THESIS PROPOSAL Institutionalization and …...1 THESIS PROPOSAL Institutionalization and...
Transcript of THESIS PROPOSAL Institutionalization and …...1 THESIS PROPOSAL Institutionalization and...
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THESIS PROPOSAL
Institutionalization and professionalization Perspectives and Tensions emerging from workplace, professional bodies, and educational curriculum
affecting PR as a Corporate Communication function in Nigeria
PhD student: Oludotun Kayode Fashakin
Department of Business Communication
Aarhus University
Primary Supervisor: Professor Finn Frandsen
Co-Supervisor: Associate Professor Constance Kampf
JANUARY 2016
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Contents 1. Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Research Purpose .......................................................................................................................... 8
1.2 Research questions ........................................................................................................................ 8
1.3 Research objectives based on Research questions ........................................................................ 9
3. Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................................... 10
3.1 Approaches to PR ....................................................................................................................... 10
3.1.1 Functionalist Approach ........................................................................................................ 11
3.1.2 Relational Approach ............................................................................................................ 11
3.1.3 PR as Corporate Communication ......................................................................................... 15
3.2 PR Professionalization ................................................................................................................ 17
3.3 Neo-Institutionalization .............................................................................................................. 20
3.3.1 Institutionalization Process .................................................................................................. 21
4. Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 24
4.1 Philosophy of Science ................................................................................................................. 25
4.2 Research Design .......................................................................................................................... 27
4.2.1 Case Study ........................................................................................................................... 27
4.2.2 Research Method.................................................................................................................. 28
4.2.3 Analysis strategy .................................................................................................................. 30
4.2.4 Inductive-explorative research ............................................................................................. 32
4.3 Delimitation ................................................................................................................................ 33
5. The pilot study .................................................................................................................................. 33
5.1 Prelimenary findings ................................................................................................................... 34
6. Concluding Remarks ......................................................................................................................... 35
7. References ......................................................................................................................................... 36
8. Appendices ........................................................................................................................................ 43
Appendix 1: Pilot Study components ................................................................................................ 43
Appendix 1.1: Interviewee Profiles .............................................................................................. 43
Appendix 1.2 Pilot Study findings within Activity systems ......................................................... 44
Appendix 2: PhD Plan: Activities overview and next steps ............................................................. 46
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1. Introduction
Tensions emerging from workplace, professional bodies and PR educational curriculum
Nigeria’s Public Relations (PR) environment is affected by four interrelated concerns emerging from
1) organizations perceived practitioner incompetence, 2) predominant one way communication PR
practices, 3) inter-profession jurisdictional battles and 4) inconsistent PR education scope and
curricula. These concerns influence PR practices of Nigerian organizations, Nigerian Institute of
Public Relations – NIPR and PR educators in Nigeria respectively, which can be understood as actors.
These actors interconnect because their actions affect one another and the environment they share.
Their contradicting practices lead to tensions. Engestrom (2000) maintains that contradictions in the
activities of interdependent actors within an activity system or environment lead to tensions between
them, which in this case are deterrent to PR effectiveness and the actors’ respective image in Nigeria.
PR should be recognized as a respectable profession in Nigeria because it had established a
professional body (NIPR) since 1963, attained a chartered status1 as far back as 1990 (NIPR), and
gained international recognition and membership to the Global Alliance for Public Relations Institutes
(Global Alliance, 2015). In addition, PR practices are argued to date back to precolonial Nigeria in
which traditional rulers used public information strategies to communicate to their subjects and
evaluated their strategies with citizens’ compliance (e.g. Amujo & Melewar, 2011; Otubanjo &
Amujo, 2013, Akpabio 2009). PR education has also been available in Nigeria at diploma, BA, MA
and PhD levels across educational institutions for over a decade. These should be sufficient for PR to
be regarded as a legitimate profession that can contribute to organizations PR and corporate
communication strategies from a c-suite position. However, PR still finds it hard to command the
respect of organizations and fellow professions and as such continues to struggle for a voice in
Nigeria.
1) Perceived practitioner incompetence
Perceived practitioner incompetence involves assumptions about the skill quality of PR professionals.
These assumptions are characterized by questioning the PR practitioners’ knowledge and expertise.
For example, Dr. T. Otubanjo, a corporate communication researcher from Lagos Business School
(LBS), argues that Nigerian organizations in specialized industries such as oil and gas or banking and
finance are unsatisfied with PR professionals that are perceived to either lack the requisite
competences to strategically contribute to their organizations or find it hard to understand or evaluate
1 The chartered status signifies the highest level of professionalism that signifies professional competence and professional status for professions. The chartered status is globally recognized and attained through rigorous assessment by professional bodies that eventually award the status to distinguished individuals that have gone through the accreditation process. NIPR attained the chartered status in 1990 under Decree No. 16 (now an Act of the Federal Republic of Nigeria)
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practitioners’ contributions and value to their organization (personal communication, May 25, 2015).
Industry experts in online reports also argue that there exists a general perception that almost anyone
could claim to be a PR practitioner in Nigeria (Badmus, 2013; Akingbolu, 2010; T. Otubanjo,
personal communication, May 25, 2015) due to the perceived low entry barriers to the profession.
NIPR membership and certification test in combination with any education required by the
professional body as license to practice may also not be enough to ensure highly competent
professionals. Other well respected professions such as those within accounting, medicine, law etc.
requires specific education, certification, specialization as well as strict code of conduct and law
enforcement. More so, Amujo and Melewar (2011) criticized NIPR’s test/certification for not being
rigorous enough to prepare practitioners for organizations demands.
Concerns related to perceived practitioner incompetence affects practitioners’ roles and functions. For
instance, PR practitioners have often had to receive tasks and direction, and report to
persons/superiors with little to no PR knowledge or experience (T. Otubanjo, personal
communication, May 25, 2015). Practitioners’ voice has also been restricted as they are denied
membership to dominant coalition while having to continually prove themselves to organizations,
which implies a lack of professional recognition (Akingbolu, 2010). Organizations simply dictates
what is to be done (Badmus, 2013; T. Otubanjo, personal communication, May 25, 2015: D. Idagu,
personal communication, May 19, 2015) while the practitioners simply perform communication or
other assigned tasks. This contrasts the strategic boundary spanning functions and strategic
contributions that PR practitioners could offer organizations from dominant coalition positions (e.g.
Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2002; Grunig & Pepper, 1992; Cutlip, Center, & Broom, 1994) such as
expert prescriber, communication facilitator and problem-solving process facilitators respectively
(Broom & Smith,1979; Dozier, 1984).
2) Predominant One way communication PR practices
Predominant one way communication PR practices relates to Nigerian organizations PR
communication direction, considerations for audiences and practitioner tasks. These PR practices are
characterized by a high preference for press agentry and public information (Grunig & Hunt 1984),
whereby information only flows from organizations to the audience and not vice versa. For instance,
D. Idagu, a PR consultant and NIPR certification tutor, argue that Nigerian organizations appear to
limit their PR practices to media relations activities such as public awareness, press releases,
appearance on tv and daily newspapers. He also argues that persons with a lot of contacts in the media
are highly sorted after for PR positions by organizations (personal communication, May 19, 2015).
For him, these result from their limited PR understanding and a lack of cognizance for practitioner’s
input and audiences’ preferences or feedbacks.
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In their 2011 study of the contemporary issues of PR in Nigeria, Amujo and Melewar found that
earlier practitioners had journalistic backgrounds and thus generally adopted press agentry and media
relations approaches, which Idagu equally confirmed. These practices appear to have become taken-
for-granted and thereby make up institutionalized PR practices2 in Nigeria. Dr. T. Otubanjo equally
maintains that many organizations’ practices are mere propaganda, CEO image laundering, while also
categorizing giving bribes (brown envelops) and running errands as PR functions. These have earned
Nigerian PR professionals the “errand boy” nickname (PRNigeriaonline, 2009; D. Idagu, personal
communication, May 19, 2015; Ajilore, personal communication, May11 .2015). However, one way
approaches is not synonymous to unethical practices. Nevertheless, propaganda has been widely
criticized for its deceitful tendencies, while associating PR with bribery dents its credibility in
Nigeria.
However, organizations within Nigeria’s crude oil extraction industry are compelled to adopt two-way
PR practices. In a United Nations social development study, Idemudia (2007) noted that a lot of two-
way based CSR initiatives are undertaken by oil companies, which includes community development
programs and poverty reduction initiatives. Nevertheless, organizations’ top-down implementation
approach remains unsuccessful. He argued that a bottom-up approach where audiences’ feedbacks and
participation in the implementing such initiatives would have more positive impact as organizations
survival is largely dependent on the cooperation from the local communities. Organizations in the oil
industry cannot afford to ignore their audiences in their PR practices because they have to extract
crude oil from local communities where they also have installations. In these instances, organizations
risk operation interruptions or installations destruction by unhappy community members that may
have suffered from oil spill, or not have benefited from organizations CSR initiatives.
Concerns about the predominant one-way practices indicate a disconnect between institutionalized PR
practices of Nigerian organizations and the scope of PR that includes both one and two way practices.
Such practices contrasts NIPR’s ideals and code of professional conduct, while also presenting a
fraction of what PR educators are teaching to future practitioners. This could render the PR education
unpopular. Furthermore, one way practices continue to misrepresent NIPR and uphold a general
misconception of PR, which negatively affects the image and credibility of PR, PR professionals and
PR education respectively.
3) Inter-jurisdictional battles
Inter-jurisdictional battles involve PR’s inability to hold a monopoly over particular functions within
the organizational setting and thus have to compete with other professions. Jurisdictional claims as
laid out by the power approach (Freidson, 1986; MacDonald, 1995; Freidson, 1970a; Abbott, 1988;
2 Institutionalized practices in this sense represent dominant and/or taken-for-granted practices that organizations adopt,
which in no way connote negative, ineffective or unethical practices unless when explicitly stated.
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Parkin, 1979 etc.) and the professional project (Larson, 1977) within the sociology of professions
includes use of their expertise and occupational dominance by professions to retain control over
specific functions and autonomy to self-regulate, gain financial rewards and determine who qualifies
to practice a profession. These help a profession to maintain a monopoly over particular functions,
which make up their jurisdiction.
PR in Nigeria exists in a highly contested space. This makes it hard for PR to lay or establish any
ethical or solid claim over functions/jurisdictions that appears to overlap that of corporate
communications, marketing/advertising and journalism respectively. These claims are peculiar to the
Nigerian context because the competing communication professions are rigorously certified and have
a history of being regarded as professions and thus much more respected by organizations than PR
professionals (Otubanjo, personal communication, May 25, 2015; Ajilore personal communication,
May11 .2015). More so, organizations may not also be interested in overlapping functions across
various units that are inefficient and counter productive as it encourages sub-optimization (Gronstedt,
1996).
Concerns about jurisdictional claim is compounded by a Zerfass et al., (2011) finding in the European
Communication Monitor (ECM) annual survey in which PR professionals would most prefer what
they do to be regarded as corporate communication because the PR title is perceived to carry negative
connotations for their profession. Despite being a European study, this might have caught on in
Nigeria as most private organzations in Nigeria appears to prefer titles such corporate affairs,
corporate communication, public affairs, CSR etc. for departments or persons carrying out PR
functions. More so, The Lagos Business school only has PR as a subset/subject area under corporate
communication, which has implications for NIPR as they appear to be gradually relegated to being
subsets of other professions and respective subject areas.
4) Inconsistent PR education scope and curricula
Inconsistent PR education scope and curricula involves concerns about the various modes of acquiring
PR education, noticeable PR curricula content differences, and varied amount of PR related subject
areas covered by available PR educations. PR education can be acquired through NIPR’s professional
diploma, that is equivalent to a Bachelor degree, or from other Nigerian educational institutions.
However, curricular contents vary across thses institutions. For instance, Covenant university and
Babcock University’s curriculum includes PR with financial publics (“Financial PR” and “PR &
Financial Publics”), which is not included in that of NIPR. This implies varied amount of skills
acquired from different institutions. Furthermore, PR bachelor degree education is also available as as
a subject or major under corporate communications (e.g Lagos Business School) and mass
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communication (e.g. University of Lagos, Convenant University, Babcock University, Nigerian
Institute of Journalism), which implies varied scope, focus and curriculum respectively.
Concerns about inconsistent educations’ scope and curricula resulting from PR being taught from
either a corporate communications or a journalistic perspective places PR as a subset of these fields.
This in turn influences the orientations and competences of practitioners from such schools. Amujo
and Melewar (2011) found that a lot of PR practitioners with journalistic background often prefers to
approach PR with the press agentry and public inoformation models. Idealy, NIPR members/PR
practitioners in general should have specific and similar knowledge and competences, however,
varying orientations, scopes and quantity of acquired knowledge suggests otherwise. This appears to
reflect in the perceived practitioner incompetence in specialized industries, because despite having a
PR degree or professional status, it is uncertain if the obtained PR qualification is robust enough to
prepare practitioners for particualar organizational tasks and/or c-suite position.
Amujo and Melewar highlighted and made recommendations for attending to some of these concerns
in their 2011 study on contenporary challenges of PR in Nigeria. However, the concerns persists and
continues to question organizations PR assumptions and practices, as well as PR professionalization
and PR education respectively within the Nigerian context. More so, the underlying factors
responsible for the interrelated contextual concerns as well as the contributions of the respective
actors are not entirely understood. Furthermore, the contextual components that make up the specific
applications aspects of the normative global PR theory (e.g. Sriramesh & Vercic, 2009; Grunig,
Grunig, & Dozier, 2002) appears to be too broad to attend to the specific concerns that this study
seeks to explore. More so, The assumption that PR would be effective in most parts of the world by
simply adopting the generic principles and adapting practices to contextual variables (e.g. local
culture, political system, activism, economy and the media) offers a top–down approach starting from
these broad categories. This would require a long and complex trail for understanding specific PR
concerns, especially in Nigeria.
In contrast, this study applies a bottom-up approach that involves a rigorous analysis of the
perspectives and practices of each of the identified actors using Engestrom’s (2000) Activity theory
(AT) framework. This functions as a means to understand the respective actors’ perceptions,
assumptions and actions as well as the contradictions and subsequent tensions they create within the
environment they share. Each actor is seen as first belonging to individual and interconnected activity
systems, and secondly existing within a larger activity system/environment with systemic
interdependences. Consequently, these systems interact and depend upon one another, either directly
or indirectly, and are affected by the activities of one another. PR practice in Nigeria is argued to be
influenced by the organizations PR practices (PR approaches), NIPR’s values (PR professionalism
and competences) and PR educators’ curricula (knowledge and competences) respectively.
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Activity theory (AT) works with a systemic view that focus on the context, situation and everyday
practices (Naardi, 1996) relating to the phenomenon under study. AT comprises a network of
relationships existing between various activity systems that are within a larger system where
contradictions exists, and are manifested as disturbances or tensions (Engestrom, 2000, 2006). AT has
been successfully used to study work design in organizations, human-computer interactions, conflict
monitoring, communities’ practices etc. but appear to have been ignored within PR related studies.
Nevertheless, AT’s components are relevant and applicable to this study, especially as this study
focuses on tensions arising from practices that are based on differing perspectives of interdependent
actors/systems within a larger Nigerian PR system. Hence, this study attempts to explore and
explicate existing contradictions because they have implications for each actor and contextual PR
understanding in Nigeria. Such findings could initiate discussions and subsequent actions that would
contribute to contextual PR knowledge, scholarship and effective practices in the Nigerian context.
1.1 Research Purpose The purpose of this study is to explicate the nature of PR and the existing contradictions and tensions
within Nigeria’s PR environment for understanding the often experienced but uninvestigated aspects
of PR. Findings are expected to initiate discussions and knotworking3 activities between affected
actors that could enhance more informed and effective contextual PR understanding and practices.
1.2 Research questions The following is the overarching research question of this study which is followed by 4 sub questions:
How and why do the perspectives of Nigerian organizations, NIPR and PR educators influence
PR practices in Nigeria, and how does that cause and contribute to the tensions within Nigeria’s
PR environment?
1. What is the corporate perception of PR by c-suite members of Nigerian organizations, and why
have they adopted their current PR practices?
2. What perceptions does NIPR hold for PR Professionalism and practitioner role in Nigerian
organizations and why is PR professional certification structured in its current form?
3. What do Nigerian PR educators understand as essential PR knowledge and skills, and how do
they interpret and reflect that in the PR education they offer?
3 Knotworking refers to collaborative work between systems towards developing mutually beneficial outcomes that are
based on symmetrical interactions and exchanges between parties involved (Engestrom, 2000, 2006).
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4. How and why do the tensions within Nigeria’s PR environment question assumptions of
contextual PR understanding?
Figure 1: Nigeria’s Public Relations Environment
Figure 1 has been inspired by Engestrom’s Activity theory framework. The figure depicts the current state of Nigeria’s PR environment as understood by this study.
The direction of the arrows shows the actors that are affected by the actions of the other actor and thus the direction of tensions. The triangles and circles
represent each of actor and their goals/ desired outcomes respectively. The overlapping parts of the circles indicate areas of agreement or consistencies between the affected actors’ outcomes while the rest of the circles cover areas of contradictions resulting from their respective practices. Despite the fact that these are different types of actors with respective varying outcomes, the interdependent nature of their relationship and impact of their actions on one another suggests that there must be significant amount of consistencies between their outcomes,
unlike the minor overlaps depicted in the figure. Hence, the larger areas of inconsistences and contradictions depicted in figure 1 indicate more tensions
than collaboration between the actors.
1.3 Research objectives based on Research questions Objective one: To determine Nigerian organizations’ understanding of PR and their practices.
Objective one would be achieved through interviews with c-suite members from at least two different
organizational sectors to see if perceptions vary and has impacts on predominant PR practices in such
sectors. C-suite members’ perspectives are important because they determine organizations’ overall
strategy, assigns roles, approves what and how things are done in the workplace; hence, they have rich
insight about organizations underlying rationale for their practices. Inquiries here concentrate on 1)
their perceptions of PR, 2) how that impacts on their PR approaches, PR practitioner assigned role(s)
and tasks respectively.
Objective 2: To understand the NIPR’s perspectives and/or rationale behind PR
professionalism and certification requirements in Nigeria. NIPR as a professional body is
responsible for certification of PR professionals in Nigeria for which they develop PR education,
training courses and tests. Certification indicates membership and PR professionalism, which is also
the legal requirement for PR practice in Nigeria. Interviews would be conducted with NIPR’s
leadership and the Standing Committee members responsible for NIPR Membership, Professional
Practices as well as Training and Development respectively. Inquiries into their perceptions and
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practices offer rich insights for understanding PR professionalization as well as the scope of NIPR
certification.
Objective 3: To understand Nigeria’s PR educators’ perspectives about the essential PR
knowledge and skills for practitioners to be effective in the workplace and get to the top of their
career. PR educators are responsible for the skill acquisition of future PR practitioners for which
they develop PR education with curricula for students to learn and be prepared to competently
perform in the workplace. Hence, interviews would be conducted with PR academics that are
responsible for designing PR educations in Nigerian Universities (such as Babcock University, Lagos
Business School, Covenant University) and the Nigerian Institute of journalism. Areas of inquiry here
include their perceptions about the 1) academic requirement for competent PR professionals 2) PR as
a field of study or function under mass communication or corporate communication with respective
curriculum scope.
Objective 4: To map and discuss the PR perceptions and practices of the three actors as well as
existing tensions between them using the activity theory framework. This is required to explore
and explicate how and why the activities of the respective actors contribute to the existing tensions
within Nigeria’s PR environment. This involves placing the themes derived from the individual
actors’ responses into their activity systems and discussing the implications for each of them and the
PR environment which they share.
3. Theoretical Framework In a bid to understand and explain Nigeria’s PR practices and implications for the concerned actors
this section discusses theories with the three core areas of this study, which also guide the data
collection for this study. Since this study is situated within PR, theoretical approaches within the field
are looked into as they provide a theoretical background for understanding Nigerian organizations’ PR
assumptions, goals and consequent approaches respectively. This would be followed by an
examination of the sociology of professions as a way to understand the strengths and weaknesses of
the three approaches to professions in order to identify adopted approaches towards PR
professionalism and discuss their implications for PR professionals and organizations in Nigeria. The
last part looks into the (neo) institutionalization theories for gaining a general understanding of the
dominant PR practices as well as how and why they have been institutionalized in Nigeria.
3.1 Approaches to PR Discussions and research on PR have focused a lot on Grunig and Hunt’s (1984) four models that help
in understanding the diversity in functions, practices and communication directions of PR approaches
that could be summed up as mostly functional and to some extent relational PR approaches. In general
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PR scholars have largely taken sides with the majority of the earlier scholars appearing more on the
functionalist side and the more recent ones on the relational side.
3.1.1 Functionalist Approach
Botan and Taylor (2004) noted that the functionalist approach dominated the earliest PR practices that
viewed publics and communication as tools for achieving specific organizational ends. With roots in
the works of Ivy Lee and E. Bernays, the perspective is characterized by one way communications
and media relations PR practices such as press agentry, public information/awareness, propaganda etc.
for achieving desired publicity for organizations (Grunig & Hunt, 1984). This involves strategically
supplying organizational messages to their environment through information subsidies and
relationships with the media. These are argued to means for promoting favourable organizational
image that enhances organizations’ business performance, which advances organizational goals. The
functionalists are more concerned about the internal workings of the organization while ignoring
relationships with their environment and as such remain unadaptable to changes within the
environment (Morgan, 1986, 1997; Grunig & Hunt, 1984; Bell & Bell, 1976; Grunig & Grunig,
1989). The approach has also been heavily criticized for its inherent manipulative and unethical
tendencies (James 2009).
3.1.2 Relational Approach
With roots in the works of Ferguson (1984), the relational PR approach emphasizes the importance of
developing and nurturing mutually beneficial relationships through dialogues with the publics that
organizations depend upon (Kent & Taylor, 2002; Botan & Taylor, 2004; Botan, 1997). The dialogue
and resultant relationship are characterized by management of communication, mutual trust,
commitment, satisfaction, understanding (Grunig & Huang 2000; Hon & Grunig, 1999) reciprocity
and mutual benefits (Cutlip, Center, & Broom, 1994). The open systems part of the systemic view and
the excellence theory were the earlier contributors into the relational approach, which have met a lot
of criticism and have since been further developed by notable PR scholars.
The systemic view
The systemic PR view has roots in the works of von Bertalanffy’s (1969), Myers and Myers (1982)
and Katz and Kahn (1978) that concentrates on how organizations interacts with their internal and
external environments. The open system view is characterized by interrelationships and
interdependences amongst actors within the system, as well as continuous monitoring that ensure
organizations’ awareness of the required adjustments to their environment (Katz & Khan, 1978). This
is then utilized by organizations to maintain a balance with their environment (Gregory, 2000). This
systemic view comprises both closed (functionalist) and open (relational) systems respectively, which
proposes a range of PR strategies with varying outcomes and contributions to organizations survival.
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Within the open system are the organismic and adaptive systems. The former monitors its
environment and use audiences’ feedback to craft effective messages for persuading their audience(s)
to change their behaviour to the one desired by organizations (Gregory A. , 2000; see also two-way
asymmetric model Grunig & Hunt, 1984; Professional PR, Grunig & Grunig 1989).The latter is
characterized by organizations’ ongoing interactions, collection and utilization of audiences
feedbacks, learning from the environment, adapting to environmental demands (Buckley, 1967) and
continuous proactive activities for maintaining the relationships (Cutlip, Center & Broom, 1994)
Furthermore, White and Dozier (1992) noted the boundary spanning role of PR practitioners for
interacting with their environment and relaying back findings to management and counseling them on
the required adjustments. These are argued to be the means through which organizations can strike a
balance with their environment and survive.
The systemic view was extended through the International Association of Business Communicators
(IABC) funded study from which the excellence theory was developed (Grunig, 1992; Dozier,
Grunig, & Grunig, 1995; Grunig, Grunig, & Dozier, 2002). Based on its findings, the theory
acknowledges the competing values of organizations and publics and proposes the two way
symmetrical communications as ideal for effective PR practice. Such practice is characterized by
quality relationships between organizations and strategic stakeholders/publics towards attaining
mutual goals that reduces negative publicity costs and increases revenue by providing products and
services needed by stakeholders.
The theory proposes generic principles that are argued to be applicable to different contexts which
includes 1) PR practitioner membership to dominant coalition and/or administrative role with decision
making powers, 2) PR as a critical management function that is not subordinate to other functions, 3)
cooperation between PR and other functions, 4) adoption of symmetrical system for internal and
external communication, 5) inclusion of diversity of race, gender, ethnicity etc. for PR positions, and
6) ethics in PR practice (Grunig, Grunig, & Vercic, 1998). These have been extended to the global
PR theory that incorporates the generic principles with specific applications that gives consideration
to contextual variables (cultures, political systems, level of economic development, activism and the
media) that must be attended to differently in various contexts (Sriramesh & Vercic, 2009; Grunig,
Grunig, & Dozier, 2002) .
The excellence theory’s sole preference for two-way symmetrical communication and its relational
component have met immense criticism, especially from critical PR scholars. Critical PR scholars that
include postmodernist and feminist scholars focus on faulty arguments, biases, injustices and
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unconscious assumptions about organizations and PR practices. They question practices that are
argued to uphold the sole interest of the powerful in the society (Dozier & Lauzen, 2000).
Postmodernist Holtzhausen (2000) argues that the symmetrical model is another tool for organizations
to indirectly dominate and exert power over their environment for their own benefit. More so, McKie
and Munshi (2007) maintain that the quality exchanges promise of the symmetrical communication
are misleading as power imbalances characterize organizations interactions with the publics while
L’Etang (2005) called for more studies into how PR serves some classes more than others. Leichty
and Springston (1993) focused on the collaboration component of symmetrical communication. They
argued that collaboration is not always possible, especially when stakeholders are highly
confrontational, unreasonable, unwilling to negotiate, repugnant or with conflicting stance (see also
Cancel, Mitrooka & Cameron, 1999). In adition, Pieczka (1996) rejected the normative and
prescriptive stance of the symmetrical model which potrays a narrow view that conflicts can always
be resolved through negotiations. Pieczka (1995), Cheney and Christensen (2001) equally agreed that
the model is somewhat idealistic and eschews modernist principles (Pieczka, 1996; Holtzhausen,
2005) as well as harmony in society that are argued to be hardly realistic (Pieczka (1996).
As an alternative to the excellence theory, a range of contingency theory oriented models proposing
continuums that combined the two-way symmetrical and asymmetrical models were developed.
Murphy’s (1991) mixed motives model proposed a continuum with options ranging from pure conflict
to pure cooperation, which she argues describe the behaviour of PR practitioners. Dozier, Grunig and
Grunig (1995) later introduced the “new model of symmetry as two way practice” with asymmetries
that favour organizations on one extreme, while the other extreme favour publics. The middle part
contains a symmetrical space (win-win zone) for both parties to negotiate and persuade one another.
In addition, Cancel, Cameron, Sallot, and Mitrook (1997) built on Murphy’s ideas to develop the
contingency theory of accommodation that proposed a continuum involving pure advocacy and pure
accommodation, while strategic choices are argued to depend on the current needs of both
organizations and their publics.
Further developments within the relational approach includes the Organizational Public Relations
(OPR), Rhetorical PR theory and co-creational PR all aiming to clarify the linkages between PR
objectives, efforts and relational approaches and outcomes respectively, in attempts towards
demonstrating PR’s value to organizations and society.
Organization Public Relations (OPR)
The purpose, direction, planning, execution and evaluation of PR within organizational contexts make
up OPR’s focus, which attracted contributions from PR scholars, especially since the late 1990s.
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Ledingham, Bruning, Thomlison & Lesko, 1997) maintain that OPR is something existing between
organizations and their publics through actions that impact their economic, cultural, political and
social outcomes. Concepts such as openness, trust, involvement, investment and commitment are
argued to be dimensions of OPR that influence the publics’ perception of satisfaction with the
organization (Ledingham & Bruning, 1998 in Ledingham & Bruning, 2000).
Ledingham and Bruning (1998, 2000) posit that OPR helps organizations to go beyond building
relationships to nurturing and maintaining them. Broom, Casey, and Ritchey (1997) highlighted the
reciprocal nature of the interactions and exchanges between organizations and their publics. Broom
and Dozier (1990) as well as Grunig, Grunig and Ehling (1992) focused on how to measure OPR. The
former employed a co-orientational approach that seeks to evaluate the perceptions, intentions and
objects of interest for both organizations and publics regarding expectations, actions and outcomes of
OPR. The latter however concentrated on the quality of OPR through measurements of reciprocity,
trust, mutual legitimacy, openness, mutual satisfaction and understanding respectively. They
emphasized the importance of OPR to organizational goals through which PR practitioners could
demonstrate their value contributions to organization through the long term beneficial relations with
the publics.
Wilson (1994) focused on the notion of corporate social responsibility for OPR with the goal of
developing relationships with all the stakeholders’ in the organizations’ community. These are argued
to enhance corporate credibility based on demonstrated corporate commitment, trust and mutual
respect towards the community. Positive communication between organization and their publics are
argued to facilitate community relationships. PR practitioners are however argued to function as the
“corporate conscience” that represents the community’s voice and interests within the organization
who counsels organizations on their strategies towards the community.
Rhetorical approach
The rhetorical approach views organizations as “rhetors” seeking to influence their stakeholders
through ongoing dialogue and negotiation. The approach is characterized by active stakeholder
participation that engenders information sharing, argument and counter argument that bring contested
issues to light (Toth, 2009) thereby fostering coalition building through what Burke (1969) called
“wrangle in the market place”. These are used for accessing the publics’ “zones of meanings” (see
Heath, 2005) that enhances organizations strategic adaptation to their publics’ position (Heath, 2001).
The negotiated rhetorical codes forces organizational reflectivity and consideration for the value-laden
arguments and position of their publics (Heath, 2001). More so, the publics’ meaning assigned to
organizations’ rhetoric contributes to organizational awareness that influences their PR strategies and
subsequent actions.
15
The rhetorical approach is argued to ensure ethical PR practices (Heath & Frandsen, 2008). More so,
organization’s attempts to manipulate stakeholders are argued to be short termed as they risk being
exposed by flaws and incongruence between chosen rhetoric and their publics’ position (Heath, 2001)
that would be detrimental to their credibility. Consequently, PR practitioners’ tasks are argued to
include ensuring that organizations are able to engage in collaborative decision making, which
signifies identification with the publics’ interests and values. Nevertheless, Ihlen (2002) criticized the
rhetorical approach for underestimating organizations’ tendency for rhetorical manipulation.
Co-creational approach
Botan and Taylor’s (2004) focuses on meaning making processes involving co-creation activities
between organizations and their publics that work in a partnership towards developing shared
meanings, interpretations and goals respectively. The approach adopts a long term orientation in
which interactions between publics and organizations enhances the development of relationships
between them overtime, while communication simply facilitates negotiations about required changes
and adjustments for maintaining their relationship.
3.1.3 PR as Corporate Communication
Despite Nigerian PR’s inability to establish itself as a distinct and well respected profession that can
also maintain expertise monopoly in Nigeria, PR in many cases is viewed as a corporate
communication (CC) function in Nigeria, which is another issue that is worth discussing in order to
understand the justification for such practices in Nigeria.
CC is argued to provide management with an instrument that integrates and coordinates all
organizations’ communications for managing the complex communication functions that
organizations must undertake (Argenti, 1996; Cornelisson, 2014) thereby enhancing a favourable
basis for relationships with the publics they depend upon (Van Riel, 1995; Van Riel & Fombrun,
2007) through consistent communication about what they do and represent (Christensen, Morsing, &
Cheney, 2008).
Frandsen and Johansen (2013a) maintain that CC has been institutionalized as an organizational
practice, an academic discipline and as a broad scope of how organizations handle their internal and
external communications since the early 1990s. This implies a norm whereby all communication
related functions of organizations, including PR, exists under the CC umbrella. The multidisciplinary
nature of CC implies a much more holistic communication approach from an organizational stand
point, as it integrates a variety of functions under one unit for organizations. This is however expected
to clarify the potential or justifications for PR to be situated within corporate communication for this
study.
16
Cornelissen (2014) describes CC as a management function that offers a framework for the effective
coordination of all internal and external communication with the overall purpose of establishing and
maintaining favourable reputations with stakeholder groups upon which the organization is dependent
(p.5). Van Riel (1995, p.26) defines it as an instrument of management through which all consciously
used forms of internal and external communications are harmonized as effectively and efficiently as
possible with the objective of creating a favourable basis for relationships with groups upon which the
company is dependent.
Based on these definitions, it appears that some CC components overlap that of PR as it involves
communications with stakeholders that can affect organizations. Also, the core themes within CC
such as corporate identity (Van Riel, 1995; Hatch & Schultz, 2004), image and reputation (Dowling
2001; Cornelissen, 2014) as well as relationships between organizations stakeholders (Johansen &
Nielsen 2011; Kantanen 2012; Huth, 2012) are some of the goals that PR sets out to achieve.
Nevertheless, CC’s holistic communication approach (Oliver, 1997) integrates various disciplines
such as PR, investor relations, employee relations, community relations, advertising, media relations,
labour relations, government relations, technical communications, crisis communications; marketing
communications etc. (Goodman 1994, 2006; Kitchen 1997; Varey, 1997) thereby offering synergistic
value that PR may be unable to offer alone. In addition, the approach helps organizations to avoid
sub-optimization (Gronstedt, 1996) that could be inefficient and often counterproductive.
PR continues to exist with inherent contentions as its remains a distinct field of study and profession
on one hand, while it continues to be institutionalized as a function under CC in Nigeria across
particular organization fields. Such contentions extends to various titles given to those carrying out
PR functions such as Public Relations Officer (PRO), media or Public relations officer, Protocol
officer, information officer, Corporate Secretary, Corporate affairs officer/manager, Communication
officer, community relations manager etc. However, one must have it in mind that in Nigeria, these
titles are mostly given to persons carrying out CC functions and in other cases given to people doing
only PR, which is unlike other professions such engineering, accounting, law etc. with standard titles.
These implies gross inconsistences in PR practitioners’ roles, and assigned tasks across organization
fields, that could be a contributing factor to the misconception of PR and the way that organizations
use it, which has consequences for practitioners, organizations and PR image respectively.
For the purpose of this study, PR is situated as a function under CC as an observation of corporate
websites shows companies to be more vocal about community relations, investor relations or CSR and
corporate affairs but not PR activities. Also, LinkedIn searches show that practitioner titles with PR in
them appear more in the Public sectors than in the private sectors. This may not be enough evidence
to justify placing PR under CC, nevertheless, this study risks losing vital and relevant data by
17
situating the study only within PR as various applications and usage of PR as CC across organization
fields are noticed.
More so, since this study is situated within organizational contexts, attempts to avoid inefficiencies
resulting from sub-optimization or function overlaps, jurisdictional battles makes the notion of PR as
a CC function to be logical from an organizational perspective, thereby offering richer insights for this
study. Nevertheless, the fact that PR professional institutions and scholars view PR as a distinct
profession and a field of study contradicts viewing PR as a function or subset under the CC field of
study. This however represents another potential tension between PR professional body and scholars
on one side and organizations and CC scholars on the other side as their perspectives impacts on
practitioner roles, functions and contributions to organizations strategy.
Equally relevant is the competence and skills level of PR professionals and their ability to lay a solid
claim on their jurisdiction when compared to CC professional from an academic perspective. Since,
the broad scope of CC implies that its curriculum covers much more disciplines when compared to
PR. This suggests that CC professionals might be preferred candidates as they would be perceived to
offer more value to organizations than a PR professional that is presumed to possess a narrow
knowledge base that offers a fraction of what CC offers that could render PR education unpopular
from a career driven perspective.
3.2 PR Professionalization Professions could be understood from literatures within the sociology of professions and institutional
theories from which three approaches have been developed. The trait (see also criterion approach by
Flexner, 1915) and power/conflict approaches appears to have dominated earlier studies about
professions while the institutionalist approach was later developed.
Traits approach
The traits approach to professions, allied with Parson’s (1954) functionalist assumptions, focused on
lists of characteristics that separated professions from occupations (Etzioni, 1969; Millerson, 1964)
based on a body of knowledge, formal training, self-regulation, code of conduct etc. (Freidson, 1986;
Caplow, 1954; Wilensky, 1964; Johnson, 1972). The approach was however criticized for being an
unrealistic ideal-typical representation of professions (Larson, 1977) which presents an oversimplified
differentiation of professions from occupations (Hoyle and John 1995) that are viewed as self-
descriptions for creating self-fulfilling prophecies to attain professional status (Hughes, 1958).
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Power Approach
The criticism of the trait approach in the 1970s led to the development of the power approach that
focused on the power struggles between distinctive groups (Faulconbridge and Muzio, 2007) over
jurisdictions. The power approach emphasized occupational dominance (Freidson, 1970a) and control
over work and specific tasks/services (i.e. jurisdiction in Abbott, 1988). In this sense, professions use
their expertise, superior political and organizational resources to retain professional power and
autonomy to self-regulate, gain financial rewards and determine who qualifies to practice particular
professions (Abbott, 1988). In addition, Larson’s (1977) professional project’ emphasized the agency
of professions in achieving market power and social status as well as importance of retaining
jurisdiction over services and using skills scarcity to maximize rewards (Parkin, 1979). For Larson
(1977), such skills emanate from a cognitive base that combines knowledge from codification, that is,
formal education and indeterminacy that that is understood as talent, firsthand experience or non-book
knowledge (Freidson, 1970b).
The dominance of the power approach might have attended to the limitations of the traits approach;
however, much more recent studies maintain that the sociology of professions ignores the
organizational settings where professions utilize their skills, powers and exercise their claim over their
jurisdiction (Suddaby, Gendron, & Lam, 2009). In addition, the power approach does not give
cognizance to the broader institutional context of professions as well as the professionals’ activities
within large and complex organizations (Hinings, 2005; Leicht and Fennell, 1997) that are often
characterized by managerial pressures and professions proletarianization (Oppenheimer, 1972).
Institutionalization Approach
Muzio, Brock and Suddaby (2013) proposed the institutionalist approach as a much more realistic
alternative to the trait and power approaches and emphasized the connections between
professionalization and institutionalization that are argued to be inseparable components.
Institutionalization scholars developed concepts such as institutional work (Lawrence & Suddaby
2006) and institutional entrepreneurship (DiMaggio, 1988) to highlight the purposeful and strategic
actions of actors such as professions or organizations for creating, maintaining or disrupting
institutions thereby becoming key agents in institutionalization processes (Scott, 2008).
Leicht and Fennell (1997) and Muzio, Brock and Suddaby (2013) maintain that powers, status and
activities of professionals are conditioned by opportunities and control allowed by organizations.
More so, Brint and Karabel (1989) argue that professionals are only able to exercise their power
through their position within organizations. This contradicts the enormous powers that professions are
argued to possess when engaging in jurisdictional struggles with other entities such as other
professions, state or even organizations (Suddaby & Viale 2011; Rao, Monin, & Durand, 2003;
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Abbott, 1988; Burrage, Jaraush, & Siegrist, 1990). This contradiction is however expanded by the
proletarianization and adaptive theses respectively.
The proletarianization thesis is similar to Haug’s (1973) deprofessionalization where practices are
characterized by controls from authority, routines, division of labour, formalized role structures etc.
that are perceived to be means to organizational efficiency (Oppenheimer, 1973) and commercial
goals (Singh & Jayanti, 2013). These imply professionals’ conformity (Suddaby & Viale, 2011) and
loss of autonomy within such organizations (McCann, Granter, Hyde & Hassard, 2013). In such
instances, organizations determine what, how and whom should carry out functions and thereby
influence and reconfigure professions’ juridictions and institutionalization process respectively.
Furthermore, Ramirez (2013) noted how bureaucracies are used for interfering into professional
associations’ activities through organizations attempts at influencing the norms of professions
practices or redefining legitimacy and reconfiguring professional fields, which disrupts professions’
jurisdictions (Malsch & Gendron 2013; Kipping & Kirkpatrick 2013). These imply that Professions
and their respective professional bodies would have to struggle with other professions to retain their
jurisdiction or encroach on other professions’ jurisdictions due to the dictates of organizations thereby
mediating the institutionalization of professions (Abbott, 1988; Muzio, Brock, & Suddaby, 2013).
In contrast, Wallace (1995) challenged the proletarianization thesis that she views as the epitome of
deprofessionalization (p. 237) and argued that there are also instances where professional autonomy
prevails within organizations. With her adaptive thesis, she maintains that the technical expertise and
skills of professionals gives them legitimate discretion and autonomy over the structure and
performance of their work within organizations (see also autonomous organizations, Scot, 1965).
DiMaggio (1991) observed that professionals use these to reconfigure organizations bureaucracies to
their own favour, thereby redefining the institutional logics of such organizations (Thornton, Ocasio,
& Lounsbury, 2012) to their prefered way of working.
The institutionalization approach to professions appears to be most applicable for this study as it
offers a more realistic outlook of professions within organizations, especially as the study is situated
within organizational contexts. The contradicting positions provide an overview of how organizations
could deal with PR professionals as well as organizational influence on the PR profession with
regards to practitioner role, function and powers permitted in the workplace. More so, especially as
Pieczka and L’Etang (2001) noted that the social reality and relations between PR professionals and
people with power within organizations such as c-suite members have received little attention. This
study would benefit immensely from exploring the reality of PR professionals’ proximity to their
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expertise power, jurisdiction and conflicts encountered in the organization setting and adjacent
institutions respectively.
3.3 Neo-Institutionalization Neo-Institutionalization theory provides a way to understand how institutions interact and how that
affects other institutions within their environment. The theory pin points and explains why and how
institutions emerge in particular manner overtime within a certain context. Institutionalization theory
in this study offers a way to understand how and why organizations PR practices has evolved the way
it has and how that influences or shape the actions of organizations as well as that of other actors
and/or institutions within the Nigerian PR environment.
In their work on the external control of Organizations, Pfeffer and Salancik (1978) maintain that
organizations are often compelled by external sources within their environment to passively adopt
particular practices. These practices are not always compatible with organizations as they do not
necessarily guarantee efficiencies. However, they have become institutionalized practices because
they make up the predominant practices that have been applied by successful organizations and
thereby become sources of legitimacy and rationality in particular organization fields and contexts.
However, Oliver, (1991) a more recent neo-institutionalist, argued that organizations cannot afford to
ignore active agency and strategic adoption (see also institutional entrepreneurship in DiMaggio,
1988) of what she called institutional pressures. She instead proposed a typology of 5 strategic
responses comprising both active and passive responses that would contribute to organizations’ social
validity; efficiency and survival. The responses include; conform, compromise/bargain, avoid,
dismiss/challenge or even manipulate institutionalized values and social approval (see full description
in Oliver 1991: 151-159).
Neo-institutionalization theory of organizations has its roots in Selznick’s (old) institutionalism
analysis of organizations (Scott, 2008: 21–23) that focused on the micro processes within
organizations. It’s been viewed as a process that happens to an organization over time. As Selznick
(1957: 16–17) noted, to institutionalize is to ‘infuse with value beyond the technical requirements of
the task at hand’. However, notable works by Meyer and Rowan (1977), Zucker (1977), DiMaggio
and Powell (1983), and Scott and Meyer (1983) kick started neo institutionalism within organizations.
These theorists were more interested in i) organization fields, ii) relationship between organizations
in their macro environments, iii) environments’ influence on organizations’ structures and practices
(see Meyer and Rowan 1977; DiMaggio & Powell, 1983; Zucker, 1977; Singh, Tucker, & House,
1986), and the need for legitimacy (Deephouse & Suchman, 2008).
21
Meyer & Rowan (1977) rejected arguments in favour of organizations rational-choice decision but
stressed the importance of rationalized beliefs as well as cognitive and cultural processes for
understanding organizations’ actions and the adoption of myths, albeit in ceremonial or decoupled
forms. With their institutional isomorphism, they were more interested in the structural dynamics of
organization fields where increases in structuration (Giddens, 1979) leads to isomorphism and
homogeneity in organizations forms and practices (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983).
Furthermore, DiMaggio and Powell (1983) argue that structuration results from the activities of
external constituents that includes the state (coercive or regulative requirements), professions and
external publics (assumptions supported by public opinion and professional bodies), and the market
through mimetic processes (other organizations imitating the actions of early adopters and successful
organizations). They contend that despite considerable diversity in approach and form in the early
stage of organizations’ lifecycle, vast imitation of dominant or successful practices takes place once
organizational fields are well established, which drives organizations within those fields toward
homogeneity. This is essentially the case as an innovation or dominant practice spreads and become
normatively sanctioned; adoption provides legitimacy and the high likelihood for mimicry, but not
always improved performance or efficiency (Meyer and Rowan, 1977).
Scott (2008: 48) defined institutions as “comprising regulative, normative and cultural cognitive
elements that together with associated activities and resources provide stability and meaning to social
life”. The regulative pillar includes the coercive legal demands that must be adhered to by
organizations, while the normative pillar focuses on public opinion, demands by external publics such
as professional bodies and other stakeholders that guide organizations’ behaviour. Lastly, the cultural-
cognitive pillar deals with the taken-for-granted shared conceptions that constitute social reality about
how things ought to be done, which is then imitated, especially when confronted by uncertainties.
Adoption of these pillars is argued to lead to isomorphism that functions as a basis for legitimacy
(Deephouse & Suchman, 2008). In addition, Lounsbury (2003, p. 211) described institutions as
“relatively durable structures that shape the practices and behaviors of actors in a given social
system”. Jepperson, (1991, p. 145) sees institutions as “a social order or pattern that has attained a
certain state or property” and institutionalization as “denoting the process of such attainment”.
3.3.1 Institutionalization Process
By approaching institutionalization as a process this study takes into account the series of events,
actions and changes that have taken place overtime within Nigeria’s PR environment that have
influenced PR goals, scope, functions and approaches respectively. Focus would be on the relevant
historical issues that have necessitated particular PR approach(es), the perceptions influencing the
choice of PR as a viable solution, and how effective it was in achieving its set goals that made it
22
become the norm which others imitate and overtime becomes taken for granted and institutionalized.
This unpacks the components of the process thereby providing an understanding of the rationale as
well as respective actors behind the institutionalized PR practices in Nigeria.
As a process, institutionalization involves the internalization of taken-for-granted practices and
routines (Hasselbladh & Kallinikos, 2000) while remaining an outcome as long as it is unquestioned.
Tolbert and Zukker (1999) identified habitualization, objectification and sedimentation as the
institutionalization processes and stages respectively. However, Greenwood, Suddaby and Hinnings
(2002) have gone into more details to expand the model into a six stage model using an institutional
change perspective. The process is necessitated by “jolts” or disruptive events (stage I) that lead to
deinstitutionalization (stage II) whereby existing practices are abandoned while new ideas are
introduced. This is followed by Pre-institutionalization (stage III) where organizations independently
develop viable solutions to their own perceived problems. Solutions are then scrutinized in
theorization (stage IV) to access the justification and moral legitimacy for accepting the new solution.
The compelling presentation of the pragmatic components of the solution ensures its Diffusion (stage
V) within the field (similar to semi-institutionalization Tolbert & Zucker 1999). Reinstitutionalization
(Stage VI) takes place once the solution becomes taken-for-granted and sustained as long as it
continues to deliver desired outcomes.
However, the processes view institutionalization to be initially fluid and later becomes stable, and
then meaningful, such that it has the capacity to guide organizations decisions and behaviour
respectively. Emphasis appears to be placed on passive adoption, conformity, stability and perceived
legitimacy but not efficiency which appears to be the weakness of the process. This is the earlier
mentioned area of contention for Oliver (1991) as the early neo-institutionalists offers an unrealistic
outlook of organizations reality because the nature of organizations challenges are argued to be
heterogenetic. In this sense, similar solutions may not be applicable to all organizations within their
fields. For Oliver, organizational efficiency that is achievable through her range of strategic responses
to institutional demands is more realistic and important for organizational survival.
In the same vein, more recent neo-institutionalists working within the Scandinavian tradition have
extended the understanding of the agentic aspects of institutions and organizations. With a social
constructivist approach, Boxenbaum and Strandgaard-Pedersen (2009) went beyond processes within
organizational fields to focus more on the complexities of what happens inside organizations before
and after the adoption of ‘organizational recipes’ (Røvik, 2007 as cited in Frandsen & Johansen,
2013b). They focus instead on organizations’ heterogeneous responses to institutional pressures based
on Weick’s (2001) sense making process of interpretation and reformulation of norms during the
adoption process. For Weick, Sense making is a source of strategizing through which actors gain
23
awareness of several possible interpretations and use them strategically to further their own specific
interests.
Furthermore, Schneiberg and Clemens (2006: 212), contend that ‘acknowledging heterogeneity
challenges conventional images of causality and pushes institutional analysis away from strong forms
of structural determinism to a much greater emphasis on agency, conflict, contingency and process’.
Concepts such as institutional work (Lawrence & Suddaby, 2006), institutional logics (Thornton,
Ocasio & Lounsbury, 2012; Thornton & Ocasio 1999; Thornton & Ocasio, 2008) equally confirm the
active nature and strategic decision making of organizations’ as well as their contributions to
institutionalization processes. These in turn help organizations to make decisions that suit their local
context (Boxembaum & Strandgaard Pedersen, 2009).
Arguments of the early and more recent neo-institutionalist provides a general overview of the
organizations adoption approaches to dominant practices from passive (decoupling, ceremonious
adoption) to active (active agency/strategic response). They have also highlighted the social realities
and the complexities that confront organizations in their drive for legitimacy and/or survival within
their environment. These adoption approaches are not mutually exclusive but instead represents the
range of choices available to organizations that can complement one another towards enhancing
organizational effectiveness, depending on set goals and/ or concerns.
Frandsen & Johansen (2013b) noted how neo-institutionalism offers a theoretical framework for
studying how PR has been institutionalized in organizations and their respective fields. Hence,
institutional theory helps my research to understand the current state of PR in Nigeria with emphasis
on the developments, trends and dominant practices and adoption processes that make up the
institutionalized norms especially within organization fields. Also, neo-institutionalization would
facilitate the formulation of relevant questions towards unearthing how PR is organized in the
corporate organizations and the functions for which it is deployed. With these findings in place, my
research would be well equipped to explore the “value” that has been infused into PR across
organizations’ fields as well as their influence on PR practices and contributions to organizational
efficiency and legitimacy in Nigeria. Furthermore, the neo-institutionalization perspective clarifies the
rationale behind organizations PR approaches and how adopted norms enhances and/or constrains PR
practice and professionals work respectively.
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(Neo) Institutionalization theory Corporate Communications
Proletarianization thesis
Organization Fields
PR Education PR Curricula
Figure 2 Theoretical Map
Figure 2 depicts the map of theories and approaches that are specifically relevant for understanding Nigeria’s PR environment as well as the underlying assumptions, actions and the potential outcome for the actors. The neo-institutionalization and proletarianization and adaptation theses discuss the rationale behind organizations’ practices as well as their interactions and powers given to professionals within organizational settings. The sociology of professions focus on the strengths and weaknesses of various approaches adopted by professions towards attaining professional status and maintaining jurisdictions that are influenced by the activities of educators, professional bodies, other professions and organizations .In discussing the role of educators, perspectives influencing various PR theories are being looked into for understanding their underpinning assumptions. Equally relevant is PR education that is looked into here in a simplified manner by simply exploring how PR educators’ perspectives influence the components of the PR curricula in Nigeria.
4. Methodology The methodology section presents a plan of action for answering the research questions of this study
with emphasis on the chosen philosophy of science and the research design. Choices in this regard
have been motivated by 1) the need for coherence between the purpose of the study, research
paradigm, research design and theoretical contributions; 2) selecting methods that permits the study
of tensions within Nigeria’s PR environment that not much is known about and must be studied
within its context using existing theories and practices respectively; and 3) selected data collection
instrument(s) must permit access to the perceptions of informants that influence their practices and
associated complexities. With these in mind, the section starts out with the description of the
assumptions and relevance of the social constructionism paradigm to this study. The second section
(Neo) Institutionalization theory Proletarianization thesis
Organization Fields NIPR Study Field
Tensions
(Neo) Institutionalization theory Proletarianization thesis
Adaptation thesis
PR Educators
Sociology of professions Institutionalization approach
Power approach Traits approach
Traits approach
PR Research PR perspectives
PR theories PR assumptions
Corporate communications
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focuses on Yin’s (2014) case study approach that comprises the research design which includes data
collection instruments, and analysis strategy.
4.1 Philosophy of Science Interpretivism
The epistemological orientation guiding this study is within interpretivism and social constructionism
that seeks to understand a phenomenon based on meanings that people involved assign to it (Myers,
1997). According to Orlikowski and Baroudi (1991), the interpretive perspective is designed to
capture the complex and dynamic nature of a phenomena within its context in order to understand
how members of that social world (such as organization fields, groups, institutions etc.) through their
interactions enact their particular realities, ascribe meaning to them and show how these meanings
influence their actions.
Interpretivism is characterized by an understanding that the knowledge of reality is not objectively
determined but socially constructed through individuals’ subjective meanings that are shaped by their
perceptions (Husserl, 1965). Interpretivists attempts to understand the intersubjective meanings
embedded in interactions and taken for granted norms towards interpreting and explaining why people
or groups act in particular ways (Gibbons 1987 as cited in Orlikowski and Baroudi 1991).
Understanding social reality thereby requires listening to peoples’ description of their shared
meanings and practices based on the descriptions of components that constitute their practices.
Researchers simply gathers such descriptions through qualitative methods as they attempt to describe,
interpret, analyze, and understand the social world based on the peoples’ perspectives (Kaplan &
Maxwell, 2005).
Social constructionism
Berger and Luckman’s (1966) social constructionism emphasize the dual character of society that
transitions from subjective meanings developed from everyday interactions to taken for granted
objective facticities in the process of socially constructing meaning that has significance for practices
within a society. Interactions in this sense involve the expressions, exchange and internalization of
subjective meanings that influence actions and mediate objective reality for that society (Berger &
Luckmann, 1991). Their works have been largely influenced by Alfred Schutz, and also represents
one of the most important positions within social constructionism that corresponds to
institutionalization.
Actions within societies eventually becomes routinized and habitualized as they are frequently
repeated without much effort. Typificatory schemes or categories of knowledge are developed from
these routinized actions while the reciprocal typification of the habitualized actions eventually
becomes taken-for-granted knowledge that make up the social stock of knowledge that is manifested
in activities of people within that society (Berger & Luckmann, 1991). Such knowledge is however
26
Figure 3 Social Constructionism as Institutionalization process
Figure 3 is based on Berger and Luckman’s (1966) social construction of reality that is used here to depict the phases involved in
the social construction of meanings within societies. Social construction as a process of institutionalization depicts the process
through which a few interactions characterized by an exchange of subjective meanings between individuals within a society
overtime become habititualized behaviour from which typifications in the form of categories of meanings develop which later
becomes taken-for-granted objective facts within that society, and then become institutionalized.
transmittable to other generations as objective facts or facticities that becomes institutionalized for
that “society. Institutionalization places some kind of social control on human conduct based on some
historical reference and typifications that defines acceptable or rational conduct for a particular
people, even if it emanated from just two individuals. Through institutionalization, the socially
constructed meanings and reality becomes embedded in institutional fabric of that society.
Understanding and interpreting the processes of socially constructing shared meanings and
institutionalized practices of organizations, NIPR (professional body) and PR educators respectively,
as well as the implications for one another is the focus of this study. These actors are viewed as
belonging to different societies with differing realities and consequent practices. More so, emphasis
here is on perceptions that inform their respective realities and guide practices within their societies,
which represents prerequisites for understanding existing contradictions and/or tensions between
them. Furthermore, by adopting Weick’s (1979) "strong" constructionist view, this study goes beyond
merely re-describing the actors’ experiences. Rather it applies relevant theory dependent interpretive
schemes and constructs within PR, the sociology of professions and neo-institutionalization for
exploring the social reality of the actors. As Astley (1985, p. 498) noted, the facts constituting our
knowledge are theory-dependent as our perceptions and access to reality is mediated by theoretical
preconceptions that we use to understand the world.
Despite being designed to explore the complex reality within a phenomena, Fay (1987, p. 96)
criticizes the interpretivist philosophy for assuming continuity of shared meanings without
considerations for issues regarding conflicts or contradictions within a society that could necessitate
change. This is a valid point as conflicts remain an inevitable occurrence between a people within a
society due to disagreements or diverse interests. Nevertheless, the study is not concerned about
conflicts within the individual societies but rather between them. Also, the goal at this stage of the
study is to first understand the perceptions, shared meanings and practices of the actors that would be
further analyzed with Engestrom’s activity theory.
27
4.2 Research Design In order for this study to understand the perspectives and tensions between the actors influencing PR
practices in Nigeria, this section focuses on the chosen research design which follows Yin’s (2014)
case study method. The chosen research design includes a logical sequence of activities for the
research to be able to gather relevant data that can effectively attend to the research questions. It
enumerates which data is relevant, how it would be collected as well as an effective analysis strategy
for interpreting collected data.
4.2.1 Case Study
According to Yin (2014), a case study is appropriate when there is the need to gain a holistic
understanding of a complex contemporary phenomenon that must be investigated within its real-life
context, especially when the phenomenon cannot be separated from its context. This involves a
comprehensive method for collecting, presenting and analyzing data respectively. More so, case
studies are appropriate for attending to “how” and “why” questions especially when the researcher has
little to no control over events or phenomenon under investigation, thereby requiring direct
observation and or interviews with individuals involved or concerned about the phenomenon. Also,
researcher is able to employ existing theoretical propositions as a guide for collecting relevant data.
Hence, the approach is chosen for this study as not much is known about the tensions within Nigeria’s
PR environment which necessitated understanding the situation from the accounts of relevant actors
within Nigeria’s PR environment.
Cases studies could be designed as either single- or multiple-case studies for which data can be
collected and triangulated from qualitative and/or quantitative methods thereby offering a variety of
evidence for acquiring rich insights about the phenomenon being studied. Also, based on the nature of
what is being studied and the number of units of analysis, case studies could either be holistic or
embedded with the former having single and the latter having multiple unit(s) of analysis respectively.
In this regard, this study employs the single case study design that concentrates on Nigeria as the
single case/context of interest and an embedded design with organizations, professional body (NIPR)
and PR education as multiple units of analysis that contributes to the line of inquiry for the study. In
addition, a critical case design is selected in order to look into contradictory contextual issues
affecting the actors that could contribute to existing contextual PR scholarship or identify their
inadequacies thereof.
A case study is preferred for this study because it unpacks and simplifies the complex components or
aspects of Nigeria’s PR environment. The study would utilize rich data from multiple sources that
includes interviews and document and archive studies that enriches researchers’ knowledge and
thereby enhance in-depth understanding of Nigeria’s PR environment.
28
Case studies have been criticized for over relying on informants perceptions that may differ from what
informants actually do that has the tendency to lead researchers to inaccurate conclusions. Case
studies are also criticized for merely confirming researchers preconceived notions or bias. In contrast,
Flyvbjerg (2006) maintain that case study allows researchers to closely investigate real life situations
and gather rich data about the practical reality of the phenomena from those involved or affected.
More so, Yin (2014) equally maintains that researcher bias can be mitigated through construct validity
in which multiple sources of evidence that demonstrates a convergent line of inquiry as well as
establishing a chain of evidence during data collection. More so, the credibility of the findings is
enhanced with member checks for informants to verify that their responses have been interpreted as
intended limits researcher bias.
There are also arguments that findings from single cases cannot be generalized. Again Flyvbjerg
(2006), context-dependent knowledge provided by a case study provides valuable knowledge about
real life situations as universal theories for studying human affairs are lacking. Yin (2014) equally
noted that by clearly defining the domains where study findings can be generalized attends to this
issue. This concerns analytic generalization, whereby case study findings are viewed as contribution
to the theoretical concepts of interest for the study that could corroborate, modify, reject or advance
theoretical concepts of interest to the case or new concepts arising from the case. As this study
focuses on the inherent tensions within Nigeria’s PR context, findings are argued to contribute to
contextual PR scholarship.
Issues of reliability in the procedure employed when carrying out the research is also another critique
of case study. However, proper documentation of the research procedure in the form of a case study
protocol that includes a step by step process of how the research has been conducted, such that
another person could repeat the procedure and arrive at the same result. Lastly, case studies’ findings
have been criticized for being difficult to summarize. Flybjerg (2006) maintain this has little to do
with the research method but results instead from the properties and complexities of the reality or
phenomena under study.
4.2.2 Research Method
Myers (1997) maintain that research method influences the way in which the researcher collects data
while specific methods imply particular assumptions and research practices. Cases studies can employ
both quantitative and qualitative methods; however, this study solely employs qualitative methods that
seek to understand the perspectives and practices of the actors within their natural setting.
Consequently, qualitative data in the form of words would be collected using semi-structured
interviews and document/archival studies that would be analyzed with the thematic analysis and
activity theory. Qualitative inquiry is carried out with keen interest in understanding the phenomena
from the actors own perspectives through their description of the reality of their world. Areas of
29
focus includes meaning ascribed to particular things, sensitive issues, experiences, actions,
contradictions etc. such that the interviewer is able to interpret the interviewees’ world and be able to
understand their reality.
Data Collection
Semi-structured interviews would be conducted with individuals/informants from selected
organization fields, NIPR and PR educators. Kvale and Brinkmann (2009,p.3) defined Semi-
structured interviews as “interviews with the purpose of obtaining descriptions of the life world of the
interviewee in order to interpret the meaning of the described phenomena”. The interviews are
designed with well-crafted questions for the specific purpose of inquiring about the informants’
perspectives, factual knowledge, experiences and actions within Nigeria’s PR environment. The semi-
structured nature of the interviews ensures that researcher can critically follow up on the informants’
answers to seek elaborations that in turn produce rich data for the study.
As interviews cannot attend to inconsistences between what people say and what they do, Atkinson
and Silverman (1997) warns against the uncritical use of interviews that are perceived to offer
undiluted insights about informants’ perceptions, which could lead to inaccurate and unreliable
conclusions. This study follows their recommendation by validating supplied data with the accounts
of others in similar situations as well as comparing such accounts with documentary or archival data
that could enhance the authenticity of collected data. Hence, Secondary data are collected from
documents and archival records respectively from reports and articles in the media, commentaries
from PR experts, company websites and relevant studies. The data are useful but sometimes bias as
they are written for specific purposes that differ from that of the study; nevertheless, they often
provide specific details that can be used to corroborate evidence from other sources. More so,
contradictions discovered opens up the study for other lines of inquiry that may have not been
considered but enriches the research.
Sampling
A heterogeneous or maximum variation sample (Kuzel, 1992; Patton, 1990) of informants is selected
for this study as they permit the collection of data about the various experiences of the different actors
about the same phenomenon. In addition, snowball sampling is employed in which a chain of referrals
from informants would be used to acquire a satisfactory number of informants (Biernacki & Waldorf,
1981). The study also adopts the “two-tail” design in selecting organization fields that are from two
extremes from specialized (oil & gas, banking & finance), and non-specialized (FCMG,
Telecommunications) fields in order to understand if variations exists in the PR approaches and
practices across organization fields.
30
The sample groups of informants include: i) C-suite members or management representatives of
organizations from a minimum of two different organization fields/sectors that can provide data about
their PR understanding and functions as well as their perspectives and practices; ii) NIPR leadership
and committee members responsible for membership, professional practices and training and
development respectively, that can share their perspectives about PR professionalism, certification
and the ideal PR practitioner role and functions in the workplace; iii) PR educators that can provide
the perspectives about the essential PR knowledge as well as PR as a field of study or function under
mass communication or corporate communication with respective curriculum scope.
These informants differ from each other on major aspects and represent the three actors that are
affecting and are affected by PR practices in Nigeria. They are considered to be well informed and
can thereby provide rich insights about the areas of inquiry of this study. Consequently, a comparison
and discussion of their perspectives and practices would be carried out in the analysis section.
4.2.3 Analysis strategy
The analysis strategy for this study is carried out in two phases. The first involves using Attride-
Stirling’s (2001) thematic analysis for systematically deriving themes and enumerating the thematic
networks within the collected data. Engestrom’s (2001) Activity theory framework is then employed
in the second phase to further analyze and operationalize the themes and components associated with
respective actors and placing them into individual activity systems within the overall Activity system.
This would facilitate the explorations of the perspectives and consequent practices of the respective
actors’, while identified contradictions resulting from conflicting perspectives would be used to
elaborate more on discovered tensions, and discuss their implications for the actor and Nigeria’s PR
environment.
4.2.3.1 Thematic Analysis
This study employs Attride-Stirling’s (2001) thematic analysis tool that provides a practical and
effective procedure for organizing, conducting and presenting findings from qualitative analysis, that
at the same time ensure the full disclosure of the steps included in this phase of the analysis. Her step-
by-step guide would be used to identify relevant themes emerging from the collected perspectives of
the various informants’. This would be presented as thematic networks that are web-like illustrations
depicting the interconnections between three levels of the themes which reveal their overt structures
and underlying patterns over six steps. Thematic networks systematizes the extraction of themes
present within the text starting from the basic themes that summarizes abstract principles in the form
of Organizing Themes from which the principal metaphors are derived, that is Global Themes.
The six analytic steps for thematic analysis includes the following; Step 1) coding of collected data
with the computer-assisted data analysis software for qualitative data “Nvivio”. Leech and
31
Figure 4 Thematic Analysis: 6 Steps (Adapted from Attride-Stirling, 2001)
Step 1 •Coding collected data with Nvivio
Step 2
•Extracting themes from the coded text segments and refining them to access ideas within informants’ responses
Step 3
•Arrange texts into similar coherent groupings that would form the thematic networks for which basic themes would be selected and rearranged into organizing themes before the global themes are derived
Step 4
•Thematic networks are described and explored for bringing the various perspectives and the interpretations together for a deeper level of analysis
Step 5
•The principal themes emerging from the descriptions are summarized along with patterns characterizing them
Step 6
•Patterns are interpreted based on summaries of all networks, themes, structures and patterns identified in the data against the research questions and theoretical focus of the study.
Onwuegbuzie (2007, 2011) noted that Nvivo increases the rigor of qualitative studies as it assists with
multiple types of analyses that enhance a deeper understanding of the actors’ perspectives. In Step 2,
themes are extracted from the coded text segments and are refined to access the set of ideas within
informants’ responses. In Step 3) texts are arrange into similar coherent groupings that becomes the
thematic networks from which basic themes would be selected and rearranged into organizing themes
before the global themes are derived. Step 4 describes and explores thematic networks which bring
together the various perspectives and the interpretations for a deeper level of analysis. In Step 5 the
principal themes emerging from the descriptions are summarized along with patterns characterizing
them. In Step 6, the patterns would be interpreted based on summaries of all networks, themes,
structures and patterns identified in the data against the research questions and theoretical focus of the
study.
The second phase of the analysis involves employing Activity theory to further analyse the collected
data, the derived themes and their interpretations for identifying, exploring and understanding the core
components that make up the perspectives and practices of the respective actors. These highlights the
contradictions and tension points between the actors which helps in understanding the source(s) and
contributor(s) to the existing tensions for which implications would be discussed for respective actors.
32
4.2.3.2 Activity theory (AT)
Activity theory offers a lens that would be used for analyzing and understanding the practices of the
actors that are viewed as individual but yet interconnected activity systems, whereby the actions of
one has implications for others. Such understanding would be based on the analysis of the seven
components that make up the respective activity systems of each actor, which include: individual(s)
or subgroup(s) whose point of view is chosen as the perspective of analysis (Subject); problem the
activity is directed towards (Object) that is then turned into (outcomes) using existing tools
(instruments). Also included are individuals and subgroups that share the same general object
(Community), those responsible for doing the job (Division of labor) as well as (Rules) constraining
actions within the system (Engestrom, 2000, 2006).
Tensions between these activity systems provides opportunities for transformations through the
expansive learning cycle that questions existing practices, analyzes contradictions and then models
and implements solutions for attending to tensions (Engestrom, 2000; Engestrom & Sannino, 2010).
These takes place in continuous cyclical manner through Knotworking activities (Engestrom, 2000,
2006). The theory may have been largely ignored within PR research; however its components
remains appropriates for analyzing and understanding ongoing tensions between the activity systems
of the actors that lays ground work for developing mutually beneficial capacities and outcomes for
actors concerned (Engestrom, 2000).
4.2.4 Inductive-explorative research
With a focus on contextual contradictions and tensions, this study is inductive and explorative as it
aims to explore organizations, NIPR and PR educators’ diverse perspectives and understanding of PR
approaches, certification processes and curricula respectively within Nigeria’s PR environment. This
implies varying perceptions that influence the distinct meanings, realities and practices of the three
actors and a notion that each of them belongs to different societies with their own realities. Hence, this
study concentrates on the collection and exploration subjective accounts of the contextual realities
confronting these actors. Analysing collected qualitative data thereby become means towards
developing an understanding of the existing contradictions and tensions in Nigeria towards extending
contextual PR theory and scholarship at large.
33
Figure 5 Methodology
Figure 5 depicts the methodology components starting with the epistemological stance, case study
design, units of analysis and the research methods which includes data collecting and analysis
strategy
4.3 Delimitation This focuses solely on practices of organizations’, in-house PR professionals and not on the activities
of PR agencies and consultants respectively. Activity theory extends to knotworking, expansive
learning for resolving contradictions/tensions, however, there are no plans to cover these aspects in
this study. I am aware of studies on the didactic and pedagogy of PR, however these are not the focus
areas for PR education in this study as it is more concerned about the perceptions/perspectives of PR
educators and how and why that influences the scope and curricula contents of PR in Nigeria.
5. The pilot study A pilot study was carried out earlier this year for understanding the challenges confronting PR in
Nigeria from the academics’ and practitioners’ perspective, which played a major role in developing
the research problem for this study.
A total of 7 semi-structured interviews were conducted, 6 over telephone/skype and one with written
responses. Respondents included 4 academics, one of whom is also a well expereienced consultant,
and 3 other consultants. Despite the low number of practitioners, their reponses provided rich insights
because they are consultants that have worked with several clients/organizations and appear to have
34
vast understanding of organizations’ PR practices and expectations based on their encounters and
experiences with c-suite members.
Two question guides were developed for the PR academics (A) and PR practitioners (P), albeit with
certain overlaps. Areas of inquiry included: 1) practitioners’ academic backgrounds (A,P); 2) PR
curricula (A), 3) cultural implications on Nigeria’s PR education and practice (A,P), 4) role and
influence of professional body- NIPR (A,P), 5) Nigeria’s economy and impact on PR practices (P)
and PR education (A) , 6) public perception of PR (P) and PR education (A), 7) activism and their
impacts on organization’s PR appraches (P), 8) impacts of Nigeria’s political condition on PR in
general (A,P).
5.1 Prelimenary findings The prelimenary findings of the study includes:
1 - PR perceptions and practitioner role/voice
One of the findings of the pilot study was the perceived limited knowledge and understanding of PR
by organizations, which influences their PR orientation, approaches, functions and practitioner roles
that are argued to contradict practitioner expectations and perceived effective practice. Related to this
is the restricted or lack of PR practitioner voice and strategic contribution to organizations’ PR
strategies. This practice has been largely argued to persist due to historical PR practices in Nigeria
whereby people with journalistic background or access to the media are preferred PR persons while
PR was approached with journalistic releases, public information or awareness drives. Hence, PR
practitioners are simply viewed as communication technicians without capabilities to be part of
dominant coalition but simply carry out communication tasks. However, this is against the ideal PR
that NIPR promotes, as practitioners are expected to be able to contribute to management at a strategic
level.
2 - PR jurisdiction and competence
PR faces competition from almost any other professions as entry barriers into the profession are
nonexistent until recently when NIPR membership and certification have become the license to
practice. Nevertheless, many argue that enforcement of the new requirements remains a challenge. PR
continues to find it hard to maintain a hold or jurisdiction over its functions as marketing, corporate
communications, journalism, law professionals respectively compete for PR functions and jobs. There
is also the issue of perceived PR practitioner incompetence within specialized industries such as
banking and finance, and oil and gas which implies that the practitioners’ education maybe
insufficient within specialized fields. Competences are affected by the knowledge acquired by the
practitioner. PR education exists as a stand alone study programme, a subject or major under mass
communication or corproate communication across higher institutions in Nigeira. These implies
35
inconsistences in PR educational scope and curricula and disagreement amongst PR educators that
cannot agree if PR is a distinct study programme or just a module or major under other study
programmes. NIPR equally offers Professional Diploma that is equivalent to a BA degree as well as a
range of training programmes for its members.
3 - PR image and active publics
The current image of PR in Nigeria implies a misconception of PR as solely propaganda, publicity,
creating awareness, briberry etc. while practitioners are viewed as erand boys, bribe givers, spurious
individuals that would say anything to make organizations or their bosses look good. Lastly, there is
the rise of active participation of publics and activism in general mostly online on social media.
Perceived or confirmed unethical and corrupt politicians are mostly targeted but the trend is gradually
extending to unethical organizations mostly by younger Nigerians.
6. Concluding Remarks
This Thesis Proposal presents an overview of my research work and the overall plan for completing
my PhD project. The study is carried out in cooperation with the Lagos Business School (LBS) where
I will also be spending my “stay abroad” and be collecting part of my primary data from c-suite
members attending executive studies at the school. I will also be reaching out to NIPR’s leadership
and its membership, Professional practices and Training and Development committes respectively. I
look forward to discussing my project with you at the TP presentation and I am very keen to hear your
thoughts, opinions and suggestions about my project.
Contribution and Relevance
The study contributes an alternative bottom up approach to contextual PR scholarship for exploring
contextual issues, concerns and tensions that could form the basis for much more informed and
effective PR practices within contexts, which extends contextual PR understanding. Also, discussions
from this study benefits organizations as it enhances their PR understanding, practitioner role and
functions in the work place respectively. The findings would also alert current and future practitioners
and NIPR to the contemporary organizational demands and the need to demonstrate PR’s value to
organizations in the Nigerian context. Furthermore, by applying insights from Nigerian organizations’
practices, this study offers a starting point towards reorienting PR educators and NIPR about contents
and competences that should be focused upon and adapted to their context when educating and
certifying future PR professionals.
Questions for the committee
1.Do you understand my use of Activity theory as a way to explicate the tensions within Nigeria’s PR
environment?
36
2.Would I be correct in saying that I am doing a comparative study as I would be comparing or
looking at contradictions between the three actors’ perspectives?
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8. Appendices
Appendix 1: Piloto Study components
Appendix 1.1: Interviewee Profiles
Interviewee Profile
Amujo, O. C. BA - Public/Applied History, MA, Mass Comm/Media Studies, Corporate
Branding, Corporate Identity, Corporate Reputation,
Researcher:
NIPR
Dr Otubanjo, T. Senior Lecturer at Lagos Business School (Nigeria)
Corporate communication consultant
Expert within: Corporate branding, corporate identity, corporate
reputation, corporate image, corporate communications, and corporate
public relations
Oyetayo Adeshina PR consultant and publisher
Principal Consultant/ Editor in chief - XS-Proficient Media Services limited
Journalist
BA –Mass communication and Philosophy
Professor Akinwande MSc. PhD, Professor of Development Communication
Myles Igwe Freelance Publicist and Creative Director
Junior Editor and Consultant - Guardian Newspaper Nigeria
Head of Public Relations - Visionary PR
Idagu David Account Executive (Lagos): C. Moore Media International Public Relations NIPR professional exam tutor/instructor TEDxIkeja conferences
Dr Ajilore
Senior Lecturer in Mass communication
Head of Department, Mass Communication Department Babcock
University (Nigeria)
MSc, M.I.L.D, PhD
44
Appendix 1.2 Pilot Study findings within Activity systems
Based on the findings from the pilot study, activity systems have been developed for each actor to
highlight the components of their activity systems that show issues of contradictions that leads to
tensions.
Object Media relations Public information Publicity Crises management Organization image
Tools/Instruments Four models of PR CSR Bribery Crisis communication Do nothing
Outcome Public awareness Favourable image Communication technician
Subject NIPR
PR educators PR professionals
Publics/ customers
Division of labour C-suite members PR professional/communication technician
Community In-house PR department PR manager
Rules Organization policy, culture/values and code of conduct Organizational strategy
Organization PR practice
Tools/Instruments Accreditation Certification NIPR Training programmes Course outline NIPR membership
Object NIPR image NIPR credibility PR professionalism Ethical PR practice
Outcome Competent PR professionals Professional recognition PR image Relationship management Holistic PR approach Ethical practice
Subject NIPR
PR educators PR professionals
Publics/ customers
Division of labour NIPR professional practices committee NIPR Training and development committte
Community NIPR governing council
Rules NIPR Code of conduct and Professional conduct
Professional body: NIPR
45
Tools/Instruments PR Curricula PR examination Teaching
Object PR education Solid PR curricula Affiliation with NIPR PR knowledge dissemination
Outcome Competent PR professionals Holistic PR knowledge Recognized education Ethical practice
Subject Future PR practitioners
NIPR Organizations
Division of labour PR lecturers Head of PR department Head of academic planning
Community PR department, Mass comm. department, PR researchers, NIPR
Rules Admission requirements PR examination, rules and guidelines
PR educators/ Educational institutions
46
Appendix 2: PhD Plan: Activities overview and next steps Oludotun Kayode Fashakin PhD Activity Plan @ BCOM 2014-2017
Timeline Activities
1st Half year
From
September
2014
Research
Article One
- Introduction and Literature Review draft to be delivered in January 2015 (Completed)
- Introduction and Literature Review Revision (not completed)
- Discarded Article based dissertation and research focus at semester end
PhD courses
- Publish or Perish: Preparing, Writing and Reviewing Journal Articles in Marketing and
Management (5 ECTS) (not completed)
- Introduction to quantitative research methodology (5 ECTS) (Completed)
Teaching
- New Media and Business Re-exam (winter 2014): 10 hours
2nd
Semester
from
February
2015
Research
- Decided to change my dissertation from article-based to a Monograph
- Monograph
New topic: Institutionalization and professionalization Perspectives and tensions emerging from workplace, professional bodies, and educational
curriculum affecting PR as a corporate communication function in Nigeria
- Pilot study: interviews with PR academics and practitioners (Completed)
- New Project Description (Completed)
- Preparing Thesis Proposal - TP (Completed)
Teaching
- Stakeholders Relations for MACC (82,5hours) (Completed)
- Communication in a global perspective (140 hours) (Completed)
- Total teaching hours completed so far: 229 hours (371 hours Remaining)
3rd
Semester
from
September
2015
Research
- Hand-in TP (Completed)
- Read literature on PR approaches, PR professionalism, institutionalization theory and
Activity theory.
- Carry out TP
- Commencing work on the Literature review chapter: PR approaches, sociology of
professions, Neo-institutionalization theory
- Methodology chapter: social constructionism, case study, Qualitative methods, Thematic
analysis and Activity theory
PhD Courses
- Advanced Qualitative Research Methodologies: Ethnography, Case Studies, Grounded
Theory and Action Research (Nov-Dec 2015 - 5ECTS) (in progress)
- Research Paradigms in Strategic Communication. From Organizational Communication
and Public Relations to Business Communication and Corporate Communication
(January 2016 - 5 ECTS)
47
- Total ECTs: Semester 1 + Semester 2 + Semester 3 = 15 ECTs
Other Courses
- CUL course clashing with a PhD course (January13 & 27 2016)
4th Half year
From
February
2016
Research
- Continue writing the Literature review chapter: PR approaches, sociology of professions,
Neo-institutionalization theory
- Methodology section: Developing and interview guide
Data collection Document and Archival studies
PhD Course
- Philosophy of Science (5 ECTS - June 2016)
Conference:
- PR meeting #6 – Barcelona (28th – 29
th June. 2016)
Teaching
- Stakeholders Relations for MACC
- Communication in a global perspective
- Bachelor Thesis supervision
- Total Teaching hours
5th Half from
September
2016
Research
- Data collection: semi structured interviews, document and archival studies
- Thematic Analysis: Coding collected data with Nvivo, Initial analysis and conclusions
- Start writing the PhD Dissertation
Stay abroad
Lagos Business School (Duration 3 months)
PhD Courses
- Institutional Organizational Analysis – Change and Transformations (5 ECTS - October
2016 )
- Research Design (5 ECTS)
- Total ECTs: Semester 1+2+3+4+5 = 30 ECTS
6th Half year
From
February
2017
Research
- Analysis/Discussion
- Implications and Conclusion
- Writing and concluding the final version of the Dissertation