientistsatNanjingUniversityofInformationScienceandTechnologyusedmonthlysnow

coverandairtemperaturedatafromthepastfiftyyearstobuildaglobalcirculationmodel.Theirfindingsshowthatreduced

snowcoverontheTibetanplateautriggershighpressureoversouthernEuropeandnortheastAsia,reducingcloudformation

andpushinguptemperatures.Warmeranddrierconditionsinturnfurtherinhibitcloudformation,intensifyinglocalheatwaves,

accordingtoapapertheypublishedrecentlyin‘Climate Dynamics’.SeeBethWalker,September28(2015),ChinaDialogue,

https://www.chinadialogue.net/blog/8204-Less-snow-in-Tibet-means-more-heatwaves-in-Europe-/en.Theauthorsofthepaper

acknowledgedthelackofhighqualityandlong-termclimatedatafortheTibetanplateau.


closetotwopercentoftheplanetarylandsurface.Inwinter,coldpolarairpushessouthwards,

andthejetstreamisdeflectedtotheHimalayas,whichprotectIndiafromtheintensecoldof

continentalinnerAsia.Inspringandsummer,theTibetanplateau,especiallythebarerockof

theupperslopes,heatsfast,sofastthatthejetstreamswitchesfartothenorth,deflected

aroundthenorthernplateauedges,thusdrawinginfromthefarIndianOceantherainbearing

cloudsofthemonsoon.”38

Climatescientistshavelookedalongthelatitudecirclingthenorthernhemisphere,fromthe

TibetanPlateau,acrossEastAsia,thenorthPacific,NorthAmerica,theAtlanticandonto

Europe,andfoundthatairpushedintotheuppertropospherebyTibetonlydescendswhenit

reachesEurope.Thismeansthatclimatically,TibetandEuropearedirectlyconnected.

38 ‘EnvironmentalDegradationontheThirdPole’,AbriefingformembersoftheEuropeanParliament,Brussels,November16,2015,

http://rukor.org/environmental-degradation-on-the-third-pole/

ScientistsareincreasinglyacknowledgingthekeyroleplayedbyTibetintheglobalclimatesystem;what

happensontheTibetanplateauinfluencesclimateintheNorthernHemisphereaswellasinAsia.

WatersurgesfromtheenormousZangmu

damatthehydro-powerstationonthe

highestriverintheworld,theYarlung

Tsangpo,soonafteritbecameoperational

inNovember,2014.Imagefromthe

ChineseofficialnewsagencyXinhua.

Thisimagefromtheofficialmediashows

theZangmudamontheYarlungTsangpo

river.Thelastremaininggeneratorof

thedambecameoperationalinOctober

(2015),intensifyingfearsdownstream

inIndiagiventhehighrisktodamming

upstreaminoneofthemostseismically

sensitiveareasonearth.

ThisimagefromtheChinesestatemedia

showsthelaunchoftheelectricitygrid

betweentheTibetAutonomousRegion

andSichuanonNovember20,2014.The

rapiddam-buildinginTibetisintendedto

produceenergyinhydro-electricpower

stationstobeconveyedalonghigh-voltage

transmissionlivesforChina’sexpanding

urbancentersfarfromTibet.


Part Three: Tibet’s water and Chinese policies

‘The greatest water grab in history’; damming the plateau

HalfofallthedamsintheworldarenowinChina–ithasbuiltmorelargedamsthantheUS,

BrazilandCanadacombined.39Afteralltheriversinnorthern,centralandeasternChinahad

beendammed,theChineseauthoritiesbegantolookwest,awarethattheriversrushing

throughdeepcanyonsattheedgeoftheTibetanplateauholdthehighesthydropowerpotential

intheworld.

Almostunnoticedbytherestofworld,tensofthousandsofengineersarebuildingdamson

Tibet’sriversinordertoproduceenergyinhydro-electricpowerstationstobeconveyedalong

ultra-highvoltagetransmissionlinesforChina’sexpandingurbancentersfarfromTibet.40The

intentionistointegrateTibetintothenationalgrid,withconnectionsbetweenhydro-damsand

long-distanceelectricitysupplyfromthefootoftheTibetanplateautoGuangdong.Locally,the

electricitygeneratedwillalsobeusedforminingandmineralprocessing.

IndiananalystBrahmaChellaney,oneoftheleadingexpertstohighlightthesignificanceand

strategicimplicationsofChina’slandusepoliciesinTibet,termsitthe“greatestwatergrabin

history”.41

Therapidandlarge-scaledevelopmentofmineralandhydropowerresourcesacrosstheplateau,

combinedwiththedramaticexpansionofaroad,railandairnetwork,arekeyelementsof

China’scentrallyplanneddevelopmenttargetsforTibet,whichincludethedevelopment

oftourism.42Thedams,manyofwhicharebeingconstructedinthesensitiveandhighly

39 BethWalkerandLiuQininTheDiplomat,‘TheHiddenCostsofChina’sShifttoHydropower’,July29,2015,

http://thediplomat.com/2015/07/the-hidden-costs-of-chinas-shift-to-hydropower/.AlsoseeBrahmaChellaney,‘Water:Asia’sNew

Battleground’,p61

40 ForGoogleEarthimagesofsomeofthelargedams,seeMichaelBuckley’sMeltdowninTibetwebsite,‘BigDamGallery’,

http://www.meltdownintibet.com/f_damgallery.htm

41 BrahmaChellaney,citedin‘ChinaandIndia“watergrab”damsputecologyofHimalayasindanger’,byJohnVidal,TheGuardian,

August10,2013,http://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/aug/10/china-india-water-grab-dams-himalayas-danger

42 Thisisanincreasinglysignificantdevelopmentthatisbeyondthescopeofthisreporttoexplore.ItwillbeexaminedinupcomingICT

reports.TourisminTibethashitarecordhigh,andthemajorityoftouriststoTibetarenolongerWesternbackpackersbutmiddle-class

Chinese.ThepushtoadvancetourismtoTibetisanintegralelementofChina’sstrategicandeconomicobjectivesinTibet;following

thelarge-scaleexploitationofTibet’smineralandothernaturalresourcesunderthe‘WesternDevelopmentStrategy’,nowthe‘post-

industrial’businessoftourismhaschangedthedynamicofinvestment,drawingmoreforeigncompaniesandgovernmentstoenterthe

Tibetaneconomy,suchasinternationalhotelchains,andintegratingitwithChina’s.


militarizedareaofNyingtri(orKongpo,Chinese:Linzhi),intheTibetAutonomousRegion,and

theconstructionofthenewraillinesbringtheChinesegovernmentmuchclosertothegoalset

byMaoZedongover40yearsagoofintegratingTibetwithChina.Theimplementationofthese

elaborateplansheightensTibetanfearsforthesurvivaloftheirculturalandreligiousidentity.43

AmajorgoalofChina’sFive-YearPlan,from2016-2020,istointensifythebuild-upofhydropower

damsonallthemajorTibetanrivers,fromwhichonebillionpeopledrinkdaily.44Cascadesof

damsaretobebuiltonallthewildmountainrivers;ontheupperreachesoftheYangtzeand

andSalween,therearesitesforaround100dams,whichareeitherbuilt,underconstruction

orplanned.OthercascadeswillstemChina’slastfree-flowinginternationalrivers–suchas

theMekongandBrahmaputra–whichcouldsparktensionswithIndiaandSoutheastAsian

countriesdownstream.

Onthehighestriverintheworld,theYarlungTsangpo(Brahmaputra),thelastremaining

generatoroftheenormousZangmudambecameoperationalinOctober(2015),45creatingmajor

concerninIndia.TheZangmuDam,onabendoftheriveraround155kmfromLhasainShannan

(Tibetan:Lhoka),ispartoftheZangmuHydropowerProjectandsupportsahuge510MWpower

station,whichbecameoperationalin2014asthelargesthydropowerstationinTibet.

DespiteChineseassurancesthatthedamswouldnotaffectthedownstreamareaoftheYarlung

Tsangpo,46ithasdeepenedtensionsbetweenChinaandIndiaovercapturingthehydroelectric

potentialoftheYarlungTsangporiverbasin.PremShankarJha,writingforChinaDialogue,

believesthisisinvitingcalamity:“Theseplansareengineers’dreamsrunamok.Iftheyhave

theirway,upto360damswillbebuiltonslopeswithagradientofasmuchas60degrees,at

themeetingpointofthreeoftheyoungestandmostunstablemountainrangesintheworld.

ButneithertheChinesenortheIndiangovernmenthavemadeevenarudimentaryassessment

oftheimpactthatgougingoutbillionsofcubicmetersofrockandearthtobuilddams,tunnels

androads,andstoremillions,insomecasesbillions,ofcubicmetersofwater,willhaveonthe

stabilityoftheearth’scrustinthisregion.”47

JiaoYong,deputyheadofChina’sMinistryofWaterResources,toldapressconferenceearly

in2015thatChinaplannedtobuild27major‘waterconservation’projects(whichrefersto

dammingandwaterdiversion)in2015,withabouthalfconcentratedinwesternregions,“inan

attempttopromoteurbanization”.JiaoYongsaid:“Theamountofinvestmentinmajorwater

43 ICTreport,‘NewstrategicrailnetworktoTibet’sbordersendangersenvironment,raisesregionalsecurityconcerns’,November12,

2014,http://www.savetibet.org/new-strategic-rail-network-to-tibets-borders-endangers-environment-raises-regional-

security-concerns/#sthash.RQ5td6a4.dpuf

44 Detailedinformationondamsandthreelistsofhydropowerprojects(HPP)inthewatershedsoftheDrichu(Yangtze),Zachu(Mekong)

andGyalmoNgulchu(Salween)riversupuntil2013,inthe12thFive-YearPlanperiod,areprovidedbyexpertTashiTseringathis

blogsite:http://tibetanplateau.blogspot.co.uk/TashiTseringwrites:“AsprojectsinSichuan,QinghaiandYunnanarecompleted,

projectsinTibetAutonomousRegionwillbedeveloped,movinggenerallyfromeasttowest.Astheseprojectsgetdeveloped,necessary

infrastructurewillbeinplacetodeveloptheBrahmaputraRiver’stheGreatBendarea.”

45 “China’sfirsthydropowerdamonBrahmaputraisfullyoperational”, HiLight News, October 13, 2015.Retrieved19November2015.

46 AChineseForeignMinistryspokespersontoldapressconferenceonNovember24,2014,thatthe“ecologicalpowerplant”“wouldnot

affectthedownstreamareaoftheYarlungZangpoRiver.”(http://finance.eastmoney.com/news/1365,20141126450114748.htmlin

Chinese).

47 ‘WhyIndiaandChinashouldleavetheYarlungTsangpoalone’byPremShankarJha,March5,2014,

https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6753-Why-India-and-China-should-leave-the-Yarlung-Tsangpo-alone


conservationprojectswillbefurtherincreasedthisyear,comparedwiththe488billionyuan

($79.74billion)lastyear.”48Hesaidthattheplans“willhelpexpandChina’sdomesticdemand

andsupporteconomicgrowth.”JiaoYongconfirmedthatof17largehydroprojectscarriedout

in2014,tenwereinthewesternregionsofthePRC.

Theplansfordam-buildinghavegatheredpaceinTibetdespitethe“modelfordisaster”set

bythemassiveThreeGorgesDam,theworld’slargesthydropowerprojectandmostnotorious

dam,whichisontheYangtzeRiverandtributaries.Thismassiveprojectsetsrecordsfornumber

ofpeopledisplaced(morethan1.2million),numberofcitiesandtownsflooded(13cities,140

towns,1,350villages),andlengthofreservoir(morethan600kilometers).Theprojecthasbeen

plaguedbycorruption,spiralingcosts,environmentalimpacts,humanrightsviolationsand

resettlementdifficulties.Theenvironmentalimpactsoftheprojectarelikelytogetworseastime

goeson.49In2011,China’shighestgovernmentbodyforthefirsttimeofficiallyacknowledgedthe

“urgentproblems”oftheThreeGorgesDam.50

DescribingtheThreeGorgesas“amodelfordisaster”theInternationalRiversNetworkstated:

“YetChinesecompaniesarereplicatingthismodelbothdomesticallyandinternationally.[…]

WithinChina,hugehydropowercascadeshavebeenproposedandarebeingconstructedin

48 ‘27waterconservationprojectsplanned,halfinwesternregions’,GlobalTimes(inEnglish),April4,2015

49 DetailsatInternationalRiversNetworkcampaignsummary:https://www.internationalrivers.org/campaigns/three-gorges-dam

50 InternationalRiversNetworkblogbyPeterBosshard,May19,2011,

https://www.internationalrivers.org/blogs/227/chinese-government-acknowledges-problems-of-three-gorges-dam

AdetailedmapofdamsonthewatershedsoftheDrichu(Yangtze)Zachu(Mekong),andGyalmoNgulchu

(Salween)riversinthe12thFive-YearPlanperiod,preparedbyTashiTseringonwww.tibetanplateau.blogspot.

co.uk


someofChina’smostpristineandbiologicallyandculturallydiverseriverbasins–theLancang

(UpperMekong)River,Nu(Salween)RiverandupstreamofThreeGorgesDamontheYangtze

Riverandtributaries.”51

DammingupstreaminTibetcarriesgreatrisks,particularlyastheplateauisoneofthemost

seismicallyactiveareasoftheworld.DrWangWeiluo,anengineerandgeographerwhoisan

expertondam-buildingattheUniversityofDortmund,pointsoutthehighrisksofbuilding

damsinhighmountainregionslikeTibet:“Dam-buildingraisesthewaterleveloftheriver

whichincreasesthepressureofthewaterontheground.Thisraisesthenumberofgeological

catastrophesespeciallysincethevalleys[oftheHimalayas]aresoyoung;landslidesor

rockslideswillalreadyincreaseashashappenedintheThreeGorgesdamregion.”52

DrWangWeiluomakesthevividcomparisonoftheMohnedamnearhisuniversityin

Dortmund,Germany,whichwasbreachedduringtheSecondWorldWarbyRAFbombers(the

‘Dambusters’).Theresultingfloodwavekilledatleast1579people.DrWang,whoseworkis

blockedfrompublicationinChinaaccordingtotheGermandocumentary‘StruggleforTibet’,

said:“Hereweseearelativelylowdam,whichwhenbreachedreleasedaneightmeterhigh

floodwave.ButdamsinTibetwhichare400metershighwouldresultinunprecedented

catastropheiftheseweretobebreached.”53PremShankerJhawritesinChinaDialogue:“The

deathtollfromthefractureofevenoneofthesedamswould,therefore,runintomillions.”54

TheconcentrationofdamswillbeparticularlydenseontheJinsha(upperYangtze)River,where

cascadesequaltofivetimesthe22.5GWcapacityoftheThreeGorgesdamareproposed.These

damswillnotonlyholdbackwaterflowbutalsosilt,heighteningriskofmajorsubsidencein

theYangtzedeltaandfloodsaroundmajorcitiessuchasShanghai.

“Hydroelectricpowerisprobablythemostdisruptivealternativeenergysourceavailable.

Energy-producingdamsareessentiallyinahugewrestlingmatchwithpowerfulrivers,”wrote

JoeMcCarthyinGlobalCitizen.“Theriverswanttoflowunimpeded,whilethedamwantsto

headlockthewater.Theensuingtussleleadstomanyunintendedeffects.”55

ReplacingcoalwithhydropowermayleadtocleanerairforcitizenseastcoastofChina,but

thereisahighenvironmentalpricetopay.Chineseenvironmentalistshavecalledforanurgent

halttolargehydroprojects,pointingoutthatthecountry’srushfordamshasalreadydestroyed

riverecosystems,fishhabitatsandraisedfearsaboutsafetyinearthquake-proneregions,butto

noavail.56

51 InternationalRiversNetworkcampaignsummaryhttps://www.internationalrivers.org/campaigns/three-gorges-dam

52 DrWangWeiluowasspeakinginthefilm‘StruggleforTibet’,adocumentaryoriginallyshownonGermanTV,writtenanddirected

by:ShiMing,ThomasWeidenbachforWDRandNDR,incollaborationwithArte.ThefilmwontheInternationalCampaignforTibet-

Germany‘Snowlion’journalistawardin2014(http://www.laengengrad.de/en/produktionen/dokumentationen/tibet.php)

53 ‘StruggleforTibet’,adocumentaryoriginallyshownonGermanTV,detailsasabove.

54 ‘WhyIndiaandChinashouldleavetheYarlungTsangpoalone’byPremShankarJha,March5,2014,

https://www.chinadialogue.net/article/show/single/en/6753-Why-India-and-China-should-leave-the-Yarlung-Tsangpo-alone

55 https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/5-most-powerful-hyrdroelectric-dams-in-the-world/

56 In2004,afteramajorcampaignbyChineseenvironmentalgroupsagainstdammingoftheSalween,thethenPremierWenJiabao

intervenedandannouncedthattheplansfortheSalweenwouldbedelayeduntilmorecarefulenvironmentalandsocialimpactcould

beassessed.Againin2009,WenJiabaoreiteratedthisstance.Butinearly2011,itwasquietlyannouncedthatthedamcascadewould

goaheadasoriginallyplanned,reversingthesuspension.WorkatSaigeDamontheSalweenisunderway.(MichaelBuckleyon‘Saving

theSalween’,http://www.meltdownintibet.com/f_river_salween.htm).


MichaelBuckley,authorof‘MeltdowninTibet’,wroteintheNewYorkTimes:“Thiswillend

badlyforthenationsdownstreamfromTibet,whicharecompetingforscarcewater.Damming

andwaterdiversioncouldalsoendbadlyforChina,bydestroyingthesourcesoftheYangtze

andYellowRivers.

“Thesolutiontothesecomplexproblemsissimple:Sincetheseenormousprojectsarestate-

runandstate-financed,China’sleaderscancancelthematwill.ThoughcampaignsbyChinese

environmentalistshavestoppedsomedamprojects,thepro-damlobby,backedbyChinese

consortiums,ispowerful.Therearealternativestodisruptingtherivers:Chinahasmadegreat

investmentsinsolarandwindpower,buthasnotsignificantlydeployedtheminTibet.”57

Mammoth water-diversion plan threatens Tibet’s ecosystem

Itisequallyalarmingthatanelaborateandambitiousplantodivertwaterawayfromtheupper

YangtzeandintotheYellowRiverisscheduledtobeginconstructionduringthe13thFive-Year

Planperiod.58Inwhatisknownasthewesternrouteofthemassivesouthtonorthwater

diversionproject,theChineseauthoritieshavecompletedtworouteschannelingwaterfrom

theYangtzefartothenorth,toparchednorthernChina.

Thenextstepwouldbetogoaheadwithaprojectedthirdcanal–throughTibet-fromthe

YangtzeinthesouthtotheYellowRiverinthenorth.ThiswouldtraversetherestiveTibetan

prefecturesofNgaba(Chinese:Aba),wherethecurrentwaveofself-immolationsbeganin

2009,59andKardze(Chinese:Ganzi)inSichuanprovince.

Theplanswerethatfirstthetwolowlandcanalswouldbedugandblasted,thentheentire

engineeringteamwouldbeswitchedtoTibet,startinginthe13thFive-YearPlanperiodin2016.

ItwouldentailaninfluxofChineseworkersandengineerswithheavyequipmentintoremote

valleys,involvingtunnelingthroughmountainsandthecanalitselfwindingaroundthesidesof

mountains.Itwouldbelikelytotakelongerthanfiveyearsandwouldhaveanirreversibleand

devastatingimpact.

Earlierin2015,JiaoYong,deputyheadofChina’sMinistryofWaterResources,wascitedin

theChineseofficialmediaassayingthathe“promisedtocarefullystudythewesternrouteof

thesouth-to-northwaterdiversionprojectthatfeedsthethirstyNorthwestandNorthChina,

includingGansuProvinceandInnerMongoliaAutonomousRegion”.Consistentwiththeline

takenbytheChinesegovernmentthatdammingandwaterdiversionrepresent‘conservation’,

57 ‘ThePriceofDammingTibet’sRivers’byMichaelBuckley,NewYorkTimesoped,March30,2015,

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/31/opinion/the-price-of-damming-tibets-rivers.htmlAlsoseeMichaelBuckley’swebsite,

MeltdowninTibet,http://www.meltdownintibet.com/

58 SofartheauthoritieshavenotgivenfulldetailsofthecontentoftheFiveYearPlanbeginningin2016.Moreinformationislikelytobe

announcedinMarch2016atthesessionoftheNationalPeople’sCongress.

59 Thefirstself-immolationinTibetinthecontemporaryerawasayoungmonkfromKirtimonasteryinNgaba,Amdo.ICT

factsheetonself-immolationsinTibet:http://www.savetibet.org/resources/fact-sheets/self-immolations-by-tibetans/

andreport,‘StormintheGrasslands:Self-immolationsinTibetandChinesepolicy’,

http://www.savetibet.org/storm-in-the-grasslands-self-immolations-in-tibet-and-chinese-policy/


hesaidthattheauthoritieswouldbeexaminingtheproject“withwaterconservationasa

priority.”60JiaoYongsaidhewas:“confidentthattheprojectwillplayadominantroleinthe

economicdevelopmentofnorthernChina.”Thereisnoconfirmationyetinofficialplansof

whetheritwillindeedgoahead;moredetailsmaybemadepublicinMarch2016,whentheCCP

hoststheNationalPeople’sCongressinBeijing.

Inananalysisofthismammothwater-diversionproject,GabrielLafittereferstochangesin

China’sdomesticpoliticssincetheThreeCanalSouth-to-NorthWaterTransferprojectwasfirst

announced,sayingthat:“UsersoftheYangtzeRiver,allthewaydowntoShanghaiandthe

sea,areincreasinglyprotectiveoftheirriver,anddon’twantanymoreofitdiverted,andthe

downstreamprovincescarryenormousclout.[…]Anotherreasonagainstthisthirdcanalever

beingbuiltisthatthewater,afterfloodingtherichestwetlandmeadowpastureinTibet,at

Dzoege,willflowthroughtheupperYellowRiver,withwateravailabletoupperriverprovinces

suchasGansuandNingxia,maybeasfardownstreamasInnerMongolia.Buttheywillgraball

thebenefits,therewon’tbeenoughflowforthemorepoliticallypowerfulprovincesfurther

downriver,includingtheheartlandofChina’scoalandcoal-firedelectricityindustry,plusBeijing

itself.”61

ButLafittealsopointsoutthatthenewwaveofindustrializationcurrentlytakingplacein

Xinjiang(EastTurkestan),directlytothenorthoftheTibetanplateau,isafactorthatcould

tipthebalancetowardsthethirdcanalwhich,ifbigenough,coulddivertwaternotonly

eastwardstoGansuandfurtherdowntheYellowRiver,butalsonorthandwestinXinjiang.

“Manyaluminiumsmeltersarebeingbuilt,reliantonelectricitygeneratedbynewcoalandgas

burningpowerstationsusingtheabundantfuelsuppliesofXinjiangandwhichChinaimports,

viaXinjiang,fromKazakhstantothewest,”Lafittewritesinthesamearticle.“Thereisonlyone

thingmissinginXinjiang,andthatiswater.MuchofXinjiangisdesert,itstownstraditionally

clusteredaroundoases.Coalfiredpowerstationsneedcoolingtowersthatusealotofwater,

likewisealuminiumsmeltingandothermajorheavyindustriesunderconstructioninXinjiang

willallneedlotsofwater.”

The rush to exploit Tibet’s water: bottling the glaciers

TherushtoexploitTibet’swaterresourcesinvolvesbothcentralandprovincialauthorities

workingwithmajor,powerfulstate-ownedcorporations.Boththemega-damsandbottling

waterdirectfromTibet’sglaciersarenowahighpoliticalpriorityfortheChineseauthorities,

andinparticulartheTARgovernment.

Despiteshrinkingglaciersandtheimpactthatexploitationofpreciousresourceswouldhave

onneighboringcountries,theprovincialauthoritiesinTibetandstate-ownedbusinessesare

pushingaheadwithamassiveexpansionofthebottledwaterindustry.

60 ‘27waterconservationprojectsplanned,halfinwesternregions’,GlobalTimes,April1,2015,

http://english.sina.com/china/2015/0331/797168.html

61 ‘Water,watereverywhere’,blogbyGabrielLafittepostedonJanuary16,2015,http://rukor.org/water-water-everywhere/


InNovember(2015),theTARauthoritiesannouncedanewten-yearplantoexpandthebottled

waterindustry,withitstargetofbuilding5millioncubicmetersofbottledwaterproduction

capacityby2020.62

“TheTibetanwatertowercannotsupportallthedammingandtheextractingthatistakingplace

rightnow,”saidJenniferTurner,directoroftheChinaEnvironmentForumattheWoodrowWilson

InternationalCenterinWashington.“Bottledwaterdoesn’thavenearlytheimpactthatdams

andwater-intensiveindustriesdo,butit’sanotherbigdropbeingtakenoutofthebucket.”63

SeveralpowerfulChinesecorporationsrecentlyvisitedtheplateau,includingtheThreeGorges

Corporation-believedtohaveclosetieswithformerpremierLiPeng64-aswellasSinopec

Group,ChinaNationalGoldGroupandNongfuShanquanandGuangmingFoodGroup,tosign16

agreementsoverdrinkingwatersupply.65$407m(2.6bnyuan)worthofdealsweresignedwith

investorsandtheTARauthorities,whichreportedthatsalesofdrinkingwaterhadrisenby200%

andthattherewasanintentiontoturnthe“naturaldrinkingwater”businessintoa“pillar

industry”.66

62 Chinesestatemediareport,November1,2015,inChinese:http://www.xzxw.com/xw/xzyw/201511/t20151101_892883.html

63 ‘ChinaIsTappingTibetanGlacierstoMeetGrowingDemandforBottledWater’,byMattSmith,November14,2015,

https://news.vice.com/article/china-is-tapping-tibetan-glaciers-to-meet-growing-demand-for-bottled-water

64 ‘FormertopofficialsfromChinaThreeGorgesCorporationmovedtonewposts’,April6,2014,

http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1465944/former-top-officials-china-three-gorges-corporation-moved-new-posts

65 Statemediareport,January19,2015,http://www.chinanews.com/sh/2015/01-19/6982702.shtml

66 StatemediareportinChinese,September25,2015:http://xz.people.com.cn/n/2015/0925/c138901-26528733.html

ThisdiagrambyChinaWaterRiskshowsthemassiveplannedexpansionofhydropowerinChina,mainlyfrom

Tibet’srivers.CourtesyGabrielLafitte.


Itisnotablethatthisdevelopmentdoesnotrefertotheprovisionofsafedrinkingwaterforthe

generalpopulationbutthesaleofbottledwater.Sinceearly2015theSinopecGrouphassold

glacierwaterbottledfromTibetinits23,000petrolstationsandconveniencestoresacross

China.

ChinaWaterRiskresearcherLiuHongqiaowroteinChinaDialogue:“Waterbottledupstream

amongsnow-cappedpeaksis[…]perceivedaspure,commandingapremium.Thishasledto

ahugeinfluxofcompanieshopingtocashinontheregion’swaterresources.Thoughitonly

makesupaverysmallproportionofChina’sannualbottledwaterproduction,suchpremium

waterisseenasthenewpointofgrowthforthecountry’sboomingbottledwaterindustry.”67

JenniferTurnerfromWoodrowWilsonInternationalCenternotedthattheChinesecentral

authoritiesmayneedtobepreparedto“dialbacktheTibetanspigot”,sayingthatChinese

leadersknowtheyhavetoimprovetheefficiencyofalltheirmajorsystemsfortheirnew

prosperitytobesustainable,andbottledwater“isnotaveryefficientwaytobeusingwater.

There’salreadyadisconnectbetweenthegoalsoftheTibetanauthoritiesandofficialsinthe

centralgovernment,whichappearsreadytosetreducedquotas.Mismatchedcentraland

provincialpoliciesaddtotheindustry’suncertainfuture.Weexpectthegovernmenttomoveto

re-alignsuchmismatchedpoliciesinthefuture,whichwillimpacttheindustry.”68

ConstructionofdamsinTibetinvolvesmajorstate-ownedenterprisesthatrelyonParty

connectionstodobusiness.Fourmajorcorporationshavebeendetailedinstatemediareports

fortheirinvolvementwithbuildingthedams,detailedasfollows:theHuanengCorporation

Group(oneofthefivelargeststate-ownedelectricutilityenterprisesinChina,administrated

bytheStateCouncilofthePeople’sRepublicofChina,andthefirstChinesepowerproducer

tojointheranksofFortune500Companies,ranking224thin2015):theHuadianCorporation

Group;DatangCorporation(oneoffivelarge-scalepowergenerationenterprisesinthePeople’s

RepublicofChina,establishedonthebasisofformerStatePowerCorporationofChinain

2002)69andChinaGuodianCorporation.70Justasnomaddisplacementfromancestral

pasturelandsiscarriedoutinthenameof‘conservation’accordingtoChineseofficial

representations,sothesehugeandpotentiallycatastrophicdamprojectsarecharacterizedas

‘waterconservation’projectsinthestatemediaandtoTibetanpeople.

AnaccountofameetingwithsomeoftheTibetAutonomousRegionleadershipandlocal

farmersinTibetDailyonNovember22(2015)alignedtheconstructionofhydro-powerdams

withthepoliticalobjectivesof“unitingthepeople”andallegiancetotheCommunistParty.It

stressedtheimportanceofthehydropowerprojectsasanessentialelementofimplementing

thevisionofPartySecretaryandPresidentXiJinpingfollowingtheFifthPlenumandsettingof

the13thFive-YearPlan.71

67 AreportbyChinaWaterRiskdetailshowbottledwateristhreateningChina’sgroundwaterandAsia’sglacialwatersheds.

http://chinawaterrisk.org/notices/bottled-water-in-china-boom-or-bust/#sthash.2DVIxmps.dpuf

68 https://news.vice.com/article/china-is-tapping-tibetan-glaciers-to-meet-growing-demand-for-bottled-water

69 TheSouthChinaMorningPostreportedinJune(2015)thatLiPeng’sdaughterLiXiaolinhadbeenmadeVice-Presidentofthecompany.

(SCMP,June9,2015)

70 Thewebsitesofthecompaniesareasfollows:http://www.chng.com.cn/eng/;http://www.chd.com.cn/;

http://www.china-cdt.com/dtwzandhttp://www.cgdc.com.cn.

71 TibetDaily,November22,2015,http://www.mzb.com.cn/html/report/160136173-1.htm(inChinese).


AsBrahmaChellaneypointsout,itwasunderMaothatthelarge-scaleuprootingoflocal

residentstomakewayformajorwaterprojectsbegan–atrendthathasnotonlypersistedto

thisdaybuthasbecomemorecommon.Theworld’sbiggestmegadam,theThreeGorges,was

alsoMao’sbrainchild.“Chinahasalwayshadthishistoryofmega-projects,’HuangYukon,an

economistandseniorassociateattheCarnegieEndowmentforInternationalPeace,athink

tankbasedinWashington,wascitedassayingintheNewYorkTimes.“It’spartoftheblood,

theculture,thenatureofitssociety.Tohaveanimpactonthecountry,they’vegottobebig.”72

Thereisstrongsympathy–andactivisminNGOs-amongmanyChineseforthepreservationof

theTibetanplateau,despitethedangersofsuchsupport.Well-knownauthorZhangYihesaid

inamessageonsocialmedia“Idon’tunderstandwhywehavetodigupgoldinareasthatare

above4,000meters.Whymustwealsobuilddamsonrivers,includingtheYarlungTsangpo?

Whydon’tweleavesomethingforthenextgeneration?”InawidelyquotedSinaWeibopost,

televisiondirectorZhangRongguisaidhewas‘stronglyopposedtothedevelopmentofheavy

industryandmineralresourcesinTibet.[…]Itistheworld’shighestandpurestholyland,

andIhopethegovernmentcanleaveabluesky,cleanwaterandwhitecloudsforthenext

generation,’hewrote.”73

The great water meadow of Dzoege and climate change

Gabriel Lafitte assesses the significance of plans for a remote wetland in Tibet, as an example of why global warming is dangerously out of control. This is an edited version of a blog posted on http://rukor.org/global-climate-change/ on July 23, 2015.

Greatrivershavetheirownlogic,seldomsuitedtothecategoriesandeconomiesofthemodern

world.China’sgreatrivers,theYellowandYangtze,riseclosetoeachother,inglaciersonthe

slopesofTibetanmountainranges,beforemakingtheirwayacrossthevastgrasslandsofthe

TibetanPlateau,beforeplungingtothelowlands.

[…]TheYellowRiver(HuangHeinChinese,MaChuinTibetan)meandersthroughtheswardof

Tibet,alongthesouthernflanksofthesacredAmnyeMachenmountainrangeandthenfans

72 Giving broader context in the same article (New York Times, January 12, 2015), DavidBarbozawrote:“Such enormous

infrastructure projects are a Chinese tradition. From the Great Wall to the Grand Canal and the Three Gorges Dam, this nation

for centuries has used colossal public-works projects to showcase its engineering prowess and project its economic might. Now,

as doubts emerge about the country’s three-decade boom, China’s leaders are moving even more aggressively, doubling down

on mega-infrastructure. Whether China really needs this much big infrastructure — or can even afford it — is a contentious

issue. The infrastructure plans run counter to Beijing’s commitment to reduce its heavy reliance on government-led investment

to fuel growth. And some economists worry that the country might eventually be mired in enormous debt.” January 12, 2015,

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/13/business/international/in-china-projects-to-make-great-wall-feel-small-.html?_r=1

73 GabrielLafitteblog,chinadialogue.net,April4,2013.Itisbeyondthescopeofthisreporttotrackintensifyinginterest

amongChinesecitizensinTibet’senvironment,butanewbookbyoneofthemostprominentChinesewriterson

theenvironment,LiuJianqiang,abouthisencountersandfriendshipswithTibetanenvironmentalistsincluding

KarmaSamdrupandhistwobrothers,isanessentialread.‘TibetanEnvironmentalistsinChina:TheKingofDzi’by

LiuJianqiang,translatedbyIanRowen,CyrusKHuiandEmilyTYeh,tobepublishedinDecember2015,detailsat:

https://rowman.com/ISBN/9780739199732/Tibetan-Environmentalists-in-China-The-King-of-Dzi#.ICTreportontheimprisonmentof

KarmaSamdrup,‘Asharpknifeabovehishead’:thetrialsandsentencingofthreeenvironmentalistbrothersinTibet’,August4,2010,

http://www.savetibet.org/a-sharp-knife-above-his-head-the-trials-and-sentencing-of-three-environmentalist-brothers-in-tibet/

#sthash.e9QZ3VTH.dpufAlsoseeChinaDialogue.netandICT’sreport‘TrackingtheSteelDragon’,

http://www.savetibet.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/TrackingTheSteelDragon.pdf.


outintoahugewatermeadowknownasDzoege(ZoigeorRuo’ergaiinChinese).

Thestoryofthisremotewetlandisthewholestoryofwhyglobalwarmingisdangerouslyout

ofcontrol.DzoegeisthesedaystheremoteintersectionofthreeChineseprovinces:Gansu,

SichuanandQinghai,peripheraltoallofthem,abused,neglected,drained,driedout,over-

engineered,officiallyprotectedyetneglectedandevenduetobecometheterminusofa

megaprojecttopermanentlyflooditwithwaterdivertedbycanalfromtheYangtzetothe

YellowRiver.Insteadofcarefullyrestoringthisgreatwetland,andrestoringitscapacityto

filterandcleanthewaters,toholdandreleasewatersyear-round,likeasponge,Chinaisnow

planningtogofromtheextremeofdraininganddryingDzoege,totheoppositeextremeof

drowningit.

AsChinapreparesits13thFive-YearPlan,settorunfrom2016to2020,akeydecisioniswhether

toproceed,asannouncedoveradecadeago,withdamsacrosstheTibetantributariesof

theYangtze,linkedtoacanalandmassivepumpingstationstosendYangtzewatertothe

YellowatDzoege.Officiallycalledthesouth-to-northwatertransferproject’swesternroute,

theflowwouldpermanentlyinundatethewholeDzoegedistrict,itsRamsartreatyprotected

wetlands,migratorywaterbirdsanctuaries,peatlandsandfertilepasturelands,inthename

ofprovidinglowlandChinesecitiesandindustrieswithwater.Itwouldreduceenvironmental

flowsdowntheYangtze,aheavilyexploitedriverthatneedsallitsstrengthtoflushpollutants

out.Thesouth-to-northwatertransferproject,ifitgoesahead,willremovethecarboncapture

capacityofDzoege,transformingitfromacarbonsequesteringpeatlandtoanacidicpondage

ofmegaproportions,fromcarbonsinktocarbonsource.Thedesignatedcanalrouteisuphill,

requiringmassivepumps,whichwilleitherbefossilfuelled,addingmoregreenhousegases,or

hydropoweredbybuildingyetmoremassiveconcretewallsacrossthewildmountainriversof

easternTibet.

IftheDzoegewatermeadowgoesfromdesiccationtoinundationitwillbethefinalinsultto

anareamodernChinajustcan’tletbe.RevolutionaryChina,fromthestart,sawDzoegeasan

abomination,amixingoftwocategoriesthatmodernityrequiresbekeptseparate:waterand

land.ChinawasunabletoseeDzoegeasitspastoralistsseeit:asaproductionlandscaperichin

allthatisneedfulforlivestock,medicinalherbgathering,andgoodlivelihoods.Theminglingof

landandwatertransgressedtherequirementsofmodernity:thatroadshavefirmfoundations,

rivershaveclearmargins,watersflowasfastaspossiblewithoutimpediment,landbefirm

underfootandnotboggy.

TheveryfirstencounterbetweentheChineseCommunistPartyandDzoegewasadisaster,that

hasbeenendlesslyrememberedastheworsttimeoftheLongMarchof1936asthecommunist

armiesfleddeepinland,onlytosuckedintotheswampsofDzoege,withmanymenlost,and

manymorepickedoffbyTibetannomadmarksmen.Notknowinghowtowalkfromclumpto

clumpofhardysedges,theheavilyladensoldiersofthePeople’sLiberationArmydisappeared

intothemud,asufferingrelayedendlesslyeversinceasproofoftheirheroicsacrifice.Dzoege,

eventoHanChineseunfamiliarwiththename,issynonymouswithpatrioticrevolutionary

sacrifice.[…]

YetthissamelandscapeevokesinTibetanslyricalimageryofanaturallybountifulareaof

richpastures,luxuriouslymeanderingrivers,fatcattle,endlesswildflowersinsummer,and

muchleisuretimeinwintertoattendtomattersbeyondtheimmediateconcernsofthislife.


AmongChinesetoo,despitethemasternarrativeofhorror,otherreactionsoccur.Theessayist

anddocumentarymakerSunShuyunwrites:“Thepasturehasastrangebeauty,thisvastflat

expanse,asifyouarelookingintotheheartofinfinity,andthenhugecarpetsofmeadow

flowers,yellow,white,blue,vermilion,violet,purple,likeannouncementsofheaven.Youreyes

achefromthebrilliantcolours,andtheirfragrancemakesyousmile.”74

TwodecadesaftertheLongMarchDzoegewaspacifiedbythePLAandtheworkbeganof

makingaman-madelandscapeinwhichlandandwaterwereproperlyseparated,whichmeant

diggingditchesthroughthepeatlandstodrainthewasteland,itsofficialclassification.Much

ofthedrainageworkintherevolutionaryyearswasdonebyhand,bythecompulsorylaborof

Tibetansbeingpunishedfortheirreactionaryclassconsciousness,ascounter-revolutionaries.

Manywereworkedtodeath.

Asthewatermeadowsdrainedandthewatertabledropped,thousandsofyearsofaccumulated

organicmatter,thesevenbillioncubicmeterspeatlandstoreofcarbontakenfromthe

atmospherealsodried,andthenburned.Thefiressmoulderingundergroundwerealmost

impossibletoextinguish,theirsmokeamajorsourceofatmosphericpollution.Only20percent

oftheDzoegewetlandisintact.75[2]

ThedryingofthewetlandsofDzoegecameontopofadryingphaseaffectingthewholeTibetan

Plateauoverthousandsofyears,leadingtoasteadydropinlakelevelsacrossTibet,thathas

beenmuchstudiedscientifically.

74 SunShuyun,TheLongMarch,HarperCollins,2007

75 Schumann,M;Thevs,N;Joosten,H(2008)ExtentanddegradationofpeatlandsontheRuoergaiPlateau(Tibet,China)assessedby

remotesensing.InProceedingsoftheInternationalPeatCongress,Tullamorepp77–80

ThisshowsanomadsettlementcampinLithang(Chinese:Litang),Sichuan,theTibetanareaofKham.Anumber

ofthosewhohaveself-immolatedinTibetsince2009,anactemergingfromtheanguishofoppressionand

displacement,havebeenTibetannomads.


TheUnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)describeswhathappened:“Thousandsof

drainageholesscartheotherwiseflawlesslandscapeofChina‘sRuoergaiwetlands,constituting

thesinglemostseriousthreattoitshighmountainpeat-lands.Thesedrainageholeshave

contributedtomassivesoilandwatererosion,greatlyreducingthewetlands.Infact,onelake

hasalreadyshrunkbyathird.ForthepeopleintheSichuanandGansuProvinceswhorelyon

thesepeatlandsforaremarkablearrayofproducts,includingfish,rice,medicinalplants,peat

forfuelandgardensoil,andgrassesandreedsformakingpaperandbaskets,theseholes,

leftoverfromanattemptduringthe1960stotransformtheregionintograsslands,posea

seriousthreattotheirlivelihoods.”76

Then,inthe1990s,Chinabegantocatchupwiththeworldclimatedebate,andtooksteps

torectifysomeofthedamage.DzoegebecameRamsarsitenumber1731,coveringamodest

portionofthehugewetland.ItisalsoontheWorldDatabaseofProtectedAreasassite

#315726.

Theworldhasaglobaltreatyspecificallytoprotectwetlands,theRamsarConvention,which

mostrecentlyheldameetingofallsignatorygovernments,includingChina,in2015.The

ConventionsingledoutChinaforits:“lowlevelofawarenessofthevalueofwetlandsandthe

ecosystemservicestheyprovide,sothatthegovernmentisunabletomakewetlandfriendly

decisions.”77ChinareportedtotheRamsarConventionthat:“Comparedtothatofthe2003

firstnationalwetlandsurvey,theresultofthe2013secondsurveyillustratedthatChinalostan

estimatedof3,376,200haofnaturalwetlandsoverthepastdecade,representinganaverage

annual9.33percentlossofitswetlands.”78

ChinawasaskedhowitinvolvesstakeholdersinplanningandrunningRamsarsites.The

officialreplywas:“Activeengagementandsupportofallstakeholdershaveprovedthesecret

tosustainwetlands.Overthepastthreeyears,thestakeholdersthatcareaboutwetlands

contributedtothepromulgationofaseriesofwetland-relatedregulations,bylaws,plans,

policies,andbusinesspractices.”ButwhatdoesChinameanwhenittalksofstakeholders?The

onlystakeholdersnamedaredepartmentsofgovernment:“TheStateForestryAdministration

sentthedraftofRegulationsonWetlandProtectiontoover20statesectorsforreview,andis

workingoutanewversionbyintegratingthecollectedreviewfeedback.”

[…]TheofficialdefinitionofDzoege[intheRamsarglobalsystem],providedtheUNbyChina’s

officials,makesnomentionoftherevolutionarypolicyofdrainingtheDzoegewetland,which

makesiteasier,ashappenselsewhereinTibet,toattributemuchoftheblametonomads,

whoarethenforbiddentograze,inthenameofwetlandrestoration.Now,inthenameof

conservation,thosewhohavealwayscaredforthisfragileminglingofwatersandlandsare

oftenexcluded,astheUNEnvironmentprogramreportedin2010:“TheUNDPproject,which

beganin2007,hasintroducedinnovativetechniquesandmethodologiestoRuoergaiCounty

tohelpcombatsuchdrainage.Someofthetechniquesincludestrictlycontrollingwetlanduse,

placingmoratoriumsonanimalgrazingandseedingtorestoregrasslands.”79

76 RestoringcrucialChinesewetlandswillhelppreservelivelihoods,UNEPpressrelease,23November2010

77 http://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/library/cop12_doc12_summary_asia_e.pdf

78 http://www.ramsar.org/sites/default/files/documents/2014/national-reports/COP12/cop12_nr_china.pdfp.19

79 RestoringcrucialChinesewetlandswillhelppreservelivelihoods,UNEPpressrelease,23November2010


Thesescientists,fromlowlandChengduandNanjingalsoblametheTibetanpastoralists:

“StockbreedinghasdevelopedatahighspeedintheZoigeMarshareasincethe1970s,resulting

inaseriousconflictbetweenlivestockpopulationsandpasturelands.[…]Overgrazedand

trampledbytheselivestock,thepasturelandsarehardtoregeneratenaturallyandrecessive

successionisunavoidable.”

Thistendencytoblamethevictimsofwetlanddegradationasthecause,complicatesefforts

towardssolutionsthathelphealnotonlythe7000sqkmsofDzoegewetland,butalsothe

planet.Muchisatstake.Whenthisgreatwetlanddries,itreleasesthemaingreenhousegas,

carbondioxidetotheatmosphere,butthe750megatonnesofpeatinDzoegealsorelease

methaneasitdriesup,andmethaneisamuchmoredangerousgas,muchmorepotentinits

effectsonatmospherictemperaturethancarbondioxide.SoitisimportantthatChinaquickly

rehabilitatesDzoege,getsthepastoralistsonsideaspartnersintheactualworkofrepairand

biodiversityprotection,andstopsblamingthevictims.

ButDzoegeisfarfromrestored,andthegreatthreatfacingitisthesouth-to-northwater

diversionwesternrouteproject.

Forthesakeoftheplanetaryclimate,Dzoegemustbeprotected,notbyengineeringbutby

involvingthelocalcommunitiesofTibetanpastoralistsasactivepartners.Dzoegewillnotbe

saved,northeplanet,byremovingnomadsinthenameofconservation.Exclosureisnotthe

solution,itonlyworsenstheinjury.

Dzoege’schancesofrestorationaren’thelpedbythediscovery,40yearsagobyChinese

geologists,ofauraniumdepositdescribedinscientificjournalsashaving“gainedmuch

attentionofmanygeologistsandoredepositexpertsduetoitsscale,highgradeandabundant

associatedores.”80

Intoday’sChina,Dzoegemustworkforitskeep,mustgenerateincomesomehowifitistobe

restored,spareduraniumminingandnotinundated.Theconventionalwisdomthesedaysis

thatitwillbetourismthatwillsaveDzoege.ThisrequiresairbrushingouttheLongMarch,

thedrainingofthepeatlands,insteadrepurposingDzoegeasanaturalunspoiledromantic

wilderness.TheEnglishlanguageversionoftheglossypopulartravelmagazineCNG(China

NationalGeography,itsresemblancetoNationalGeographicnotcoincidental)in2009gushed

aboutDzoege:“Serenityinthehighlands,aMiraclecreatedbytheTibetanPlateauandYellow

River”,with12pagesoflushsupersaturatedcolourphotos.

MaybeonedayDzoege’swatermeadowswillbreathefreeagain,andtheTibetanpopvideos81

celebratingDzoege’sgrasslandwillbemorethananevocationofadisappearingpast.

80 ‘NewEvidenceforGenesisoftheZoigeCarbonate-Siliceous-PeliticRockTypeUraniumDepositinSouthernQinling:Discoveryand

Significanceofthe64MaIntrusions’bySONGHao,ZHANGChengjiang,NIShijun,XUZhengqiandHUANGChanghua;ACTAGEOLOGICA

SINICA(EnglishEdition)Vol.88No.6pp.1757–1769December2014

81 Areferencetothewell-knownpopularsingerYadong,whopaidtributetothebeautyoftheDzoegenaturallandscapeinthissong,

releasedinTibet:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WW-pMoDNtPo

Top:AnomadonhorsebackamidgrasslandsthatarebeingfencedineasternTibet.Image:ICT

Bottom:Arollofwiretofencegrasslandsnearatraditionalnomadtent.Image:ICT


Part Four: The ‘contradiction between grass and animals’: nomadic pastoralists and official policy

“As the world contemplates a Paris climate accord we pose questions whose answers

may not be what you expect. How much longer can our melting Tibetan glaciers feed

year round the great rivers of Asia? The thousands of kilometers glacier-fed rivers

traverse the Tibetan pasture lands before plunging to the lowlands are not threatened

by grazing, but sustained by intelligent, flexible, mobile light grazing herds, wild and

domestic. Those pastures filter, clean and regulate the flow, as well as sustaining an

extraordinary diversity of medicinal herbs and nutritious grasses.”

– Tsering Tsomo, Director of the Tibetan Center for Human Rights and Democracy, who is

from a Tibetan nomad family. Her first person account is included in this report.

Forcenturies,Tibetannomadicherdershavemadeasustainablelivinguniquelyadaptedtothe

harshconditionsoftheTibetanplateau.Tibetannomadslivewiththeirherdsontheplateau,

migratingwiththeirherdsofyak,sheepandgoatsaccordingtotheseasonsoftheyear,and

producingwool,butter,cheese,yogurtandmeat.ButtheimplementationofChinesepolicies

tosettleTibetannomads,andtoresettleTibetansintownsandvillages,threatensthesurvival

ofawayoflifethatisintegraltoTibetanidentityaswellasthesurvivaloftherangelandsand

Tibet’sbiodiversity.

Sincethebeginningofthe‘WesternDevelopmentStrategy’in1999–2000,theChinese

governmenthasbeenimplementingpoliciesofsettlement,landconfiscation,andfencing

ofpastoralareasinhabitedprimarilybyTibetans,dramaticallycurtailingtheirlivelihood.

ThousandsofTibetannomadshavebeenrequiredtoslaughtertheirlivestockandmoveinto

newlybuilthousingcoloniesinorneartowns,abandoningtheirtraditionalwayoflife.

Inthelasttwoyears,thesepolicieshavebeendramaticallyaccelerated,withtheChinese

governmentclaimingthatitwillhavemovedtheremaining1.2millionherdersintotownsby

theendofthisyear.82

82 ‘ChinaFencesInItsNomads,andanAncientLifeWithers’,byAndrewJacobs,NewYorkTimes,July11,2015,

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/12/world/asia/china-fences-in-its-nomads-and-an-ancient-life-withers.html?_r=0


Inadisturbingdevelopment,theChinesegovernmentframesitspolicyofsettlementofnomads

as‘conservation’andprotectionagainsttheimpactsofclimatechange.Mostofthenature

reservesandnationalparksinChinaareontheTibetanPlateau,givingChinacredentialsas

acarboncapturer.ThiseffectivelylocksupmuchofTibet,includingthebestpasturelandsof

KhamandAmdoaswatersupplyandcarboncaptureareas,fromwhichnomadicpastoralistsare

excluded.

AccordingtoonlineinterfacefortheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreas(WDPA),

ProtectedPlanet.net,83mostofChina’sofficiallyprotectedareasareontheTibetanPlateau,

someinaridareasofalpinedesert,butmuchinthepasturelandsofTibet,includingtheentire

prefecturesofGolok(Chinese:Guoluo)andYushuinQinghai,wherenomadsettlementinto

concreteenclavesiswelladvanced.QinghaiProvince,includingGolok,ledthewayininsisting

onfencingandsedentarization.

AcrossTibet,grasslandscoverabout68%ofthe1.22millionsquarekilometersoftheTAR,as

wellasslightlymorethan50%ofQinghaiProvince’s720,000squarekm,andvastswathesof

westernSichuanandGansuProvincesandnorthwesternYunnanProvince,totalingsome1.7

millionsquarekm(420millionacres;656,000squaremiles).84

ExcludingnomadicpastoralistsisawaythatChinaisnowcreditedbysomeintheinternational

communityintacklingclimatechange–throughnaturereservesandnationalparksthaton

paperexcludehumanuse.InablogpostedinadvanceoftheParisclimatechangetalks,Gabriel

Lafittewrote:“Onamap,thislookslikeanimpressivecommitmenttogrowmoregrassand

sequestermorecarbon,offsettingallthosecoalfiredemissions.Ontheground,forhundreds

ofthousandsofpastoralnomads,itmeanstotallossoflivelihood,herdedofftheirlandinto

concretebarracksoftenfarfromtheirlands,theirherdscompulsorilysold,withnotrainingto

enterthemoderncasheconomyofwagelabour.”85

WhileonpapercreatingNationalParksinChinamayseemlikeaneffectivemeansofconserving

theenvironment,andthereforeappealingtointernationalinstitutionstosupport,86italso

makesgrazingbanspermanent,andinvolvestheexclusionofnomadicpastoralists.Chinahas

specificallydeclaredthreeQinghaicounties,sourcesoftheYellow,MekongandYangtzerivers,

tobenationalparks.

ThisisdespiteastrongconsensusamongChineseandforeignrangelandsexpertsthatsettling

nomadsrunscountertothelatestscientificevidenceonlesseningtheimpactofgrasslands

degradation,whichpointstotheneedforlivestockmobilityinensuringthehealthofthe

rangelandsandmitigatingnegativewarmingimpacts.

83 www.protectedplanet.netistheonlineinterfacefortheWorldDatabaseonProtectedAreas(WDPA),ajoinprojectofIUCNandUNEP,

andthemostcomprehensiveglobaldatabaseonterrestrialandmarineprotectedareas.

84 ‘Searchingforgrassandwater:Ecosystemsustainabilityandherders’livelihoodsinwesternChina’,DanielJ.Miller,2007,paperkindly

suppliedbytheauthor.

85 PostedonJuly30,2015,http://rukor.org/gearing-up-for-paris/

86 ThePaulsonInstitute,foundedin2011byformerU.S.treasurysecretaryHenryPaulson,hasrecentlyannounceditwillworkwith

ChinatosetupNationalParksinQinghai,Yunnanandelsewhere.InQinghaithiswillalmostcertainlybeinareaswherenomadsare

beingremoved.Xinhuanewsreport,June8,2015,http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2015-06/08/c_134308232.htm?utmand

http://www.paulsoninstitute.org/news/2015/06/08/paulson-institute-and-national-development-reform-commission-

launch-collaboration-on-national-park-system-development-in-china/

ThemajorityofTibetansliveinruralareas,andforcenturiesmanyhavesustainedthemselvesthroughanomadicherderlifestyle,uniquelyadaptedto

theharshconditionsandfragileecosystemoftheTibetanplateau.ButtheimplementationofChinesepoliciestosettleTibetannomads,andtoresettle

Tibetansintownsandvillages,arenowthreateningthesurvivalofawayoflifethatisintegraltoTibetanidentityaswellasthelivelihoodsofTibetan

nomads.Thismeansthatoneofthelastexamplesintheworldofsustainablepastoralismnowfacesextinctionunlessthereisurgentchange.Oftenthe

newsettlements,likethisone,arefarfromcommunityresources.TheimagesdepictanomadsettlementnearGolmudinQinghai,wheretherailway

runstoLhasa,atthebeginningofconstruction,withthesecondpictureshowingconstructionsixmonthson.


“Ithastaken50yearsofChina’sstatistinterventionsinthegrasslandsoftheTibetanPlateau

toreachthecurrentcrisis,inwhichhundredsofthousandsofpastoralistsarebeingremoved

fromtheirancestralpastures,inthenameofconservationandobjectivescientificnecessity,”

theTibetanCenterforHumanRightsandDemocracyreportedinamajorstudyofTibetan

nomadspublishedthisyear.87“Chinasaysgrazingbans,pastureclosuresandnomadremovals

areanobjectivescientificnecessityinordertogrowmoregrass,capturecarbonandprotect

watersheds.

“Chinahasfailedtoenlistthetimeandknowledgeofthepastoraliststodothelandcarework

ofrehabilitatingdegradingareas,relyinginsteadsolelyonenclosureandtimetoachieve

rehabilitation.Thisiscontrarytoexperienceworldwideincommunitybasedlandscape

restoration,whichreliesonlocalcommunitiestoleadtherecoveryprocess.[…]The

acceleratingexclusionofpastoralistsoriginatesinsuccessivepolicyfailures.”

However,inanewdevelopment,anincreasingnumberofChineseprofessorsandrangelands

expertshavebecomeincreasinglycriticalofgovernmentpolicies,arguingthataseriesof

policymistakeshascausedtheovergrazinganddegradation–notthenomadicpastoralists

themselves.

TheTCHRDreportonnomadicpastoralisminTibetcitesnolessthan243researchreports

publishedinChinadocumentingscientificfindingsthatnolongerconfirmthedominantofficial

discoursebytheChineseleadership.

LiWenjun,aprofessorofenvironmentalmanagementatPekingUniversity,isoneofthose

voices;shefoundthatresettlinglargenumbersofpastoralistsintotownsexacerbatespoverty

andworsenswaterscarcity.Inpublishedstudies,shehassaidthattraditionalgrazingpractices

benefittheland.“Wearguethatasystemoffoodproductionsuchasthenomadicpastoralism

thatwassustainableforcenturiesusingverylittlewateristhebestchoice,”accordingtoa

recentarticleshewroteinthejournalLandUsePolicy.88

Theglobalclimatechangecrisisisattheheartofthisnewparadigm,giventhatthepastoral

grasslandsoftheworld,includingtheTibetanPlateau,provideecosystemservicesthatarenot

improvedbybanninggrazing.

TCHRDstates:“Thealternativefuturescenarioisofaparadigmshifttoapro-pastoralist

understandingofgrasslanddynamicsandtheskillfulmobilityofthepastoralistsasthekeyto

resolvingproblemsofdegradation,productivityandlandscapeprotection.”89

Thedominantdiscourse,whichistheBeijingleadership’sintenttoendthenomadiclifestyle,

imposedfromthetopdown,appliesthroughoutthePRC.InInnerMongoliaithasbeenpursued

87 ‘WastedLives:ACriticalAnalysisofChina’sCampaigntoEndTibetanPastoralLifeways’,May2015,TibetanCenterforHumanRights

andDemocracy,http://www.tchrd.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/Download-Report.pdf

88 ‘Solvingoneproblembycreatingabiggerone:Theconsequencesofecologicalresettlementforgrassland

restorationandpovertyalleviationinNorthwesternChina’byMingmingFan,YanboLi,WenjunLi,Volume

42,January2015,Pages124-130http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0264837714001586,

citedinNewYorkTimes,July11,2015,‘ChinaFencesInItsNomads,andanAncientLifeWithers’,

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/12/world/asia/china-fences-in-its-nomads-and-an-ancient-life-withers.html?_r=0

89 TCHRD,‘WastedLives’,ibid.


sincethe1950s.90KazakhnomadsinnorthernareasoftheXinjiangUyghurAutonomousRegion

(XUAR)werethesubjectofsettlementpoliciesinstitutedinthelate1980s,withover80%of

Kazakhpastoralfamiliessettledby2000.91

InTibet,thereisanaddedpoliticaldimension,asthepolicieshavebeenlinkedintheTARtothe

Party’spoliticalobjectivesofmaintaining‘stability’andcounteringtheDalaiLama’sinfluence.

TheformerTARPartySecretaryZhangQinglisaid:“[Farmersandnomads]‘livingandworking

inpeaceandcontentment’isthefundamentalconditionforusinholdingtheinitiativeinthe

struggleagainsttheDalaiclique.”92Hiscommentsapparentlyreflecttheauthorities’view

thatifTibetansbecomericher,theirfaithinreligionandtheDalaiLamawillfade.93Thishas

nothappenedinTibet.Italsoindicatestheofficiallineofensuringpolitical‘stability’through

countering‘separatism’throughdevelopment.

ATibetanformernomadnowlivingintheWesttoldICTthathebelievesthistobeakeyelement

oftheParty’spoliciesonnomadsettlement,saying:“Nomadsremainbeyondthereachofthe

state.Theireconomicself-sufficiency,mobilityandtraditionalandreligiousoutlookonlife

makethemthemostdifficultpeopletointegrateintotheChinesestate.”

TheethosoftheWesternDevelopmentStrategyistocreateconditionsthatwillencouragepoor

ruralworkerstotownsorcities,wheretheywillapparentlybecomeworkersandconsumersin

anew,‘modern’,economy.Thepoliciesalsogivetheauthoritiesgreateradministrativecontrol

overpeople’smovementsandlifestyles.

Resettlementpoliciesaregenerallyimplementedwithoutconsultationorconsent,andlocal

peoplehavenorighttochallengethemorrefusetoparticipate.Thedistinctionbetween

coercionandconsentofnomadsettlementismeaninglessinthepoliticalclimateinTibet

today.ThisisdespitethefactthatChineselawrequiresthatthosewhoaretobemovedoff

theirlandoraretohavetheirpropertyconfiscatedmustbeconsulted,and,iftheyaremoved,

compensatedfortheirlosses.94

90 Seeforexample:‘Letgrassgrowoverit:overgrazingofgrasssteppeinInnerMongolia’,Breuer,L.,Archer,N.,Schneider,K.,Huisman,

J.,Frede,H.G.,SpiegelderForschung,2004(Vol.21)(No.1/2),pp.86–91.

91 Seeforexample:‘Kazakhnomads,rangelandpolicyandtheenvironmentinAltay:insightsfromnewrangeecology’,TonyBanksand

SerikDoman,paperpresentedattheSecondInternationalofAsiaScholars,FreeUniversity,Berlin,August9–12,2001,availableat:

www.eldis.org

92 CitedinICTreport,‘TrackingtheSteelDragon’,http://www.savetibet.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/03/TrackingTheSteelDragon.pdf

93 ThisemergesfromapositionfirstestablishedbyMaoZedong,whobelievedthatassocietybecamemoreadvancedundertheChinese

CommunistParty(CCP),religiousbeliefwouldeventuallywitheranddie.Maooncesaid:“Itisthepeasantswhoputupidols,and,when

thetimecomes,theywillthrowtheidolsoutwiththeirownhands.[…]Itiswrongforanybodyelsetodoitforthem.”Accordingto

theCCP’sMarxist,atheistideology,religionisasuperstitiousandunscientificproductofnaturalandsocialoppression;ithasbeen

exploitedandusedinbackwardsocietiesasatoolbyrulingclassestosuppressthepeopleandpreservesocialinequality.According

tothisMarxistmaterialistworldview,religionwilldisappearinasocialistsociety.PracticalmeasurestohandlereligioninTibethave

variedfromdifferingdegreesoftolerancetopersecutionofpractitioners.Forfurtherdetails,seeChapter1,“ThePoliticsofReligion”,in

theICTreport,‘WhentheSkyfelltoEarth:ThenewcrackdownonBuddhisminTibet’,availableat:www.savetibet.org

94 Articles41and111ofChina’sConstitutionguaranteetherighttoconsultation,asdoesthe1989AdministrativeProcedureLaw(see

Articles2and9ofthe1989AdministrationProcedureLaw).Thislawandthe1986GeneralPrinciplesoftheCivilLawofthePRCalso

stipulatecompensationforpropertyseizedillegally.The1998/1999LandAdministrationLawspellsouttheprocessbywhichproperty

canberequisitioned,processesbywhichcompensationshouldbepaid,andamounts.AccordingtoHumanRightsWatch,“Indications

arethat[these]arerarelyfollowed”.‘Noonehasthelibertytorefuse:TibetanherdersforciblyrelocatedinGansu,Qinghai,Sichuanand

theTibetAutonomousRegion’reportbyHumanRightsWatch,June2007,www.hrw.org.


Chinesescholarshavenotedthelackoflegalitysurroundingthesettlementofnomads,

statingthatthepolicieshavebeenmarkedby“insufficientlegalinvolvement”,“alackoflegal

knowledgefromalltheparties”,andthat“governmentdepartmentshaveaninsufficient

knowledgeofthelaw”.95Somenomadsareofferedcompensationpackageswhentheyare

settled.Forsome,withnorangelandandnegligiblejobprospects,theirmainconcernishow

longthecompensationpackagewilllast.Manyofthepaymentsareinsufficient;HumanRights

WatchquotedaformerTibetannomadwhohadescapedintoexilefromMachen(Chinese:

Maqin)CountyinGolokPrefectureinAmdoassaying:“Theydidn’tgivefoodormoney

allowance.Relocatedfamiliescomplainthattheirlifeishardbecausenowtheyhavetobuy

everything,evenmeatanddungfuelforthestove.”

DrKatherineMorton,whoisresearchingclimatechangeandtransboundarywatersecurity

acrosstheHimalayan-HinduKush,alsocautionsagainstblamingnomadicpastoralistsforthe

degradationofthegrasslandsandimpactofclimatechange.DrMorton,whohasconducted

researchontheimpactsofclimatechangeontheTibetanPlateauanditsimplicationsfor

regionalsecurity,writes:“Amajorproblemisthatwestilldonotknowenoughaboutclimate

impactsonthegrasslands.Fieldinvestigationsarefewandfarbetween.Whatwedoknow

isthatasimplecausalrelationshipbetweenovergrazingandenvironmentaldegradation–

a‘TragedyoftheCommons’-stylescenario–ismisleading,preciselybecauseitfailstotakeinto

accountclimatechange.PlacingdisproportionateblameonTibetanpastoralistsalsogreatly

undervaluesindigenousknowledgeandtheimportantrolethattheoriginalcustodiansofthe

landcanplayinclimateadaptationefforts.[…]Theinterdependenciesbetweenenvironmental

degradation,humanwell-beingandregionalsecuritycanonlybeaddressedonthebasisofa

cooperativeandpeople-centredapproach.”96

ThepolicyofnomadsettlementinthePRCisbasedonafalsepremiseframedas“a

contradictionbetweengrassandanimals”.China’splanstotransformlivestockproduction

byconcentratingitandindustrialisingitwerefirstannouncedbyDuRunsheng,architectof

intensiveranchingandagribusiness,inTibetin1987.DuRunsheng,whodiedattheageof102

inOctober(2015),97hadreferredto“thecontradictionbetweenraisinglivestockandgrowing

grass”.GabrielLafittewrites:“Hecouldnotacceptthebasicpremiseofmobilenomadic

grazing,anditsskilfulproductivity,allofwhichrelyonmovingtheherdsfrompastureto

pasturewellbeforethegrassesaregrazedtooheavily.HetooktheclassicChinesepeasant

farmerviewpoint,thatmovingwiththeanimalsisprimitiveandbackward,that‘Mostofthe

livestockraisingareasinChinaarestillinaconditionofnomadicorsemi-nomadicgrazing.’”98

DuRunsheng’slineonpastoralistnomadsisreflectedbytheCCPtoday.TheChineseauthorities

representthepoliciesashavinganentirelypositiveimpact,andWesternjournalistsonofficial

visitstoTibethavebeenroutinelytakentovisithomeswherelocalpeoplehavebeensettled.

Overthepastdecade,thereportinghasrarelyreflectedthescaleorwhatisatstakewiththis

re-shapingoftheTibetanlandscape,bothingeographicalandculturalterms.

95 ‘SurveyofEcologicalMigrationStudies’,MengLinlin,BaoZhiming,JournaloftheCentralUniversityforNationalities,p49.



97 ChinaDaily,October9,2015,http://www.ecns.cn/2015/10-09/183725.shtml?utm

98 EmailcommunicationfromGabrielLafitte,October15,2015


JournalistswhododescribeitaccuratelyreceiveunfavorableattentionfromtheChinese

government.WhenMcClatchycorrespondentTimJohnson,whotraveledtoTibetunofficially,

describedtheresettlementprojectasa“massivecampaignthatrecallsthesocialistengineering

ofanearlierera”,hewascalledintotheForeignMinistryandtoldthathiswritings“werenot

trueand‘unacceptable’totheChinesegovernment”.99

AftertheNewYorkTimespublishedaprominentcommentarticleinJuly2015criticizingthe

nomadsettlementpolicy,100agroupofinternationaljournalistswereinvitedtoNgaba(Chinese:

Aba)TibetanandQiangAutonomousPrefectureandinvitedtospeaktoherders.Theywere

introducedtoaformernomadwho“heapednothingbutpraiseonagovernmentprogramthat

settledhisfamilyintoapermanenthome”.Helateradmittedthathewasalsoamemberofthe

localCommunistPartyorganizationthathelpedimplementtheresettlementprogram.101

OnanofficialvisittoChinain2010,theU.N.SpecialRapporteuronFood,OlivierDeSchutter,

alignedhimselfwiththenewconsensusonthevalueofkeepingnomadicherdersonthe

pasturelands,statingstronglythatbothTibetanandMongoliannomadsshouldnotbe

compelledtosettle.Linkingnomadsettlementtodeprivationoflivelihood,theU.N.Rapporteur

stated:“Whilethereislittledoubtabouttheextentofthelanddegradationproblem,the

SpecialRapporteurwouldnotethatherdersshouldnot,asaresultofthemeasuresadopted

underthe‘tuimu huancao’(‘removinganimalstogrowgrass’)policy,beputinasituation

wheretheyhavenootheroptionsthantoselltheirherdandresettle.[…]

“TheSpecialRapporteurencouragestheChineseauthoritiestoengageinmeaningful

consultationswithherdingcommunities,includinginordertoassesstheresultsofpastand

currentpolicies,andexamineallavailableoptions,includingrecentstrategiesofsustainable

managementofmarginalpasturessuchastheNewRangelandManagement(NRM)inorderto

combinetheknowledgeofthenomadicherdersoftheirterritorieswiththeinformationthat

canbedrawnfrommodernscience.”102

99 SeeTimJohnson’s‘ChinaRises’blog,May2007archive,availableat:http://washingtonbureau.typepad.com.

100ThisfollowedanarticlebyAndrewJacobsonthedisplacementofnomadsonJuly11(2015)asfollows:

http://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/12/world/asia/china-fences-in-its-nomads-and-an-ancient-life-withers.html.Thelinktotheoped

cannotbeaccessedonlineatthetimeofwriting.

101WallStreetJournal,‘OnTibetanTour,ChinaTrotsOutYakandPonyShow’,August3,2015,

http://blogs.wsj.com/chinarealtime/2015/08/03/on-tibetan-tour-china-trots-out-yak-and-pony-show/.

AlsoseeReuterscoverageofthesamevisit,August3,2015,

http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/08/03/us-china-tibetans-idUSKCN0Q80M120150803#MKHLxJ5uG8X1QsxJ.97

102PressreleasebytheSpecialRapporteurontheRighttoFood:http://www.srfood.org/images/stories/pdf/press_releases/

20101223_china-mission-press-release_en.pdf.TherelevantsectionfromtheSpecialRapporteur’sreportonnomadicherdersis

enclosedasfollows:“Threatstonomadicherders:NomadicherdersinWesternProvincesandAutonomousRegions,especiallyin

theTibet(Xizang)andInnerMongolianAutonomousRegions,areanothervulnerablegroup.TheGrasslandLawadoptedin1985

bothinordertoprotectgrasslandandinordertomodernizetheanimalhusbandryindustrytowardscommodificationhasnowbeen

complementedbyarangeofpoliciesandprograms,includingtuimu huancao(“removinganimalstogrowgrass”)andtuigeng huanlin

(“ReturningFarmlandtoForest”).Theseprograms,partofthe1999WesternDevelopmentStrategy(xibudakaifa),seektoaddressthe

degradationofpasturelandsandcontroldisastersinthelowlandsofChina.Theyincludemeasuressuchasgrazingbans,grazingland

non-useperiods,rotationalgrazingandaccommodationofcarryingcapacity,limitationsonpasturesdistribution,compulsoryfencing,

slaughterofanimallivestock,andtheplantingofeucalyptustreesonmarginalfarmlandtoreducethethreatofsoilerosion.While

thereislittledoubtabouttheextentofthelanddegradationproblem,theSpecialRapporteurwouldnotethatherdersshouldnot,as

aresultofthemeasuresadoptedunderthetuimu huancaopolicy,beputinasituationwheretheyhavenootheroptionsthantosell

theirherdandresettle.TheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightsprohibitsdeprivinganypeoplefromits

meansofsubsistence,andthe1992ConventiononBiodiversityacknowledgestheimportanceofindigenouscommunitiesasguarantors

andprotectorsofbiodiversity(Art.8j).Chinahasratifiedbothoftheseinstruments.[…]TheSpecialRapporteuralsoencourages

theChineseauthoritiestoinvestinrehabilitatingpasture,andtosupportremainingnomadswithruralextension.Thepotentialof

livestockinsuranceprogramsshouldalsobeexplored,astestedsuccessfullyinMongolia.Suchprograms,whichpaynomadstorestock


China’s counter-productive policies and an alternative proposal

Tsering Tsomo, a former nomad who is now director of the Tibetan Center for Human Rights and Democracy in Dharamsala, India, gave this perspective on China’s counter-productive policies of grazing bans, exclusion zones, and massive internal displacement.103

Youcannotstepontothesamepasturetwice,asHeraclitusmighthavesaidifhe’dbeena

nomad.

IcomefromanomadfamilyinTibet.MyEuropeanfriendsseemtoseegrasslandsaseternal,

andalsoterminallyboringbecausetheeyetravelssofasttothehorizon,unliketherainforest,

[...]whichbycomparisonevokesawe.

OurTibetanpastureschangeallthetime,thereisnoequilibriumforscientiststofind.How

coulditbeotherwiseonthehighest,driestandcoldestplateauoftheplanet?Onlythenomads,

withtheiryaks,sheepandgoats,knowhowtomakethishugelandhabitable,knowitsmoods,

thegalesthatblowoutofnowhere,orblanketingblizzardseveninsummer,whileIndia

andrecoverafteramajordisaster,encouragenomadstokeepherdsatmuchsmallerscaleastheywouldnotfearlosingtheirherding

activityaftersuchdisastersifcoveredbysuchinsurances.”

103ThearticleisTseringTsomo’ssummaryofTCHRD’slatestreport,‘WastedLives:acritiqueofChina’scampaigntoendTibetanpastoral

lifeways’http://www.tchrd.org/2015/05/wasted-lives-new-report-offer-fresh-insights-on-travails-of-tibetan-nomads/

TradersinYartsaGunbu(caterpillarfungus)weighandnegotiatepricesonastreetinKham


swelters.Thealpinemeadowsareneitherdullnoreternalbuttheyareeverybitasdiverseand

productiveasthosemagicalrainforests.

ThiscomesasnewstoChina,nowincommandoftheTibetanpasturelands.Chinahasabad

habitofcallingevenourrichestpastureswasteland,becauseitisnotarable,notsuitedto

ploughingandfarming.Chinaseesourhardy,resourceful,skilfulnomadsasignorantherders

wanderingaimlesslybehindtheiranimalsinsearchofgrass,almostthedefinitiveuncivilised

barbarian.Thisleadstoacommandeconomythatpushesandpullsthenomadswhorange

extensivelyoveranareathesizeofWesternEurope,nudgingthemeverclosertopovertyand

landlessness.

Firstcamethecommunes,fartoolarge,runbycadreswithnoideaofrangelanddynamics,

determinedtoprovethevirtuesofcommunismbyrapidlyraisingherdsizes,pushingland

andpeopletoohard.Theninthe1980sChinawenttotheoppositeextreme,contracting

separatelywitheachnuclearfamilyforlandtenureoverlandparcelsthathadtobefenced,

drivingnomadsintodebt.Theintentionwastoincentivisenomadstocareforwhattheyhad

alwayscaredfor,buttheallocatedlandwastoosmall,usableinwinteronly,incurringfurther

compulsorydebtsforfencing,ploughing,seedingandharvestingfieldsforfodder,andthe

compulsoryconstructionofpermanenthouses.

Inrealitytheherdsconcentratedonofficiallyallocatedlandinevitablybecameovergrazed,

becausenomadicmobility,thesecretof9000yearsofsuccessfulTibetanpastoralism,was

restricted,thenstopped.Since2003thepolicyhasbeentobangrazingineverincreasingareas

redefinedaswatershedprotectionzonesandredlinedemarcatednationalparks,excluding

allhumanuse.Thisisdeemedanobjectivescientificnecessitybecausethenomadsareto

blameforthelanddegradationcausedbyprivatisationandparcellingourlands.Hundreds

ofthousandsofproudandskilfulnomadsnowleadwastedlivesinconcretecantonmentson

urbanfringes,theirbitterlycoldbrandnewconcretebarracksaholdingpenforfolkdeemed

redundanttothedreamofamodernmeatcommodityproductionchain.

Thisisdoneinthenameofconservation,carboncapture,restorationofenvironmentalservices.

Conservationistsshouldlookabitmorecloselyatwhatthatmeansontheground.Astheworld

contemplatesaParisclimateaccordweposequestionswhoseanswersmaynotbewhatyou

expect.HowmuchlongercanourmeltingTibetanglaciersfeedyearroundthegreatriversof

Asia?Thethousandsofkilometersglacier-fedriverstraversetheTibetanpasturelandsbefore

plungingtothelowlandsarenotthreatenedbygrazing,butsustainedbyintelligent,flexible,

mobilelightgrazingherds,wildanddomestic.Thosepasturesfilter,cleanandregulatethe

flow,aswellassustaininganextraordinarydiversityofmedicinalherbsandnutritiousgrasses.

Whatisachievedbygrazingbans,exclusionzones,wastedlives,massiveinternaldisplacement

andcounterproductivepolicies?Chineseandinternationalscientistsnowreportthatthe

biomassofgrassdoesincrease,atleastinthefewyearsimmediatelyaftergrazingisbanned,

herdsandherdersremoved.Butmostrecentscientificreportstellusthatcarboncaptureis

greaterwhenthereissteadygrazing,andthatungrazedpastures,fencedofftoexcludewild

antelopeandgazellesaswell,sufferinvasivespeciesinvasion,lossofbiodiversity,reversionto

shrublandandthecrowdingoutofmedicinalherbs.


Youcan’tstepontothesamepasturetwicebecauseit’snotthesamepasture,itkeeps

changing,justlikeHeraclitus’river.Thosewhoaren’tintimatelyconnectedtograsslandmay

notnoticemanyofthosechanges,butwedo,andnowanewgenerationofChineseandTibetan

scientistsdoestoo.Chinawantstobuildaneternal,unchangingpristinegrasslandwilderness

onthosepastures.WeTibetanswantachancetoshowthatourtraditionalmobilityisthebest

kindofcommunity-basedconservation,isbothsustainableandproductive,andcanliftusout

ofpoverty,ifthecommandeconomycanletusproveit.

Harsh Winter: Bleak Outlook

“Harsh Winter; Bleak Outlook” is a powerful account written by a local Tibetan from Dzatoe County in Yushu prefecture, Qinghai, on the everyday difficulties of life for nomads under Chinese policies. The nomad writes that in the desperation of their situation, “People can’t even afford food, and their formerly bulging bellies have started to flatten.” It was received by ICT in 2014 and translated into English as a rare account from Tibet on nomadic lives; an edited version is published for the first time below. The account shows that after the loss of land and their livelihoods, ill-prepared to compete with Chinese migrant workers for employment, more and more Tibetans depend on collecting the fungus known as yartsa gunbu to earn a living. Yartsa gunbu, which in Tibetan means ‘winter worm, summer grass’, is bought by traders and sold to pharmaceutical companies and Chinese medicine clinics across China. But today the fungus is collected at unprecedented rates and is in danger of becoming over-picked. With the additional threat of climate change, the increased dependence on yartsa gunbu by local economies calls for stronger sustainable resource management in the region.104

Afewyearsago,theChinesegovernmentimplementedapolicycalled“Retreatingfromthe

PasturestoBringtheGrassBack”.Manyherdsmenhadtoabandongrasslandsandpastures,

andmoveintotownstosettledown.Theseherdersinitiallyhadsomefantasticdreams.

Theythoughtthatitwouldbewonderfultoliveinthetown.Theyfeltthatlivestockwere

burdensomeandlifewouldbebetterwithoutthem.Nomatterwhat,theythoughtthatYartsa

Gunbu,the“lifesaver”,isthere,andtheirhome,car,cash,andeverythingwillbeinabundance.

Theyneverthoughtthatthe“lifesaver“couldtakeaplungeasitdidthisyear.Nowtheydon’t

havethemoneytopurchasemeat,butter,yogurtandmilk.Theydon’thavetentsandyakdung

forfuelanymore.Inthenewconcretehouse,theyhavetoburnthehighpricedcoalbriquettes,

butthepriceforthebriquettesistoohighforthemtopurchase.Can’tmentionplayingmahjong

and“karimari”(billiards)anymore,aspeoplecan’tevenaffordfood,andtheirformerlybulging

bellieshavestartedtoflatten.

SomepoliciesoftheChinesegovernmentarecutbyaswordtomake“onesizethatfitsall.”

ThesebureaucratsbringpoliciesimplementedinthestreetsofBeijingtoourgrasslands,which

justmessesthingsuphere.Infact,“RetreatingfromthePasturestoBringtheGrassBack”is

notworkinginTibetanpastoralareas,andithascutoffthelifebloodofthepeople.Manyyears

ago,theimplementationofapolicycalled“DestroyalltheRodentsontheGrassland”leadto

104Therearenumeroussourcesontheissue;see,forinstance,interviewswithspecialistDanielWinklerintheSeattleGlobalist,February

3,2014,http://www.seattleglobalist.com/2014/02/03/the-mushroom-that-saved-tibets-economy/19214,andNPR,October12,2011,


thespreadingofmanytonsofpoisonontothegrasslands.Intheend,therodentsdidnotdie,

buttheeagles,hawks,andothernaturalpredatorsofrodents,werekilled.Thus,thenature

ofthefoodchainonthegrasslandwasdestroyed.Theimpactofthispolicycausedlong-term

ecologicaldestructionofthegrassland.

TheTibetanherdsmenaretherealownersofthegrassland;thegrasslandisboththehome

andasourceoflifeforTibetanherdsmen.We,Tibetanpeople,sinceancienttimes,havebeen

livingonthemeadowssurroundedbysnow-cappedmountainsandthebluesky.Depending

mainlyonanimalhusbandry,ourpeoplehaveeatenwellandlivedhappilyforgenerationsafter

generations.WebelieveinBuddhism.WearefaithfullydevotedtoKunchokSum(theThree

Jewels[ofBuddhism]).Wehavelivedinharmonywithnature.Wehavebeenfriendlywith

ourneighboringnations.Ourforefatherswereneitherunabletomakeweapons,norunable

tomakewarstoexpandtheterritory.Itisnotthatourforefathersdidnotknowhowtobring

reformationorchangethingsorbuildanindustrializedcivilization.Itisbecauseofreligious

faith,asenseofcompassion,loveandpeace,andofrespectandcherishingofnatureand

alllivingbeings,thatourancestorsfeltsatisfiedwithbasicandsimplestyleoflife.Asimple

andpeacefullifewithfewermaterialandmoreinnerdevelopmentwasthepursuitofour

forefathers.ItisthisthatmakesourTibetancultureuniqueandattractsattentionfromthe

world’sdevelopedcountries.

The1142kmsectionoftherailroadfromGolmudtoLhasatraversesthevasthighaltitudeplainsoncemostly

inhabitedonlybywildanimalssuchastheTibetanantelope,orchiru.Thechiruisincreasinglyendangeredas

theseareas,protectedinthepastbytheirremoteness,havebecomeincreasinglyaccessibleasaresultofroad

andrailconstruction,andthegreateravailabilityofsuitablevehicles.IMAGE:ICT.


TheIndustrialRevolutionbroughtusthematerialaffluence,butitalsoacceleratedtheprocess

ofthedestructionofbothhumansandtheblueplanet.Scientistsarenowrealizingthisandare

lookingtousforsolutions;evenwhiletheyonceconsideredustobe“stupid”and“barbaric.”

WeTibetanscan’tbeself-defeatingpeople;wecan’tblindlyfollowthetrendtourbanization.In

catchingupwithmoderntechnology,weshouldbeginbystrengtheningourculture,language,

environmentalprotection,andeconomicdevelopmentfocusedonlocalneeds.Wecan’t

loseourculturalheritageandcharacteristics;wecan’tloseourlivestock;wecan’tloseour

grasslands.

Beforethe“ReformandOpeningup”,Dzatoeusedtobewellknownasthe“MillionaireCounty”,

andthereweremillionsoflivestockinthecounty.Inthelate1970sand80s,Dzatoewasranked

firstplaceinYushuPrefectureforitseducationalqualityandachievement.Aftertheyear2000,

YartsaGunbumadeus“Upstarts”.WithYartsaGunbu,the“lifesaverplant”,wehadmoneyand

wegainedalotofweight.Welostinterestindoinganyhardwork;welostinterestinherding

livestock;andourkidslostinterestinstudyinghard.Herdersthrewawaytheirwortak(sling)

andmovedtothecountycapitalwithfantasticdreamstostartaluxuriousandjoyfullife.The

“NomadSettlementProject,“whichluresTibetanherdersintothetown,isthemaincausefor

thissituation.

Themostunimaginablethingisthatthereisnosheeptobeseenanymoreinthevastterritory

ofDzatoeCountytoday.AllthesheephavebeensoldtoChinese,ChineseMuslimsandAmdo

Tibetansbythetruckloadsforcheappricesinthelastfewyears.Today,flocksandflocksof

sheepcanbeseengrazinginagriculturalregionsaroundXiningtoLanzhouandareasinAmdo

alongthe214Highway.PeoplefromDzatoeevencanrecognizesheepwhichtheyhavesold

toChinese,ChineseMuslimsandAmdoTibetansalongthewaywhentheytraveltoXiningor

Lanzhouviaabovementionedplaces.

ForherdersinDzatoe,thewinterof2014hasalreadybeenunusuallycoldandharsh.

Asthesayinggoes,“Withouteatingbittermelon,onewon’tknowhowsweetthehoneyis.”My

dearfolks,wemustlearnsomethingfromthislesson.Pleasedonotforgetouryesterday,take

agoodlookatourtoday,andthinkcarefullyaboutourtomorrow!WeTibetanherdsmen,yak,

sheepandhorsesallbelongtothevastpasturelandsofGedrongDzatoe!Ourpeople,yak,sheep

andhorsesallcannotbeallowedtodisappearonsomeone’swhim.Look,theeagleissoaring

betweenthepeakofthesnowmountainandthebluesky!

November,2014

TheQinghai-TibetrailwayanditsconnectiontoShigatsehasbeencrucialintheexpansionofmininginTibet,makingitpossibletotransportmoreores

outofTibetanareas,manyofwhichwerepreviouslyremoteandinaccessible.ThenewlinktoShigatse(Chinese:Rigaze),picturedsoonafteritsopening

in2014,isessentialforfacilitatingcopperandgoldmininginShetongmen;theproximityoftheminetoamajorriverraisesseriousenvironmental

concerns.


Part Five: The impact of mining on Tibet’s water and environment

“I was born into a Drokpa (Tibetan nomad) family and spent the first years of my life

in the wild eastern part of Tibet. We traveled with our animals from summer to winter

grounds, setting up our yak-hair tents at each site. It was a simple existence and my

daily joy consisted of exploring the nearby mountains with my pet goat. If I was lucky,

I would see wild animals such as nawa (Tibetan argali) and shaba (white-lipped deer)

at close range. Sometimes, I would watch herds of kiang (Tibetan wild ass) running

across the grasslands.

When I was four or five years old, there was a severe drought and the local spring

in our camp began to dry up. Because I was considered an unusual child (although

at that time, nobody knew I would later be recognized as the 17th Karmapa), our

community requested my father ask me to plant a sapling at the source of the spring. I

remember leading prayers with the aspiration that this tree would help provide water

for all living beings nearby. Although I had no idea that what I was doing was an

“environmental” act, or what watershed meant, my love for nature and dedication to

protect the environment sprouted from this seed.

As I grew up and began studying Buddhist philosophy and teachings, I discovered

great harmony between Buddhism and the environmental movement. The emphasis

on biological diversity, including ecosystems—in particular, the understanding

that animate and inanimate beings are parts of a whole—resonates closely with

Buddhism’s emphasis on interdependence.”

– Ogyen Trinley Dorje, the 17th Karmapa105

105‘WalkingthePathofEnvironmentalBuddhismthroughCompassion&Emptiness’bythe17thKarmapa,Talkat23rdMind&Life


Tibet,knownasChina’streasure-houseintheWest,isrichinthemineralsChinaneeds,asits

manufacturingindustriesmigrateinland,closertoTibetandfurtherfromcoastalportsand

globalimportsofrawmaterials.Amajorgoalofthe13thFive-YearPlanisforrawmaterials

neededforChina’sgrowthtobesourcedfromTibetratherthanfromimports.106

Large-scalemininghasbeguninTibet,andalltheminesaresituatedinthewatershedsofAsia’s

majorriversthatsupporthundredsofmillionsofpeopledownstream.TheimpactsonTibet’s

waterareprofound.Ascientificstudyofthewaterqualityoftheheadwatersoffourmajor

Asianrivers,theYangtzeRiver,theMekongRiver,theSalweenRiverandtheYarlungTsangpo

(Brahmaputra)togetherwithanevaluationofdrinkingwaterqualityconcludedthat:“Rapidly

increasedminingactivitiesposeahighriskofheavymetalpollutionforthelocalenvironment

andapotentialthreattothedownstreamwaterquality.[…]

“Nearly20yearsofindustrialscaleminingoperationshavebeencarriedoutonthePlateau.The

ongoingoperationsarelackingadequatemanagementandoperatingexperiencecausingpoor

planningandwastemanagement[…].Furthermore,sinceenvironmentalregulationsarepoorly

implementedoverthePlateau,thereisalsoalackofknowledgeontheapparentandpotential

impactoftheseminingactivitiesontheenvironment.Thisisofparticularconcernwithregards

tothePlateau’svastsupplyoffreshwater.AcceleratedwiththeestablishedcentralChinaTibet

railway,large-scaleminingoperationsarelaunchedandmorearetocomeonthePlateau.

MineralprocessingfactoriesarelocatedwithinthemajorrivercatchmentsinthePlateau.

Apparently,thehugeamountsofminingwastesthataregeneratedbytheseactivitiesposea

significantthreattotheregion’ssurfacewaterandthefragileenvironment.”107

conference,‘Ecology,Ethics&Interdependence’.Videoat:http://www.ecobuddhism.org/wisdom/interviews/hhk2011

106AmorecomprehensiveexaminationofthescaleandimpactoftheminingindustryinTibetisbeyondthescopeofthisreport,butICT

recommendsGabrielLafitte’sauthoritativebook,‘SpoilingTibet:ChinaandResourceNationalismontheRoofoftheWorld’’,Asian

Argumentsseries,ZedBooks,2013

107Theresearchfocuseduponanassessmentofpotentialimpactofminingactivitiesontheregionalsurfacewaterquality

inthecentralTibet;asimpleevaluationofthedrinking‐waterqualityinthelargestcityofthePlateau,Lhasa,thecapital

cityoftheTibetAutonomousRegion(T.A.R.).Theresultspresentedprovidednewinformationonthecurrentchemical

characteristicsofsurfacewateranddrinking‐waterinthe“WaterTowerofAsia”andofferbackgroundinformationand

sources.‘WaterQualityinTheTibetanPlateau:ChemicalEvaluationoftheHeadwatersofFourMajorAsianRivers’byXiang

Huang,PublicationsoftheUniversityofEasternFinlandDissertationsinForestryandNaturalSciences,UniversityofEastern

FinlandFacultyofScienceandForestryDepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,Kuopio,2010.Availablefordownloadingat

http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_isbn_978-952-61-0020-3/urn_isbn_978-952-61-0020-3.pdf

PoliceopenedfireonTibetansatacement

factoryintheTibetanareaofAmdo

(LabranginGansu)onMay15,2010,after

localvillagersgathered,concernedabout

pollutionfromthefactory.Thisimage

showsarmedpoliceinriotgearoutside

thefactoryinMadangTownship.


GabrielLafitte,authorof‘SpoilingTibet:ChinaandResourceNationalismontheRoofofthe

World’,theauthoritativetextonmininginTibet,108writes:“Tibet,Asia’snumberonewater

tower,istoprovidethewater,copper,gold,silverandmanyothermetals,plusenormousflows

ofhydropowertothefactoriesofChongqing,Chengdu,LanzhouandXiningthatmakeallthe

bigbrandconsumerproductsinourpockets.ThistooistransformingTibet,asChina’sresource

nationalismfindsdomesticsourcestosubstituteforimports,primarilyinTibetandelsewherein

westernChina,suchastheUighurregionofnominal‘autonomy’inXinjiang,andthenominally

‘autonomous’InnerMongolia.IfweaddthelandsoftheMongols,TibetansandUighursweare

talkingofhalfofChina,anareabiggerthanthemaximaldefinitionofEurope,fromtheUralsto

Portugal.”109

TheChineseauthoritiesstartedsurveyingandminingTibetinthe1950sandwhiletheindustry

expandedconsiderablyduringeconomicreformsofthe1980sand1990sitgenerallyremained

small-scale.ButasChinahasfacedgrowingshortagesinthedomesticsupplyofrawmaterials

therehasbeenanacceleratedexploitationofTibet’srichmineralreserves-asinfrastructure

hasdeveloped,mineralcommoditieshavebecomeincreasinglyexploited,leadingtoland

degradation,pollution,andharmtolivestockandwildlifebio-diversity.

Toaneconomist,ariseinmineralextraction,orarisentheproductionofwoolanddairy

productswouldbothcountaseconomicgrowth,hencegrowthinpercapitaGDP.Butinreality,

mineralextractionundertakenbylargecorporationsprovidingminimallocalemployment

mayaddalmostnothingtoalocaleconomy.Beijing’slong-haulplansforminingTibetanareas

confersbenefitselsewhere,whileTibetmustcopewithdegradationoftheenvironment,lossof

amenities,resourcedepletion,andasurgeofimmigrants.

EnvironmentalistsandeconomistswithinChinahavequestionedthechoiceofmineral

exploitationasthebasisofTibetanmodernization.ChineseeconomistsHuAngangandWen

JunwarnthattheheavyemphasisonmineralextractioninTibetwillmakeithardtoprotect

thefragileecosystemoftheTibetanplateau:“Notonlywillthis[strategy]beharmfultothe

protectionoftheenvironment,itcouldalsopossiblyleadtohistoryrepeatingitselfintheform

of‘pollutefirst,putinorderlater’and‘greatdamage,greatpollution’.”110

Anavalancheofrock,mudanddebristhatstruckoneofTibet’smajorminingsites,Gyama

copperandgoldminenearLhasa,onMarch29,2013,focusedattentiononthetollofmining

andindustrializationinTibet.Eighty-threeminers,whoweremostlyChinesemigrantworkers,

werekilled.TherehadlongbeenconcernsabouttheimpactoftheGyama(Chinese:Jiama)

CopperPolymetallicMine,whichisinanareaofhistoricandculturalsignificance,onTibet’s

fragilehigh-altitudelandscape.111

WhiletheChineseauthoritiesdescribeditasa‘naturaldisaster’,researchbytheEnvironment

andDevelopmentDeskoftheCentralTibetanAdministrationvieweditotherwise,statingthe

followinginadetailedreport:“Inordertoacquiremaximumprofitintheshortestpossible

108Ibid

109‘PitchingTibet,inanewkey’,uploadedonhttp://rukor.org/onNovember21(2015)

110CitedinICTreport,‘TrackingtheSteelDragon’,ibid.

111ICTreport,April5,2013,‘DisasterinGyamadrawsattentiontoimpactofmininginTibet’,

http://www.savetibet.org/disaster-in-gyama-draws-attention-to-impact-of-mining-in-tibet/#sthash.33QAsWt2.dpuf


time,mininginGyamahasbeenpursuedaggressively.Wholeswathesoflandhavebeen

excavatedinseveralsitesandinsomecasesthewholefaceofamountainhasbeenstripped

offintheprocessofexploration,waterdiversion,miningandroadconstruction.Itwasjusta

matteroftimethatsuchlargescaleandaggressiveexpansionofminingwasgoingtocausea

largescaledisaster.TheEnvironmentandDevelopmentDesk[…]believesthatthelandslidein

Gyamaisaman-madephenomenonratherthananaturaldisaster.”112

TherehadlongbeenconcernsabouttheimpactsofminingatGyama,inMaldroGungkar

(Chinese:MozhuGongka)county,approximately42milesoutsideofLhasa.Astudyofwater

qualitybelowtheGyamaminecarriedoutin2010revealedthat:“elevatedconcentrations

ofheavymetalsinthesurfacewaterandstreambedattheupper/middlepartofthevalley

poseaconsiderablyhighrisktothelocalenvironment…andtodownstreamwaterusers.

Environmentalchangessuchasglobalwarmingorincreasedminingactivitymayincreasethe

mobilityofthesepoolsofheavymetals.”113

ProtestsagainstmininginMaldroGungkarstartedintheearly1990ssoonaftertheminers

movedintoexploittheoredeposits.Theminingoperationhasreportedlydriedupspring

waters,poisoneddrinkingwater,killed1,000domesticanimalsanddestroyedfloraandfauna

intheregion.AlthoughlocalTibetansdemandedtheclosureofthemine,inAugust2011,

ChinaGoldInternationalResourcesCorporationstatedthatitwouldstillproceedwithamajor

expansionoftheproject.114

TheQinghai-TibetrailwayanditsconnectiontoShigatsehasbeencrucialintheexpansionof

mininginTibet,makingitpossibletotransportmoreoresoutofTibetanareas,manyofwhich

werepreviouslyremoteandinaccessible.ShetongmenmineclosetoShigatse(Chinese:Rikaze)

intheTibetissuchanexamplefollowingthenewrailconnectiontoShigatse,thatopenedin

August,2014.

112‘AssessmentReportoftheRecentLandslideEventintheGyamaValley:ItsPossibleCauseandImpacts’,theTibetanDepartmentof

EnvironmentandDevelopment,April9,2013,onlineatwww.tibet.net

113Alsosee5.2,casestudyofGyama,‘WaterQualityinTheTibetanPlateau:ChemicalEvaluationoftheHeadwatersofFourMajorAsian

Rivers’byXiangHuang,detailsasabove,http://epublications.uef.fi/pub/urn_isbn_978-952-61-0020-3/urn_isbn_978-952-61-0020-3.pdf

114‘FatalLandslideDrawsAttentiontotheTollofMiningonTibet’,April2,2013,NewYorkTimes,

http://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/03/world/asia/deadly-tibetan-landslide-draws-attention-to-mining.html;

‘Canadian Treasure Hunt in Tibet Triggers Protest’, EnvironmentalNewsService(ENS),October21,2010,

http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=10488;‘LandslideinGyamaMine:naturalorman-made?’March30,2013,

http://tibet.net/2013/03/landslide-in-gyama-mine-natural-or-man-made/

Aluminiumsmeltingrequiresheavy

supplyofelectricity,fromdamming

Tibetanrivers:MaChu(upperYellow

River)inAmdo/Qinghai.Michael

Buckley:MeltdowninTibetwebsite/

GoogleEarthimage


Shetongmen’sproximitytoamajorriverraisesseriousenvironmentalconcerns,sincethesteep

sitewillhavetosecurelyholdatleast75outofevery100tonnesofrockminedandcrushedto

powdertoextractaconcentratethatcanbesentbyrailtoadistantsmelter.Accordingtorecent

research,thereisalreadyanaturalheavy-metalloadintheriver;anyleakagefromthehillside

damwastetailingscouldbedisastrous.115NotonlywoulddownstreamIndiaandBangladeshbe

affected;iftheplannedwaterdiversionofTibetanriverstotheYellowRiverincludescapturing

theYarlungZangbo,downstreamChina’swaterpuritywouldbethreatenedtoo.

GabrielLafittewrites:“ThegreatriversofTibet,drunkdailybyonebillionpeopleacrossAsia,

naturallycarryaburdenofdangerousmetals,asayounglandstartseroding.Anyfurther

burden,frommininganditsvastdumpsoftailingswaste,wouldbedisastrous.Yetthegoldof

Tibetisfoundeitherinriverbeds(alluvialgold)orinbigdepositsclosetorivers,especiallythe

YarlungTsangporiver,whosebedisliterallythecollisionpointofIndiaandEurasia.

“ThesearescientificreasonstobeextremelycautiousaboutminingTibet.Noneofthiswas

known,inscientificcategories,byTibetanvillagersandnomadencampments,yetthey

instinctivelyrecoiledfrommining.Usuallytheiraversiontobreakingthegrasslandsordigging

themountainswasreinforcedbylocallamasurgingrespectfortheoldpre-Buddhistgodsof

earthandwater,stillcapableofcausingtroubleifdisturbed.Thereisaremarkablecongruence

betweensacredsites,sacredforestsandmountains;andareasofhighbiodiversityornatural

valuesespeciallyworthconserving.”116

ItisnotablethatwhiletheChineseauthoritiesclaimtoberemovingpastoralistsfromthe

grasslandsfor‘conservation’,theyareoftenremovedinordertomakewayforminingactivities.

TenzinNorbu,formerlyoftheEnvironmentandDevelopmentDeskoftheCentralTibetan

AdministrationtoldtheBBC:“TheChinesegovernmentsaysthepastoralistsarebeingresettled

mainlytoconservethegrasslandthatitclaimsisbeingdegradedbecauseofunsustainable

pastoralpractices.ButwhatyouareseeingisthattheseTibetansarebeingremovedso

thattheirage-oldpastorallandscanberampantlyminedandthatactuallyhasledtohuge

environmentaldestruction.”117

Tibetanshaveincreasinglybeenpreparedtoprotestagainsttheimpactofminingorother

industrialactivityontheirlocalenvironmentinrecentyearsdespitethedangers.Thefrequency

oftheseminingprotestsinmanyareasofTibet,aswellastherepressiveresponsebythe

Chineseauthorities,iswell-documented.EvenwhenTibetanstakecaretoexpresstheirconcern

peacefullyandmoderately,theyarestilltear-gassed,arrested,tortured,imprisonedoreven

killed.

InAugust(2015),theChineseauthoritiesusedintimidationandthreatsofforcetoblock

attemptsbylocalTibetanstosaveasacredmountainfromuraniumminingatDringwa

115 ‘WaterQualityinTheTibetanPlateau:ChemicalEvaluationoftheHeadwatersofFourMajorAsianRivers’byXiangHuang,detailsas

above

116‘GoldFromTibet:Anupdate,ConflictMineralsinTibet’,November5,2015,http://rukor.org/gold-from-tibet-an-update/#_ftn2

117‘Tibetansdisplacedwithinregion‘amidrampantmining’byNavinSinghKhadka,Environmentreporter,BBCNews,December13,2013,

http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-25359391


(Chinese:Zhanwa)TownshipinDzoege(Chinese:Ruo’ergai)County,Ngaba(Chinese:Aba)

TibetanandQiangAutonomousPrefecture,SichuanProvince.118

ChinesepoliceshotdeadaTibetanduringaprotestrelatedtomininginaTibetanareaof

SichuaninAugust,2010,afterpoliceopenedfireonagroupofTibetansprotestingabout

environmentaldamagecausedbyminingintheeasternTibetanareaofKham.119

Thisfollowedanincidentearlierinthesameyear,whenonMay15,2010,policeopenedfire

onTibetansatacementfactoryintheTibetanareaofAmdo(LabranginGansuProvince)after

localvillagers,worriedaboutpollutionfromthefactory,startedtorebuildaroadthathad

beenclosedbytheexpansionofthefactory.Fifteenpeopleweretakentohospitalwithgunshot

woundsorinjuriesfrombeatingsbypolice.120

GiventheprotestsagainstminingbyTibetancommunitiesdeterminedtoprotecttheir

livelihoods,sacredmountainsandpilgrimageroutes,thereisastrongcasetoargueforthe

classificationofspecificmineralsfromTibetas‘’conflictminerals’.Newguidelineshave

beendeveloped,theOrganisationforEconomicCooperationandDevelopment(OECD)121Due

DiligenceGuidanceforResponsibleSupplyChainsofMineralsfromConflict-AffectedandHigh-

RiskAreas,thatcoverChina’sminingcompaniesoperatinginCongo,CentralAfricanRepublic,

andotherconflictzones.Theyarethenbesubjecttoaregulatoryregimethateffectivelybans

theentryofconflictmineralsintotheglobalcommoditysupplychain.122WhiletheOECDMoUis

withChinesecompaniesthatimportfromaroundtheworld(andexportworldwide),thesame

ChinesecompaniesminingdepositsinCongo,PeruorPapuaNewGuineaarealsominingTibet.

118ReportbytheTibetanCenterforHumanRightsandDemocracy,April24,2015,

http://www.tchrd.org/chinese-miners-threaten-tibetans-trying-to-save-sacred-mountain-from-uranium-mining/.TCHRDreported:

“AccordingtoreliableinformationreceivedbyTCHRD,onAugust10aminingteamsentbytheChinesegovernmentproceeded

tostartminingatDrakzong,asacredmountaininDringwa.JustthenalargenumberofTibetansgatheredatthesitetostopthe

miners,withTibetansexplainingtotheChineseminersthatitwasinauspicioustomineatthesacredsiteandthatminingwould

havedisastrousconsequencesontheenvironmentalstabilityoftheregion.Inresponse,theminersthreatenedtocallthepolicefor

obstructingtheirwork.DespiteprotestsfromTibetans,theminingteamhasalreadymadepreparationstostartmininguranium;

miningmachinesandequipmenthavebeenbroughttothesite.Uraniumwasinitiallyminedmainlyforproducingnuclearweapons

andsincethe1960s,formanufactureintonuclearreactorfuel.Beingbothradioactiveandatoxicheavymetal,uraniummining

cancontaminateair,soilandwater.”Alsosee:TibetWatchreport,EnvironmentalProtestsontheTibetanPlateau,January2015,

http://www.tibetwatch.org/uploads/2/4/3/4/24348968/environmental_protests_on_the_tibetan_plateau.pdf

119 ICTreport,

https://www.savetibet.org/chinese-government-admits-to-fatal-shooting-of-tibetan-in-mining-protest/#sthash.BXKBriF9.dpuf

120ICTreport,

https://www.savetibet.org/chinese-government-admits-to-fatal-shooting-of-tibetan-in-mining-protest/#sthash.BXKBriF9.dpuf

121http://www.oecd.org/

122GabrielLafittehasdocumenteddetailsofconflictovertheextractionofgold,lithium,uraniumandcopperinhisserieson‘Conflict

MineralsinTibetonhiswebsiterukor.org


To Amnye Machen A poem by ‘The Plateau is my Home’

This poem, by an unnamed Tibetan writer, is an impassioned tribute to a range of mountains in north-eastern Tibet, considered the most sacred in the Tibetan area of Amdo, a place of pilgrimage. The poem, entitled ‘To Amnye Machen’ by a Tibetan blogger calling themselves, The Plateau is my Home, was posted on a Tibetan language website, a TibetCul blog, on September 5, 2011. The poem, translated below by the literary website High Peaks Pure Earth highlights environmental damage in Tibet caused by mining and is another example of social media discussion on this issue.123

EventhoughIhaveneverseenyou

EventhoughIhaveneverbeenatyourside

Iknowyourstalwartfigure

Standingfirmlyintheboundlessspacebetweenheavenandearth

Onyourvenerableforeheadthathaspassedthroughthousandsofyears

Arethecleansnowflakesshininginthesunoftheplateau

Underyourvast,peacefulandsmoothfeet

Isthesoundofpraisessungtoyoubytheplateauherders.

YouareoneoftheninesacredmountainsofTibet

Yourfameisfirmlyestablishedthroughouttheworld.

YouaretheDharmadefenderofAmdo

Yourgoodnameiswidelyknown.

However,today,thewheelsofgreed

Arerunningoverthegrassland,enteringdirectlyunderyourfeet

Theybringbombs,trucks,andexcavators

Andotherbizarretoolsthatareusedbydemons

Toexcavatethehiddengemsinyourbody

Thepeoplewhohavebeenguardingyouformillionsofyears

Areunabletoguardyouanymore

Theycanonlyendureinsilence

Theironlychoiceistowaithelplessly…

Onedaytheywillbeforcedtomoveout

Sayinggoodbyetearfullytoyourbeautifulandwarmembrace.

Wherewilltheygo?

Theywillbeplacedontheedgeofthebarrendesert

Henceforth,onoursacredAmnyeMachen

Thewhiteflocksofsheepwillneverbeseenagain

Thesongoftheherderswillneverbeheardagain

Thosefilthygreedypeoplewillsoonmercilesslystifleyou

123ForotherHighPeaksPureEarthpostsaboutTibetanconcernsaboutmining,see“2006AppealLetterAgainstMininginAmdo,Tibet,

ResurfacesOnline”,“KumbumOnAJourney”,“ImpoverishedMatöCounty”ByWoeser,“AnAppealLetterfromKumbumMonastery”,

and“PleaseStopthe‘Development’ofMountKailashandLakeManasarovarforProfit”ByWoeseronhttp://highpeakspureearth.com


Recommendations for protection of Tibet the ‘Third Pole’ at the Paris climate change conference and beyond

Tibet-theworld’shighestandlargestplateau-isofincreasinggeopoliticalsignificance.Itis

inastrategiclocationinAsia,whichhastheworld’sfastest-growingeconomies,fastest-rising

militaryexpendituresandfiercestcompetitionforresources.Tibethasthelargestreserveof

accessiblefreshwateronearthandisthesourceofmostofAsia’smajorrivers,supplyingwater

tomillionsofpeopledownstream.Assuchitneedstobebroughtbacktocenterstage.Thereis

aneedfortheinternationalcommunitytore-evaluateTibetasanissuetiedtoAsianandglobal

security,atthecenterofAsia’sunfoldingfuture.Tibet’spresentislinkedtoChina’sfuture.Tibet

needsseriousattentioninglobaltalksonclimatechange,andChina’sstrategiestoaddress

climatechangeneedtoinvolvetheTibetanpeople.

TheInternationalCampaignforTibetmakesthefollowingrecommendations:

Governmentsandcivilsocietystakeholdersshouldhelpensuretheinclusioninthe

ParisclimateagreementatCOP21ofstrongprovisionstoensurethatactionstoaddress

climatechangeupholdhumanrights,124aredrivenbytheneedsofvulnerablegroupsand

ecosystemssuchasTibetansontheTibetanplateau,andincorporatetraditionaland

indigenousstewardship.125

TheChinesegovernmentshouldallowpastoraliststoliveinprotectedareasincludingnewly

createdNationalParksontheTibetanplateauandtocontinuethepracticeofpastoralism

-giventhatcurrentpolicyonthesettlementofTibetannomadshasledtoincreased

rangelandsdegradation.TheChinesegovernmentshouldnotengagein‘greengrabbing’

(displacementbyconservation).

124TheU.N.HumanRightsCouncilinGenevaadoptedanewresolutiononclimatechange

andhumanrightsinJuly(2015).SeereportatClimateChangeNews,July6,2015

http://www.climatechangenews.com/2015/07/06/climate-change-is-a-matter-of-human-rights-agrees-un/

125IUCNontheimportanceofreconcilingindigenousandprotectedareas:Reconcilingindigenouspeoplesandprotectedareas:rights,

governanceandequitablecostandbenefitsharing’,DiscussionPaperbyPeterBilleLarsen,withcontributionsfromGonzaloOviedo,

IUCN,Gland,February2006,https://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/iucn_reconciling_ip_and_pa.pdf


GlobalexperienceshowsthatthemosteffectivewayofachievingREDDobjectives126isby

includingpastoralistsaspartofthesolutionratherthanexcludingthemaspartoftheproblem.

Pasturesarenotthreatenedbygrazingbutsustainedbyflexible,mobile,lightgrazingherds,

bothwildanddomestic,andpastoralistcommunitiesarebestmotivatedtorehabilitate

degradedlandswhentheyhavesecurelandtenureandarenotdisplaced.

TheChinesegovernmentshouldimposeamoratoriumonthesettlementofTibetan

pastoralnomadsdisplacedbydevelopmentorconservation,pendinganindependent

assessment,includingalegalreview,ofpoliciesthatrequireorproducedisplacementand

resettlement,theconfiscationofpropertyandtheimposedslaughteroflivestock.China

needsTibetannomads’traditionalecosystemsknowledgeofthegrasslands.

ICTurgessupportforrecommendationsfromtheU.N.SpecialRapporteurfortheRightto

Food,encouragingtheChineseauthoritiestoengageinmeaningfulconsultationswith

herdingcommunities,includinginordertoassesstheresultsofpastandcurrentpolicies,

andexamineallavailableoptions,includingrecentstrategiesofsustainablemanagement

ofmarginalpasturessuchastheNewRangelandManagement(NRM)inordertocombine

theknowledgeofthenomadicherdersoftheirterritorieswiththeinformationthatcanbe

drawnfrommodernscience.127

TheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,SocialandCulturalRightsprohibitsdeprivingany

peoplefromitsmeansofsubsistence,andthe1992ConventiononBiodiversityacknowledges

theimportanceofindigenouscommunitiesasguarantorsandprotectorsofbiodiversity(Art.8

j).Chinahasratifiedbothoftheseinstruments.

Theintensificationofhydro-damconstructiononallmajorTibetanrivers–inareasof

highseismicrisk-hasbeenemphasisedinChina’s13thFiveYearPlan.Giventheevidence

presentedinthisreportandbynumerousexpertsinChinaandinternationallyonthe

dangersofsuchlarge-scaledamminginsuchafragileandsignificanthigh-altitudeplateau,

thispolicyrequiresurgentreconsiderationbyinternationalexpertsandtheChinese

leadership.Thereshouldbeamoratoriumonbuildingoflargedamsontheplateau.The

Chineseauthoritiesmustconductathoroughenvironmentalimpactassessmentbefore

implementingsuchpotentiallyirreversiblyharmfulprojects.

Theprospectofamegaprojectthatinterruptstheenvironmentalflowoftheupper

Yangtze,impoundsanddivertsbillionsofcubicmetersofwatertothenorththrough

Ngaba(Chinese:Aba)prefectureinTibetrequiresurgentreconsiderationandindependent

internationalexpertiseinordertoevaluatewhetheritissuitableforsuchaprojectto

proceed,givenitsimplicationsforthefragilehigh-altitudeecosystem,provisionofwater

downstream,andregionalsecurityconcerns.

126Reducingemissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradation(REDD)isamechanismthathasbeenundernegotiationby

theUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononClimateChange(UNFCCC)since2005,withtheobjectiveofmitigating climate

changethroughreducingnetemissionsofgreenhousegasesthroughenhancedforestmanagementindevelopingcountries.Asa

mechanismunderthemulti-lateralclimatechangeagreement,REDD+isessentiallyavehicletofinanciallyrewarddevelopingcountries

fortheirverifiedeffortstoreduceemissionsandenhanceremovalsofgreenhousegasesthroughavarietyofforestmanagementoptions.

127RecommendationsputforwardbytheSpecialRapporteurontheRighttoFoodOlivierSchutterin2010followinghisvisittoTibet.

Beijing,December23,2010,http://www.srfood.org/images/stories/pdf/press_releases/20101223_china-mission-press-release_en.pdf

ThecurrentSpecialRapporteurontheRighttoFoodisHilalElver.


Governmentsandcivilsocietystakeholdersshouldthroughpublicstatements,bilateral

channelsandinternationalinstitutionsexpressconcernsovertheunsustainable

developmentofTibet’swaterresourcesandthegovernanceofriversarisingfromTibet,

onthebasisoftheplateauandbeyondbeingconsideredasavitalwater-shedarea.128

ThisrequirestreatingtheTibetanwatershedasasupranationalunitessentialtoeffective

conservation,multilateralcoordinationandcooperation,andeffectivewaterdemand

managementandclimatechangemitigation.Multilateral,multinationalinstitutionsneed

tobeinvolvedinordertonotonlysetstandardsbuttoholdriverinepartiesaccountablefor

impactsupstreamanddownstream.

Encouragingtrans-boundarycollaborativedecision-makingandgovernanceoftheTibetan

plateau’swaterresources,includingallregionalandlocalstakeholders,willenhancethe

effectivenessofmitigationpoliciesandpromoteequitableadaptationstrategiesthatcan

reducetheriskofconflictovercompetitionforwaterresources.

Wetlanddesiccation,bothanthropogenicandinducedbyclimatechange,nowthreatens

biodiversity,agriculturalproductivityandrurallivelihoodsacrosstheTibetanplateau.The

Chineseauthoritiesmustbeurgedtoremediatewatermeadowhabitatsasatoppriorityto

preventmethaneemissionsandbiodiversityconservationoutcomesandtoenhancerural

livelihood.

Internationalorganizations,governmentsandcivilsocietystakeholdersshouldencourage

theChinesegovernmenttoupholdtheprincipleoffree,priorandinformedconsent(FPIC)in

relationtoalldecisionsoverdevelopmentofTibet’sresources,includingallminingprojects

ontheTibetanplateau.Bothpubliclyandprivately,expressconcernsovertheimpactof

miningontheenvironmentandcommunitiesontheTibetanplateau,andtheramifications

fortheregion.Urgetheadoptionoffargreaterenvironmentalandsocialstandardsfor

mininginTibet.

OECDduediligenceguidelinesonconflictmineralsinthecommoditychainaregaining

worldwideuse.129GivenTibetandistressandwidespreadprotestsagainstmininginTibet,

mineralsextractedfromTibetmeetthischaracterizationandanycompanypotentially

sourcingmineralsormetalsfromTibetshouldbeheldtoaccountforextractingconflict

minerals.

Thereshouldbeurgentre-evaluationofthedramaticincreaseinwithdrawingwaterfrom

protectedareaswhereglaciersarealreadyshrinkingforanexpandingbottledwater

industry.Carbonemissionsoftheextratechnologiesandtransportationneededtobring

theproductfromsourcetomarketshouldalsonotbeignored,inparticularlygiventhe

emphasisfromtheTibetAutonomousRegiongovernmentinpromotingtheexportof

bottledwater.

128Ithasbeencharacterizedasthe‘GreaterAsianWater-Shed’–seeEarthEconomics,http://eartheconomics.org/Page76.aspx.A

watershedis“thatareaofland,aboundedhydrologicsystem,withinwhichalllivingthingsareinextricablylinkedbytheircommon

watercourseandwhere,ashumanssettled,simplelogicdemandedthattheybecomepartofacommunity.”(JohnWesleyPowell,

scientistgeographer,citedbytheUnitedStatesEnvironmentProtectionAgency:http://water.epa.gov/type/watersheds/whatis.cfm).

129OECDDueDiligenceGuidanceforResponsibleSupplyChainsofMineralsfromConflict-AffectedandHigh-RiskAreas,

http://www.oecd.org/corporate/mne/mining.htm


Internationalorganizations,governmentsandcivilsocietystakeholdersshouldurge

independent,internationalscientificassessmentsofthechangesintheTibetanplateau’s

ecosystems,waterresourcesandlandusepolicies,anddatasharing.Theparticipation

ofscientistsandrelevantstakeholdersfromTibetandfromthosenationsthatdepend

onTibet’swaterisnecessaryforrigorousexamination,analysisandinterpretationof

conditionsontheplateau.Thiswillfacilitateanequitableanddurableapproachtoadapting

toandmitigatingtheaffectsofclimatechangeintheregion,includingscience-based

ecosystemrestorationandmanagementoftheplateau’sgrasslandsandforests.

Internationalgovernmentsandglobalinstitutionsprevailedupontofundschemeswithin

thePRCshouldpayattentiontolanguageusedandinvestigatewhetherprojectsproposed

toenhanceconservationorpovertyalleviationdonotinvolvenomadsettlement,building

oflargedams,fencingofgrasslands,orsimilar.

Themajordonorgovernments,includingtheEuropeanUnion,shouldmaintainand,where

possible,expandtargetedprogrammaticassistanceforTibetans,including:supportfor

sustainable,culturallyappropriatedevelopmentassistancetoTibetancommunities;

educationalandculturalexchangeanddevelopmentprogramstargetedtoTibetans,both

inTibetandinexile.Donorsshouldestablishlegallybindingprojectprinciplestogovern

officialdevelopmentassistancecarriedoutinTibetanareas.Concernedcountriesshould

specificallytasktheirembassiesandconsulatestoexpandtheiroutreachtoTibetan

communitiesandmonitoringofthesituationinTibet,includingbymaintainingaspecific

actionofficeronTibetintheembassy.

HumanrightslawimposesproceduralobligationsonStatesinrelationtoenvironmental

protection,includingduties:toassessenvironmentalimpactsandmakeenvironmental

informationpublic;tofacilitatepublicparticipationinenvironmentaldecision-making,

includingbyprotectingtherightsofexpressionandassociation;andtoprovideaccessto

remediesforharmStatesshouldprovideaccesstoenvironmentalinformation.Chinamust

urgentlybringitspoliciesinconformitywiththeseinternationalstandards,particularly

withregardtoitslandusepolicyinTibet.

Stateshaveanobligationtoprovideforaneffectiveremedyforviolationsofprotected

rights,andhumanrightsbodieshaveappliedthatprincipletohumanrightswhose

enjoymentisinfringedbyenvironmentalharm.Chinamustcompensatethosewhohave

sufferedfromenvironmentalharm,inparticularthosewhohavelosttheirlivelihoodsor

whohavebeenexposedtotoxicsubstancesorwaste.

Stateshaveobligationsnotonlytorefrainfromviolatingtherightsoffreeexpression

andassociationdirectly,butalsotoprotectthelife,libertyandsecurityofindividuals

exercisingthoserights,includingwhentheyareexercisingtheirrightsinconnectionwith

environmentalconcerns.130Chinamustrespecttherightsofprotesters,inparticularrefrain

fromusingdisproportionateforce.

130ReportoftheIndependentExpertontheissueofhumanrightsobligationsrelatingtotheenjoymentofasafe,clean,healthyand

sustainableenvironment,JohnH.Knox,‘Mappingreport‘,30December2013,A/HRC/25/53;alsonoteReportoftheIndependent

Expertontheissueofhumanrightsobligationsrelatingtotheenjoymentofasafe,clean,healthyandsustainableenvironment,John

H.Knox,‘Compilationofgoodpractices’,A/HRC/28/61February2015.

ICT United States1825JeffersonPlace,NW

Washington,DC20036

UnitedStatesofAmerica

Phone:+(1)202-785-1515

Fax:(202)785-434

[email protected]

www.savetibet.org

ICT EuropeVijzelstraat77

1017HGAmsterdam

TheNetherlands

Phone:+31(0)203308265

Fax:+31(0)203308266

[email protected]

www.savetibet.nl

ICT GermanySchönhauserAllee163

10435Berlin

Germany

Phone:+49(0)3027879086

Fax:+49(0)3027879087

[email protected]

www.savetibet.de

ICT Belgium11,ruedelalinière

1060Brussels

Belgium

Phone:+32(0)26094410

Fax:+32(0)26094432

[email protected]

www.savetibet.fr

Tibetfromspace,showingthemountainrangesandvasticefields.ImagecourtesyofNASA.DanielMiller,an

expertonTibet’snomads,haspublishedaseriesofimagesofTibetfromspaceinhisbook‘TibetfromSpace:

AstronautPhotosoftheTibetanPlateauandHimalaya’.

Tibet's water and global climate change

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