Thesis - Meditative Neuroplasticity_7_15_15

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Meditative Neuroplasticity: The Effect of Qigong Meditation

on Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Cortisol Levels.

By

Travis Preston Whitney

A Thesis

In Partial Fulfillment

Of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Science in Integrative Medicine Research

June, 2015

Meditative Neuroplasticity

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Meditative Neuroplasticity: The Effect of Qigong Meditation on

Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor and Cortisol Levels.

By

Travis Preston Whitney

Approved by the Master’s Thesis Committee:

______________________________________________________

Melissa Gard, PhD Date

Carolyn Nygaard, ND Date

______________________________________________________

Melanie Henriksen, ND, MSOM, CNM Date


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ABSTRACT

MEDITATIVE NEUROPLASTICITY: THE EFFECT OF QIGONG

MEDITATION ON BRAIN-DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR

AND CORTISOL LEVELS.

TRAVIS PRESTON WHITNEY

Introduction: BDNF and cortisol levels are known factors in certain

neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson and Alzheimer’s, and in

conditions like obesity and depression. Modalities that affect BDNF and

cortisol levels can have therapeutic and preventative benefits. The primary

purpose of this study is to determine whether meditation affects baseline

BDNF levels or increases BDNF following a meditation intervention when

comparing long-term meditators to non-experienced meditators.

Methods: This pilot study examines the effects of a 30-minute meditation

intervention on BDNF levels and cortisol production in a healthy sample of

experienced meditators (n=7) compared to non-experienced meditators

(n=7). BDNF levels and cortisol will be compared in both groups prior to

and following a 30-minute meditation intervention. A secondary goal of this

study is to determine whether meditation improves cognitive performance,

as measured with a computer application called Lumosity.


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Results: Baseline mean BDNF was slightly higher for the experienced

meditator group (by 0.9 ng/mL), while the mean BDNF post meditation was

slightly higher for the non-experienced meditator group (by 1.2 ng/mL)

Mean cortisol decreased for both groups post meditation. The experienced

meditator group demonstrated higher change in their post meditation scores

on each of the 3 lumosity brain games.

Conclusions: This study provides a first step to determining whether

meditation can increase BDNF and decrease cortisol, thereby providing a

simple, low cost option to increase synaptogenesis in the brain. No change in

BDNF was found between experienced and non-experienced meditators

before or after meditation, but there was a decrease in cortisol in almost all

participants. However due to the low sample size it was difficult to achieve

statistical significance. On average experienced meditators scored higher on

Lumosity Brain Games after meditation compared to non-experienced

meditators. Indicating there may be some mechanism of neuroplasticity

occurring.


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………… 3

LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………………………………… 6

METHODOLOGY ……………………………………………………….. 16

RESULTS ………………………………………………………………… 27

DISCUSSION …………………………………………………………..... 31

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ………………………………………………... 38

APPENDICES ……………………………………………………………. 39

REFERENCES …………………………………………………………….52


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LITERATURE REVIEW

Neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s

affect nearly 6 million individuals, and this number is expected to almost

double by 2030. 1 Depression is another major illness steadily on the rise, as

is the use of antidepressant medications. 2 While finding treatments and

cures are definitely a necessity to battle these illnesses, prevention is key. In

addition, while we live in a busy, fast paced society, many individuals

without major illnesses are looking for ways to increase their cognitive

potential and prevent illnesses as listed above. Perhaps there is a way to

increase an individual’s neuroplastic efficiency while preventing them from

later illnesses. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and cortisol are

known factors in neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s and

Alzheimer’s and in conditions like obesity and depression. Therapies that

increase BDNF and lower cortisol would therefore be both therapeutic and

preventative.

BDNF is a contributing factor to increasing cognitive potential and

protecting against neurodegenerative diseases. BDNF promotes survival of

dorsal root ganglion cells. 3 4 Because it shows properties towards

developing the nervous system, it is classified as a neurotrophin. BDNF

stimulates the development and differentiation of new neurons and promotes


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long-term potentiation (LTP), a form of synaptic plasticity, which is still

widely considered a cellular model of long-term memory (LTM) formation.

5 BDNF also promotes neuron survival and is abundantly expressed

throughout the developing and mature CNS as well as in many peripheral

tissues, including muscle, liver, and adipose. 6 This key feature of BDNF

promoting neuronal survival could play a vital role in combating

neurodegenerative diseases. Several researchers have noted that

neurotrophins, such as BDNF, may promote specific neuronal populations

affected in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer and Parkinson’s. 7–

10 Low levels of BDNF are also associated with insulin resistance, type II

diabetes, and depression.11 12

BDNF is thought to play a role in reinforcing plastic changes in the

brain by consolidating connections between neurons so they fire together in

the future.13 Specifically, when individuals are attempting a new task

requiring specific neurons to fire, BDNF is released. BDNF helps connect

these neurons together and facilitate myelination of the neurons.

Interestingly, BDNF is shown to activate the part of the brain that allows us

to focus attention, the nucleus basalis. BDNF is one of many proteins

necessary for learning and memory, and can slow down normal age-related

cognitive decline. 5,14 BDNFs highest expression can be found in key areas


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responsible for cognitive functions, such as in the hippocampus, neocortex,

cerebellum, and amygdala. 15–17

Because measuring human BDNF directly in the brain would be very

difficult, it is measured from serum, plasma, cerebral spinal fluid (CSF),

saliva, and platelet. Levels of BDNF vary between serum, platelet, or plasma

levels. For instance, Lommatsch et al. found that age, weight, and gender

correlated with plasma BDNF, but there was no significant difference found

between platelet BDNF and these measures.18 Plasma BDNF is more

sensitive but is also more variable than platelet BDNF. When controlled for

age and weight, platelet BDNF levels are significantly different between

men and women.18 Serum levels of BDNF have the advantage of not having

the variability of plasma levels.

Several factors may determine BDNF levels in an individual such as

weight, age, gender, and exercise. BDNF levels have an inverse correlation

with weight; lower levels of BDNF are associated with higher weight. 18,19

Age exhibits a negative correlation on BDNF serum levels but no significant

difference is found in platelet BDNF levels.14,18 Gender differences may

influence BDNF levels, depending on the measurement of BDNF. As

discussed above, Lommatsch et al. observed a difference in platelet BDNF

levels in a weight-matched gender group, but there was no difference in


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plasma BDNF levels.18 Pillai et al. found lower circulating plasma levels in

females 20 while Chan et al. observed no significant difference in serum

BDNF levels between males and females. 14 Gender BDNF levels can be

further complicated with the diurnal pattern of BDNF. Piccinni et al.,

observed a diurnal BDNF pattern in healthy males, but a more stable pattern

in women. 21 Effects of BDNF and gender and sex may not be as big of a

factor on BDNF secretion as physiological changes are. 21

It’s suggested that activities, like exercise, can increase levels of

BDNF, leading to better cognitive performance. A study in rats suggests that

forced and voluntary exercises can enhance cognitive related tasks via the

BDNF pathway. 22 Exposure to an enriched environment and exercise

elevated the levels of BDNF in the hippocampus, increases neurogenesis and

improves learning. 23 In humans, it has been observed that BDNF is

increased by exercise, 24 and there is an increase in memory performance at

higher fitness levels. 25

BDNF is released in an activity-dependent manner 26 and can

modulate the number and shape of dendritic spines in mature hippocampal

neurons, a part on the brain known for memory formation. 4 Structural

changes in dendritic spines is said to lead to synaptic efficacy, the “hallmark

of LTP”. 27 Long-term Meditation (LTM) may serve as an activity-


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dependent BNDF promoter and may have a profound effect on Long-term

Potentiation (LTP).

BDNF has been shown to rise in serum, plasma, and platelet levels

during exercise, immediately following exercise and can remain stable in the

blood for around 1 hour. 28,29 A study in mice has shown BDNF mRNA

expression peaking 2 hours after exercise. 30

Another study demonstrates there may be a genetic polymorphism

that affects BDNF levels.31 Certain BDNF genotypes express different

catecholamine levels than others, showing different responses to stress in

meditators. 31 The effects of BDNF on the stress response leads to the

question of whether other hormones associated with stress effect cognitive

performance and neuroplasticity.

Cortisol, the primary hormone associated with stress, has also been

found to play an important role in learning and memory, having both a

positive and negative effect on cognitive performance. 32 Stress, via an

increase in glucocorticoids such as cortisol, can facilitate hippocampal long-

term potentiation (LTP). 32,33 However too much cortisol can have a

detrimental effect on learning. 34 A slight increase in cortisol will bind to

high-affinity hippocampal receptors and enhance LTP, however long term


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cortisol does the opposite. 33 Prolonged stress can disconnect neural

networks and inhibit neurogenesis. 33

Meditation is most popularly known to decrease stress via lowering

cortisol levels. For instance Walton et al. tested cortisol levels in 16 long-

term transcendental meditators and compared them to 23 age and gender

matched controls. 35 Urinary cortisol was three times higher in the control

group versus women who performed transcendental meditation. 35

Whether people who meditate have increased BDNF levels has not

been studied. However, there is physiological evidence to suggest that this is

true. For example, neuronal growth is promoted by BDNF and inhibited by

excess cortisol. Meditation is known to decrease cortisol.21 Meditation has

also been shown to increase neuronal growth as demonstrated by an

increased cortical thickness observed in experienced meditators. Meditation

may elicit these effects through an increase in BDNF activity. 36

This study explores a different modality for modulating an

individual’s BDNF. Specifically the study explores the role Qigong

meditation might have on BDNF levels. The word Qigong (Sometimes

spelled Chi Kung) is made up of two Chinese words. Qi is pronounced chee

and is usually translated to mean the life force or vital-energy that flows

through all things in the universe. The second word, Gong, pronounced


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gung, means accomplishment, or skill that is cultivated through steady

practice. Together, Qigong (Chi Kung) means cultivating energy, it is a

system practiced for health maintenance, healing and increasing vitality. 37

According to Ken Cohen of the Qigong Research And Practice Center,

Qigong is the art and science of using breathing techniques, gentle

movement, and meditation to cleanse, strengthen, and circulate the life

energy (qi). 38 Qigong is an integration of physical postures, breathing

techniques, and focused intentions. 37 As a meditation, Qigong is a means to

still the mind and enter a state of consciousness that brings serenity, clarity,

and bliss. 39

Meditation has been described as “mental training of attention” 40.

Repeated studies in meditation show that it increases an individual’s

attention span. 40,41 Our sensory systems are barraged with input throughout

the day. Meditation helps an individual focus on selecting goal-relevant

information. 42 Individuals have improved scores on the Attention Network

Test after only five days of 20 minutes of meditation per day when

compared against a control group. 43

Studies show meditation can have a profound effect on brain

structure. Meditators have been shown to have increased cortical thickness,

particularly in areas related to attention, interoception and sensory


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processing such as the prefrontal cortex and right anterior insula. 44–46 When

compared to non-experienced meditators, experienced meditators show

increased cortical thickness in several regions of the brain, including the

medial prefrontal cortex, superior frontal cortex, and temporal pole. 47 In

addition, the meditation experience is associated with increased prefrontal

cortical thickness and increased gray matter density in the brainstem, which

suggests potential effects of meditation on brain plasticity. 44,48 Interestingly,

Brefczynski-Lewis et al. 41 point out that meditators present less activation in

the medial frontal region of the brain during meditation, an area that allows

us to fine tune our cognitive control, such as inhibiting motor actions during

a task if it is identified as incorrect or inappropriate. 40,49,50 This allows

meditators to exert less effort and make fewer adjustments when performing

an action, an attribute well suited for neuroplastic efficiency in learning a

new task.

In the Annals of the New York Academy of Science, Xiong and

Doraiswamy discuss meditations effects on cognition and brain plasticity,

and surmise that meditation may increase growth factor levels, such as

BDNF. 51 Buddhist compassion meditation reduces cortisol secretion and

may potentially enhancing BDNF function. 52,53


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This study will assess memory and attention required in learning a

new task through an online brain-training program. Lumos Labs’ Lumosity

is a web-based platform used to assess and improve users cognitive abilities.

Lumosity has collected the largest data-set of human cognitive performance.

54 Lumosity has been used to measure:

cognitive function in traumatic brain injury survivors;

cognition performance related to life-style factors;

learning ability associated with age; and

cognitive performance in children with cancer-related brain

injury. 54–56

Children with cancer-related brain injury demonstrate significant

improvements in memory and processing scores after administering a

Cognitive Rehabilitation curriculum from Lumos Labs. 56 Sternberg et al.,

show general improvement with Lumosity training while measuring

cognitive tasks and aging, noting learning decreased more with age in tasks

associated with memory than with “crystallized tasks” such as arithmetic

and verbal fluency. 54 Four adult males with severe traumatic brain injury

experienced significant improvements and reached levels of new difficulty

in Lumosity.

This study proposes that experienced meditators will:Meditative Neuroplasticity

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have higher baseline and post-intervention BDNF levels versus

non-experienced meditators,

exhibit lower baseline and post-intervention serum cortisol

levels, and

show higher baseline scores and a greater magnitude in score

differences after intervention on the Lumosity Cognitive

Assessment.

If meditation is associated with higher BDNF and lower cortisol, it suggests

that meditation may lead to neuroplastic changes and may have implications

for neurodegenerative diseases’ and conditions that exhibit low BDNF.


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METHODOLOGY

OVERVIEW AND DESIGN

We conducted a pilot study to examine the role of meditation on

BDNF and cortisol production in healthy individuals. Experienced

meditators (n=7) and non-experienced meditators (n=7) underwent a blood

draw to measure baseline BDNF levels and cortisol levels. Cognitive

performance was measured to determine learning potential. Participants

underwent a Qigong meditation intervention for 30 minutes. Following this

intervention, participants repeated the blood draw and cognitive assessment.

All participants in this study had their cognitive scores assessed via

Lumos Labs Lumosity Brain Games. The participants played 3 games

assessing their working memory and information processing such as Tidal

Treasures, Memory Match, and Speed Match. Both groups, experienced

meditators and non-experienced meditators, performed assessments for a


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baseline measure before going through the intervention. After the

intervention, each group played the same games again to determine if either

group was able to integrate learning the games more efficiently. Baseline

measures were compared between groups to assess possible long-term

effects of meditation. The magnitude of the change between baseline and

post intervention scores assessed the immediate effects of the intervention.

RECRUITMENT & SCREENING

Flyers were posted at Qigong studios, martial arts studios, yoga

studios, local colleges (including NCNM), and on Craigslist. The flyer (See

appendix 1) instructed potential participants to email the student

investigator. The student investigator called participants and screened for

eligibility with the telephone script (See appendix 2). Eligible participants

were scheduled for a study visit. A consent form was emailed to all eligible

participants prior to their visit.

POPULATION

Conditions listed below in the inclusion/exclusion table have been

shown in the literature to have decreased BDNF levels compared to a

healthy population, so these participants were excluded from the study so as

not to confound the impact of meditation and these chronic conditions on the

results. Individuals with COPD or other pulmonary disease may have a


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difficult time continually deep breathing during meditation. For this reason

they were excluded from this study.


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Inclusion Criteria Exclusion Criteria

Ages 18-60

At least 3 years of meditation

practice of 4 or more days a

week in the meditation group.

No meditation in the past 2

years for the non-experienced

meditators group

Willing and able to have blood

drawn

Willing to refrain from

exercise 12 hours before

intervention meeting

Willing and able to complete

all aspects of study

Able to provide consent

Alzheimer’s

Parkinson’s

Schizophrenia

Dementia

Depression

Epilepsy

Diagnosed with depression within past 2

years

Previous use of Lumos Labs Lumosity

COPD or other pulmonary diseases

19

Individuals having previously used Lumosity were previously exposed to the

cognitive performance games used in this study and were

excluded from this study.

INTERVENTION

All study visits took place at the Helfgott Research Institute. Upon

arriving for study visit one, all participants signed informed consent forms

after reviewing them with study personnel. Participants had their blood

drawn under the supervision of a licensed clinician. Participants performed

the cognitive performance test via Lumosity Brain Game and their scores

were recorded after each game, then immediately had their blood drawn

after the games. Participants were asked if they needed a restroom break

before starting the meditation.

After reviewing the meditation instructions, participants went into a

quiet room individually. The student investigator instructed each participant

with meditation instructions (appendix 3) and then quietly left the room

while the participant began the meditation. The participant performed 30

minutes of Qigong meditation as described below. At the end of 30 minutes

a chime sounded to inform the participant that the meditation was over.

After meditation, the participant underwent a post intervention blood draw

and played the same 3 Lumosity Brain Games.


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Intervention:

The meditation script was adapted from the text “The Shaolin

Grandmasters’ Text: History, Philosophy, and Gung Fu of Shaolin Ch’an”

Pg 248 (See appendix 1). The student investigator instructed the participants

on how to perform a seated Qigong meditation. The following script was

given to participants:

“Sit down in a comfortable position with your hands on

your knees, palms down. Close your eyes while pushing

your tongue upwards. Keep your neck and back straight,

and begin to take a few long, slow breaths. As you start

relaxing, inhale through your nose for the count of four,

exhale the breath for the count of four, and then keep your

lungs empty for the count of four. As you become more

relaxed you will move slowly into a deeper meditative

state, your heart rate and breathing rate will slow

accordingly. Focus on your breathing. If your mind

wanders away from your breathing just return to counting

your breaths, inhale through your nose for the count of

four, exhale the breath for the count of four, and then keep

your lungs empty for the count of four.”


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Participants were asked to meditate for 30 minutes. The student

investigator read the script to participants; a timer was set with a 10 second

delay while the student investigator left the room. After the delay a first

chime rang informing the patients 30 minutes had started, after 30 minutes a

second chime rang informing the meditation was over. The written

meditation script was left with participants during meditation. This way they

could refer to the script if they became distracted during their meditation.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Primary Outcome Measures – BDNF and cortisol levels:

A blood draw was completed at baseline and within 5 minutes after the

completion of the meditation intervention. 8.5 mL of blood was collected at

each time point. A total of 17 mL of blood was collected from each

participant. The student investigator conducting the analysis was blinded to

participant sample groups at the Emax Immunoassay System (Promega,

Madison, WI; catalog #G7610), which is an enzyme-linked immunosorbent

assay (ELISA). Cortisol analysis was performed by ZRT Laboratories

(Beaverton, OR).

Secondary Outcome Measure – Cognitive assessment measured with

Lumosity:


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Lumos Labs Lumosity Brain Games: Participants scores were compared to

assess learning performance before and after intervention. In a working

memory game called Tidal Treasures, participants are asked to click on an

object, on the subsequent screens participants must identify objects that they

have not previously clicked on. The game continues until a previously

selected object is selected again. At this point the game ends and a score is

given. The length of this game is typically 5-7 minutes. Another game

assessing memory is titled Memory Match. In Memory Match the

participant is asked to memorize a symbol on the right and use keys to select

if it matches with a symbol on the left of the screen. After selecting a few

right answers the symbol on the left fades away, requiring the participant to

memorize what the symbol was. The game lasts for 45 seconds and at the

end scores are given for total number correct, accuracy, and reaction time. In

a third game measuring information processing called Speed Match,

participants are asked to memorize a card. Using the keyboard the

participant clicks an arrow key to select if the previous card matches the next

or if it doesn't match. The participant has 45 seconds to go through as many

cards as they can. At the end of the game a score is given. It took

participants approximately 10 minutes to complete all 3 games.


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Lumosity scores were compared to pre/post interventions scores

separately from each of the 3 different games the participants performed. We

determined how well participants learned a new task by comparing baseline

scores between groups and the magnitude of changes between groups’

scores.

Participants’ scores were recorded on the Lumosity Data Collection form

(appendix 4)

RANDOMIZATION

This study was not randomized. All participants received the same

intervention.

BLOOD COLLECTION

All blood draws were administered according to NCNM’s protocol for

standard blood draw procedures. Following each blood draw into a serum

separator tube, the tube was inverted and allowed to clot at room

temperature for at least 30 minutes but not more than 2 hours from the time

of draw. Tubes were centrifuged for 10 minutes at 1200xg, and following

centrifugation, serum was divided into 500l aliquots, labeled with the

participant’s ID number, and stored at -80°C until analysis. All tubes and

containers were labeled with a unique participant ID. Blood collection at

each time point consisted of a venous blood draw into a single tube: a


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red/grey top SST Serum Separation Tube (Becton Dickinson, Franklin

Lakes, NJ; catalog #367988). One 8.5ml vial of blood was drawn from each

participant at each blood draw, for a total of 17 mLs for the entire study.

Serum samples were labeled with participant ID’s and analyses of samples

were blinded to participants’ previous meditation experience. Serum samples

were analyzed for BDNF in triplicate for reliability measures.

BDNF ANALYSIS

In order to determine the appropriate storage conditions for

participants’ serum samples, we performed a pilot experiment to determine

whether BDNF degrades during overnight refrigeration. To do this,we

prepared a serial dilution of recombinant BDNF protein that was refrigerated

overnight, and on the day of analysis, we prepared a fresh serial dilution of

BDNF. The fresh and 1-day-old samples were analyzed using the BDNF

Emax Immunoassay System followed by reading the plate at 450nm on a

MAXline microplate reader using Softmax Pro 4.8 software. From this

experiment, we concluded that BDNF was unstable during refrigerated

storage. Therefore, all serum samples were stored at -80°C after collection to

minimize degradation prior to analysis.

In order to determine the appropriate dilution for participants’ serum

samples to fall within the ELISA standard curve, we performed a pilot


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experiment to test several dilutions of serum. BDNF has been shown to

range from 1.9 to 51.5 ng/mL with a median of 22.6 ng/mL in healthy

participants.18 Results of our pilot experiment suggested that a 1:100 serum

dilution was appropriate for measuring BDNF in our serum samples.

BDNF levels pre and post meditation were determined by analyzing

serum samples stored at -80°C for not more than 1 month. Each serum

sample was assayed in triplicate according to manufacturer’s instructions

using the BDNF Emax Immunoassay System followed by reading the plate at

450nm on a MAXline microplate reader using Softmax Pro 4.8 software.

Analysis of samples was blinded to participants’ previous meditation

experience.

DATA MANAGEMENT AND ANALYSIS

Laboratory Methods

Following each ELISA assay, triplicate standard curve absorbance

values were averaged and plotted against each standard curve

concentration. A trendline was fitted to the standard curve points using

Microsoft Excel, and the trendline equation was used to calculate the

BDNF concentration of each sample from the average absorbance value

of the sample. As a measure of goodness of fit, an r-squared value of

>0.996 was attained for all standard curve trendlines. BDNF


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concentrations were multiplied by the dilution factor used in the ELISA

assay to generate the final serum BDNF concentration for each

participant.

Power Calculations

Sample size was determined for mean change in serum BDNF from

before to after meditation among all participants. Based on previous

literature we estimated standard deviation of BDNF at baseline to be

approximately 7ng/mL. 25 Using α=0.05 and a paired T-test design, and

assuming a pre-post correlation of r=0.8, 20 participants were required to

achieve 80% power to detect a mean change of 3ng/mL of BDNF.24,25

Since only 14 participants completed the trial, statistical significance was

unlikely.

Statistical Analysis

Baseline characteristics of each group, including gender, age, weight

and education level were recorded and any significant differences were

noted. Mean BDNF, cortisol, and cognitive performance were compared

between groups at baseline using independent samples T-tests. In case of

non-normal distributions a non-parametric Mann-Whitney test was used.

For analysis of pre-post changes in all outcomes we used a linear mixed

ANOVA with meditation group and time (pre,post) as factors. Significant


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results were followed up with paired T-test for pre-post changes in all

participants and independent T-test comparing pre-post changes between

groups. Comparison of pre-post changes according to the different serum

and plasma measures were compared using a paired T tests. Lumosity

percentages were compared to pre/post intervention scores separately

from each of the 3 different games the participants will perform. The

Lumosity scores were averaged for each separate game for both groups

separately. The participants had their Game 1 scores for working memory

(Tidal Treasures) compared between their pre-meditation score and post

meditation score. This happened for the next two games as well. The

range and median score will be provided for both participant groups. In

order to make comparisons, percentages will be used.

RESULTS

Mean age for non-experienced meditators was 35 years, for meditators it

was 34. Ages ranged from 26 to 51 years. The mean baseline BDNF level in

the non-meditator group was 29.1 (± 5) ng/mL, while the mean baseline

BDNF in experienced meditators was 29.9 (± 6) ng/mL. After meditation

non-experienced meditators showed a mean BDNF level of 30.5 (± 5)

ng/mL and meditators showed a mean BDNF level of 29.3 (± 5) ng/mL.

The mean baseline cortisol level in non-experienced meditators was 10.0 (± Meditative Neuroplasticity

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3) ug/dL compared to 9.8 (± 2) in meditators. Mean cortisol after meditation

in non-experienced meditators was 8.1 (± 3) ug/dL and 8.3 (± 2) ug/dL in

meditators. After meditation, the mean change in Lumosity Game 1 (Tidal

Treasures) score (point difference from pre to post meditation scores) for

non-experienced meditators was 57 points, meditators showed a mean

change of 5,529 points; for Game 2 (Speed Match) mean score for non-

experienced meditators was 200 points and 2,993 points for meditators; for

Game 3 (Memory Match) mean score for non-experienced meditators was

907 points and 2,171 points for meditators (Table 2). There was no

statistically significant difference between experienced and non experienced

meditators’ baseline BDNF (p = 0.783) or cortisol levels (p = 0.864). No

statistically significant difference was observed between groups after

meditation for BDNF (p = 0.661) or cortisol (p = 0.904). There was no

statistically significant difference between change in Lumosity Brain Games

cognitive assessment scores Game 1 (p = 0.380), Game 2 (p = 0.138), or

Game 3 (p = 0.613) from pre to post meditation scores. Pearson correlation

indicates strong positive correlation between BDNF and cortisol before

meditation (p=0.29). A paired samples T-test indicated a statistically

significant reduction in cortisol among all participants after meditation

(n=14, p = 0.001).


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Table 1.

Experienced

Meditators (n=7)

Non-Experienced

Meditators (n=7)

Age (Mean) 33 years 35 years

Gender Male (3)

Female (4)

Male (2)

Female (5)

Average days per

week of meditation 6 0

Average minutes per

meditation session 34 14

Average years of

meditation 13 5

Mean baseline BDNF 29.9 (± 6) ng/mL 29.1 (± 5) ng/mL

Mean BDNF post

meditation 29.3 (± 5) ng/mL 30.5 (± 5) ng/mL

Mean baseline cortisol 9.8 (± 2) ug/dL 10.0 (± 3) ug/dL

Mean cortisol post

meditation 8.3 (± 2) ug/dL 8.1 (± 3) ug/dL


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Table 2. Pre/post meditation Lumosity scores


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DISCUSSION

This study aimed to assess the effects long-term meditation, and the

act of meditation, may have on creating a cognitive environment ripe for

neuronal growth to promote neuroplasticity. As discussed above, BDNF is a

protein responsible for neuron growth and cortisol is a hormone that has

shown to decrease neurons in excess. We took seven experienced meditators

and seven non-experienced meditators and compared their BDNF, cortisol,

and Lumosity Brain Training Game scores to assess if meditation can

facilitate learning a new task. We found no statistically significant evidence

that long-term meditators had higher baseline BDNF levels, a greater

increase in BDNF after meditating, lower pre or post meditation cortisol

levels, or a greater increase in their cognitive brain games scores post

meditation. However, with our small sample size it was not likely we’d find

statistical significance.

To date this has been the first study of its kind. Therefore we have no

comparison of how meditation may affect BDNF and cortisol levels to

promote neuroplastic changes in an individual learning a new task.

Furthermore, we cannot attribute that meditation may increase BDNF levels

significantly enough to therapeutically assist or help prevent

neurodegenerative diseases. We did see interesting trends between groups. Meditative Neuroplasticity

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As a group, meditators Lumosity scores improved over all 3 games

compared to non-experienced meditators after meditation. All but one

participants’ cortisol levels decreased after meditation. Interestingly, on

average the non-meditator group’s BDNF levels increased after meditation,

while the experienced meditators BDNF showed no change. If meditation

does increase the production of BDNF, it may be more likely to be observed

in a population that doesn’t meditate and does not have a consistent surge of

BDNF from doing so, while experienced meditators may have become

accustomed to meditation and may not see as much BDNF production. The

act of meditation is known to increase the ‘focus’ and ‘attention’ areas of the

brain. This could account for the meditators greater average scores on the

Lumosity brain games, since a more consistent practice of meditation may

have exercised these brain areas compared to non-experienced meditators.

There were many challenges and limitations to this study. First and

foremost there was a very small sample size. In addition to a small sample

size, the groups were not as defined as we’d hope. This combination proved

difficult to attribute any change from meditation that we didn’t see. Some of

the non-experienced meditators reported that they used to meditate, or do

sometimes, but they still fit within our inclusion criteria of currently not

meditating more than 2 days a week. Furthermore, many non-experienced


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meditators reported engaging in yoga often, which can be very similar to

meditation. Some of the meditators, while fitting the criteria of currently

meditating for more than 4 days of the week for greater than 3 years,

reported going long periods of not meditating and mostly meditating greater

than 4 days a week. Ideally this study would have liked to have sampled

consistent, experienced meditators and compared them to individuals with

no meditation experience. An accurate participant sample for this pilot study

proved difficult due to financial and time constraints.

The act of a 30-minute mediation may have proved difficult for many

of the non-experienced meditators. It is hard to asses if the non-meditator

group meditated or not, or for how long they may have meditated. The same

could also be true for the experienced meditator group. A 30-minute

consistent meditation is difficult to achieve even with some experience in

meditation. Future studies could have a shorter meditation intervention to

address this concern. In addition, adding meditation physical measures, such

as heart or respiration rates, could help assess if meditation was performed.

Comparing different meditation times among the same participants and

seeing which meditation time affects BDNF levels would be an interesting

study. Another limitation involving the meditation intervention was the use

of a Qigong meditation. If meditation has been shown to increase growth to


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34

certain brain areas this may be attributed to the meditators’ engaging in the

same meditation consistently. This study asked participants to engage in a

certain meditation, which may not have been consistent with what the

experienced meditators had practiced over the years.

It is difficult for us to know which changes in BDNF and cortisol are

significant for neuronal growth. Although we did see a statistically

significant finding of cortisol lowering from pre to post meditation, this may

be contributed to cortisol’s natural diurnal pattern of declining during that

part of the day. The same could be said for BDNF’s diurnal pattern. There

may have been a ‘ceiling effect’ for how much a participant’s BNDF could

have risen. Baseline serum BDNF levels peak at 8m and steadily decline

until reaching the lowest levels around midnight. 57 So since some of the

participants had levels measured in the morning they may have reached their

peak BDNF production. Even if the act of meditation produced more BDNF

this have been more difficult during this time of day. How do we attribute

changes in BDNF and cortisol levels to neuronal growth? We attempted to

answer this question by having participants learn a new task via introducing

them to a Lumosity game, then post meditation having them repeat the game

and observe if they scored higher and increased BDNF while lowering

cortisol. From this we could perhaps extrapolate neuronal growth occurred.


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Is a 1ng/mL increase in BDNF sufficient for neuronal growth to occur

during brain plasticity? A 10 ng/mL increase? How much cortisol decrease

is sufficient to create a better neuronal environment for neuroplasticity?

These are just a few questions that could be addressed in future studies.

This study did not observe an increase in BDNF after meditation.

While we did not see a higher baseline BDNF in long-term meditators, or an

increase in BDNF from either group, we may still question if meditation has

a therapeutic or preventative role in neurodegeneration. Neurodegenerative

diseases and meditation are complex networks with a multitude of factors

occurring. Meditations ability to lower cortisol levels may be a key player,

lowering and balancing the right cortisol secretion ideal to assist neuron

growth and not inhibit or reverse it. Perhaps meditation increases other

proteins important for nerve growth such as Nerve Growth Factor,

Neurotrophin-3, or Neurotrophin 4/5; these may contribute to long-term

meditators having increased cortical thickness.

Future studies in the area of meditation and neuroplasticity could

benefit from several limitations discussed above. A larger sample size, while

ideal for any study, would be very beneficial in attributing meditations

effects to a greater population. The addition of other biomarkers that

contribute to neuron growth would be beneficial in future studies. There are


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36

many types of meditation so defining a specific type and focusing on

possible neuron growth or neuroplastic effects would be ideal. Qigong,

Transcendental, or Buddhist compassion meditation may all have different,

or similar, effects on brain chemistry. Furthermore, experienced meditator or

non-experienced meditator participants need to be clearly defined. When

looking at long-term effects of a meditation it would be best to have the

study intervention be the type of meditation practice the meditator is

accustomed to. Other areas for studies could be controlling for confounding

genetic, dietary, and lifestyle influences.

In summary, with this thesis we aimed to explore the possibilities

meditation may have on growing neurons and facilitating a neuronal

environment ideal for learning a new task. Additionally we sought to

examine the role meditation may have as a therapy for neurodegenerative

diseases. Previous research suggests meditation promotes neuron plasticity

in areas of the brain important for cognitive processing. BDNF is a key

player in the growth of new neurons, connecting these and other neurons,

and keeping these connections stable. Cortisol is an important hormone in

cognitive processes. Research has shown excess cortisol to decrease

cognitive performance and even promote neuronal atrophy. This is the first

study to explore meditations effect on BDNF, cortisol, and learning. With


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37

previous research showing meditation increasing cortical growth, attention,

and cognition, it is an intriguing and plausible hypothesis that meditation

influences these two chemical cognitive components to play a role in

facilitating plastic changes in the brain.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author extends a great thanks to the following individuals:

First and foremost I thank my amazing and supporting family whom I love

and miss very much. Thank you to Helfgott Research Institute for providing

the opportunity and support. To Melissa Gard, PhD for her patience and help

while guiding the author through this study. Agnieszka Z. Bałkowiec, M.D.,

Ph.D. for all her expert advice and time teaching me all she could about

brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Angela Senders, ND, Kim Tippens, ND,

MSAOM, MPH, Carolyn Nygaard, ND, Leslie Fuller, ND for their critiques

and recommendations. Doug Hanes, PhD for his masterful statistical

assistance, Deanne Tibbitts, PhD for her expertise and fun guidance of all

the lab work for this study, and my fellow colleagues for their support and

advice. A huge thanks to Katlyn Mudry for her comical, emotional and

technical support. And, Heather Zwickey, PhD for everything she’s done,


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38

since naming it all would be too extensive. I’m very grateful and honored to

have the opportunity to work with and learn from all of you.


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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1


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40

APPENDIX 2

TELEPHONE SCRIPT

Meditation Study Telephone Screening Script

“Hello, ____________________, my name is ________________________

with the National College of Natural Medicine. I’m calling about the

meditation study. Is this a good time to talk? It should take about ten

minutes.”

▪ Yes (continue)

▪ No (Discuss what time would be convenient for both of you)

“Let me tell you about the study and then if you’re interested, we can go

through a screening over the phone to see if you might be eligible. First,

where did you hear about this study?”

Check only one and describe.

□ Poster/flyer at:

____________________

□ Health

professional:________________

□ Newspaper

ad:____________________

□ Event:_____________________

____

□ Website:____________________ □ Article:____________________


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_____ _____

□ Friend/

relative:____________________

□ Radio:_____________________

____

□ Other:_______________________________________________________

____________

(If at any point the participant does not qualify for this study, ask the

following)

“Would you like to be contacted about other study participation

opportunities?”

□ Yes □ No

“This study will assess whether 30-minutes of meditation results in an

increase in a brain chemical that helps brain cells grow. We are looking for

individuals who have been practicing meditation for at least 4 or more days a

week for 3 years or longer; or have little to no experience with mediation

practice at all.


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You will be asked to meditate for thirty minutes. You will play a memory

game on a computer and have your scores measured before and after

meditation. Are you willing to do these things?

Yes (continue)

No (give them a chance to ask questions or express disinterest. Thank

them for their time and interest in the study.

As part of the study you will also have your blood drawn, we will draw two

tubes of blood before you meditate and two tubes after you meditate. The

total amount of blood we will draw is about 32 mL. This is about the

equivalent of two tablespoons – less than a full shot glass of blood. Does this

sound ok?

Yes (continue)


them for their time and interest in the study.


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43

The visit lasts about an hour and a half and takes place at the Helfgott

Research Institute located at 2220 SW 1st Ave., Portland, OR. Will you be

able to participate in a visit at this location?”

Yes (continue)


them for their time and interest in the study.)

“Do you have experience with mediation?”

Experienced Meditators

“To see if you qualify to be in the experienced meditator group, I need to ask

you a few questions.

To qualify for this study, you must have practiced meditation for at least 4 –

5 days a week for 3 years or longer.

Have you practiced meditation for 3 or more years?”

Yes (Skip ahead to ***)


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No (ask if they would you like to be a participant in the non-

experienced meditator group then see below)

Non-experienced meditators

To qualify for this study, you must have not meditated consistently.

Have you practiced meditation regularly during the last two years? By

regularly, I mean more than two times per week or more.”

Yes (close by thanking them for their time and interest)

No (continue)

I don’t know (If the participant states they have meditated to some

extent or are unsure if they qualify, ask them to describe their

meditation practice)


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Say: “Please tell me about your meditation practice so I can tell if you

qualify for the study.”

_____________________________________________________________

________________

*** “Also to qualify for the study, you must be able to provide informed

consent, be between the ages of 18 years old and 60 years old, and agree to

having your blood drawn. Do you meet these criteria?

Yes (continue)

No (close by thanking them for their time and interest)

“In order to be in the study we need to know a few things about your health.

Is this okay?”

Yes (continue)

No (close by thanking them for their time and interest)

I need to ask you a few questions. The information you provide will be kept

confidential.


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You may be from the National College of Natural Medicine. I want to assure

you that health information obtained from all participants, including

classmates and colleagues at NCNM, will be kept confidential. Every effort

will be made to maintain confidentiality of health information that anyone

discloses during the study.

I am going to read you a list of conditions that will exclude participation in

this study. You DO NOT have to say that you’ve had any of these conditions

specifically. Please wait until I have read the entire list. At the end, I will

ask you if anything on the list pertains to you.

Drug addiction,

Alzheimer’s,

Parkinson’s,

schizophrenia,

dementia,

epilepsy, or

diagnosed with depression within the past 2 years.

COPD or other pulmonary diseases


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Do you have any of these conditions.


No (continue)

“In order to be eligible for the study you must have never used Lumos Labs’

Lumosity Brain Training & Brain Games. Have you used Lumosity before?”


No (continue)

“We do ask that you please refrain from purchasing Lumosity before the

study, as using Lumosity before the study might interfere with the studies’

results.”

“We also ask that you refrain from any exercise within 12 hours of the study

visit. This includes exercises such as running, weight lifting, martial arts,

yoga, or other strenuous activities. ”

“It sounds like you may be eligible for the study, so I can schedule a visit for

you. At the visit we will explain the study in further detail. There will only

be one study visit. The informed consent form and all the study activities

will be explained at this visit. We will email you a copy of the informed Meditative Neuroplasticity

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48

consent form for you to review prior to the study visit. Please do not sign

this form until you’re with us at the study visit. Do you have time to

schedule a visit now?

Appointment scheduled for:

_______________________________________________________

“What is the best number to reach you at?”

__________________________ Home / Work / Cell / Preferred Contact

Number

“Is it OK for me to leave a message if you are unavailable?” Yes / No

“What is your e-mail address?” ____________________________________

“What is your mailing address?

____________________________________

____________________________________


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“The Helfgott Research Institute is located just south of downtown Portland.

There is free parking for the research institute under the building. Study

personnel will meet you in the lobby.”

“Would you like me to email or mail you a map?”

Yes No

“Would you like to be contacted in the future about other study participation

opportunities?”

□ Yes □ No

“Do you have any questions?

Yes (answer question)

No (continue)

“Okay, well thank you very much for your time! We look forward to seeing

you on ___________________________ (day and date) at ______________

(time).”

“Good-bye.”


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Appointment Date: __________________ Time: __________________

Map sent (if desired)

ID Assigned: _____________________

Visit scheduled with clinic:

_______ Room # ___________

_______ Blood draw

Outcome entered on telephone and screening logs

Appointment entered on calendar

Appointment confirmed day before visit


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APPENDIX 3

Meditation Script

To be read to the participants prior to meditating:

“Sit down in a comfortable position with your hands on your knees, palms

down. Close your eyes while pushing your tongue upwards. Keep your neck

and back straight, and begin to take a few long, slow breaths. As you start

relaxing, inhale through your nose for the count of four, exhale the breath for

the count of four, and then keep your lungs empty for the count of four. As

you become more relaxed you will move slowly into a deeper meditative

state, your heart rate and breathing rate will slow accordingly. Focus on your

breathing. If your mind wanders away from your breathing just return to

counting your breaths, inhale through your nose for the count of four, exhale

the breath for the count of four, and then keep your lungs empty for the

count of four.”


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APPENDIX 4

Lumosity Data Collection Form

Time point 1 (Prior to meditation)

Lumosity Game #1 Tidal Treasures: Score _______________________________

Lumosity Game #2 Speed Match: Score _______________________________

Lumosity Game #3 Memory Match: Score ________________________________

Time point 2 (After meditation)

Lumosity Game #1 Tidal Treasures: Score _______________________________

Lumosity Game #2 Speed Match: Score _______________________________

Lumosity Game #3 Memory Match: Score _______________________________


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June 1, 2015

Thesis - Meditative Neuroplasticity_7_15_15

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