There's a

FUNGUS among us

Robert J. Boles

THE KANSAS SCHOOL NATURAL/ST Kansas State Teachers College

Emporia, Kansas December Vo l. 18 197 1No.2

The Kansas

School Naturalist Published by

The Kansas State Teachers College of Emporia

Prepared and Issued by

The Department of Biology, with the cooperation of the Division of Education

Editor: Robert J. Boles

Editorial Committee: James S . Wilson, Robert F. Clarke, Gilbert A. Leisman, Harold Durst

Exofficio: Dr. Edwin B. Kurtz, Head, Dept. of Biology

The Kansas School Naturalist is sent upon request, free of charge, to Kansas teachers, school board mem bers and ad­ministrators, librarians, conservationists, youth leaders, and other adults interested in nature education. Back numbers are sent free as long as supply lasts, except Vol. S, No.3, Poisonous Snakes of Kansas. Copies of this issue may be obtained for 2S cents each postpaid. Send orders to The Kansas School Naturalist, Department of Biology, Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia, Kansas , 66801.

The Kansas School Naturalist is published in October, Decem­ber, February, and April of each year by The Kansas State Teachers College, 1200 Commercial Street, Emporia, Kansas, 66801. Second-class postage paid at Emporia, Kansas.

"Statement requi red by the Act of October, 1962: Section 43(j9, Title 39, United States Code, showing Ownership, Afanagement and Circulation." The Kansas School Naturalist is published in October, Deccmbl'r , Fcbru:H)' , :tnU April. Editorial Office and Publication Officc at 1200 C()mmercial Street, Emporia, Kansas, GG801. The Naturalist is edited and published by tIll' Kansas State T cachers College, Emporia, Kansas. Editor, Robert .r. Boles, Department of Biology.

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THERE IS A FUNGUS AMONG US Robert J. Boles

THERE IS A FUNGUS AMONG US Almost everyone ha s observed mush­

rooms growing in the woods, or has heard people arguing how to tell a mushroom from a toads too l, or ways to tell a poi sonous mushroom from an edibJe one. Mu sh rooms belong to the great group of plants ca lled the fungi. Fungi come in all shapes and colors and sizes, and there may ac tually be more different kinds than there are kinds of nowering plants. They in­clude not only the mushrooms, but also the molds, mildews, ru sts, smuts, and both beneficial and harmful bac­teria. Thi s issue of The Kansas School Na turalist will discuss some of the important fungi, with most of the emphasis upon the more familiar mush­rooms.

The Parts of a Fungus

A fungus starts from a tin y, mIcro­scopic bit of protoplasm called a spore. Even under the powerful magnification of a miscroscope a spore doesn 't look very la rge. However, if such a spore falls upon suitable food, in a dark, warm, moist place, it will sta rt to grow into a fungu s plant. The number of spores a mushroom may produce may literally number In the multiplied millions!

Tin y tr anspa rent or whitish thread s, called hyphae, will grow OUt and ex­tend through the organic matter upon which the fungus is growing. All of the hyphae are collectively referred to

as the myceli um, or the bod y of the fungus. This mycelium may grow for weeks, months. or even yea rs before the part referred to as the "mush­room" is produced. Once established, a mycelium may persist for yea rs or even centuries.

When the proper time ha s arrived. little "bumps" or enlargements will appea r along the mycelial threads, or hyphae. Such a swelling will increase in size until it projects above the so il or wood in which it started to grow . Thi s "knob" will become the familiar "mushroom." or spo re-bearing stru c­ture. Because much of the increase in size of t he fruiting bod y is due to the abso rption of moisture, mushrooms seem to literall y "pop above ground" right after a summer' s rain . The term "mushroom growth" IS sometimes applied to si tuations such as a very rapidly growing area of a city.

One or the most commonly-seen fun gi is the gi lled mushroom. Such a mushroom looks so mething like an umb re ll a. or a little stoo l upon which one or the toad s of the woods mig ht perch, as suggested by the common name "toadstool." The umbrella-like part is referred to as the cap. The radiating ti ss ues on the underside of the C<.lp <.Ire called gi ll s. Thi s structure grows on the end o f <.I Ilesh y st<.llk .

On some mushrooms a ring of ti ss ue remains around the stalk below the cap after the cap ha s opened. This ring of tissue is called the veil. The

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" " - cap

~4------- r in g

--volv a

hypha

presence of such a veil is used as one of the id entifying features 01' some of th e very poisonous Amanita mu sh­roo ms.

You may have heard people say, "mushrooms are edible, toad stoo ls are poisonous," Actually, some of the mushrooms shaped lik e a n umbrell a are quite edible, and so me of th ose without the umbrella- or stoo l-like shape a re in edible , if not poisonous.

Where Did the Names Mushroom and Toadstool Come From'?

The name mushroom probab ly came from the word" Mousse ron," a French word derived from "Mousse," or moss.

Both moss and fungi req uire damp pl aces in which to grow, but mosses, unlike the fungi, con tain chl orophyll , and can make their ow n food from the inorganic nutrients about them.

Some of yo ur pare nt s may remem­ber the old prim ary book containing a picture of a toad sitting on top of a "toadstool." [n some places in Europe term s meaning " toads's hat " or "toad's bonnet" a re st ill used. The belief is th a t mushrooms a re formed fr om th e harm ful substa nces of the ea rth and the venom of toads (note th at they are not ca lled "frogs tool s," as frogs are not co nsidered to be poisonous) and th a t fungi always grow in places where toads may be found , and give shelter to them a t times.

One o ld report sugges ts that the na me fungu s came from the word "funu s" (funeral) and " ago" (I lead to). Were a nyone to ea t so me of the mos t poisonous types, it might well actuall y result in a tri p to the grave­yard,

How Do Fungi Live'?

Fungi, unlike green plants, cannot manufac ture their ow n food. Li ke hum a ns, they must depend upon other organ isms for th e nourishment they need for growth and repai r.

Most of the higher fungi, called mushrooms or toads too ls, send their hyphae into dead or decay ing organic matter, such as manure and rotten wood, where enzymes are secreted to diges t the food material. This liquified maller IS tha n abso rbed into the

where the mushroom uses it to carryon its metabolic processes. Such a method of called saprophytism. Such mushrooms an important part in Nature, as

to restore the nutrients tied up In

dead bodies back into Nature's cu board.

Some live upon lIVIng organ­isms, deriving theil' needed materials from these Needless to in many cases the upon which

live injured In some way. Such may cause considerable economic

loss when the organism upon which they live is one of man's crops, as in the case of wheat rust, his domestic animals. or man's own body, as when he gets worm or athlete's foot. Such a method of has been given the name

that go into a sort with other

with both of the deriving some benefit from the association. Such a

is referred to as mutualism. that their

roots of certain trees, from draw needed sustenance.

they also contribute some-to the host tree, so that both

gain the association. In the Far North a fungus has with an to form what is commonly called "rein­deer moss." The caribou the ice and snow to find this plant, which forms an nt of the cari bou 's other A rctic animals') diet.

Our Earth was at one time probably mostly rock, and it has been the ages­long of lichens (a fungus and

an alga IlVJng together) which slowly broke down the rock into smaller par­ticles which became the soil upon which ollr crops grow They are still

so, but their action is so slow most of us don't realize such an ac­

is going on. Next time you are around stones or

if you are in the mountains, look for the colors of the various lichens that encrust them.

Some Harmless and Edible Mushrooms

Most of the over 38,000 known of mushrooms are not

ous to man. are edible thousand kinds have been repOrled to be so), some or the edible ones are far from palatable.

Mushrooms have been eaten since times. The Greeks and Roma ns

were fond of them. are the chief food of natives on Terra del Fuego at the of Sou th and of natives in some parls of Australia. More in Europe eat mushrooms than do Americans. In most the consider mushrooms as table delicacies rather than as a main food.

Fungi are aboutelgnty-elght per­cent water. Almost half of the rest of the mushroom is bulk that is in­di!Zestible by man. Mushrooms are

not any more nourishing ca leaves.

Mushrooms must be fresh when eaten. None should be eaten if it shows the least si!Zns of decay. or if insects

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have been feeding on it. Also, it is dangerous to eat any mu shrooms that have a milky juice.

Only a skilled person can tell a safe from an unsafe mushroom. The aga rics, which contain many edible varieties. includes the commo n table mushroom. These mushrooms have brown spores, no cup, and delica te pink gi lls when young, but which turn dark brown later. These are con­sidered to be import ant points for a mushroom-picker to remember. There are usually more edible mushrooms avai lable in the fall or la te summer than at other parts of the yea r.

Puffball s are one of the commonest fungi in meadow s and past ures. Th ey may range from abo ut half an inch in diameter to over a root or more across. When mature they give off lillie clouds of spores, which no doubt account s for one of th e common names, the Devil's-snuff box . One huge specimen in New York Slate was mistaken for a sheep at a distance; it measured over five feet in diameter'

One of the most interesting of the mushroom s are those called the Bird 's Nest Fungi. The fruiting body re­sembles the nest of a small bird, and inside the "nest" ma y be seen what appears to be a clutch of tiny eggs. Each of the lillie egg-like structures contains great numbers of spores. These fun gi may be found growing in damp pl aces on rOlling wood or ot her organic maller.

Not all mu shroom s send up a spore­producing structure above ground, but pass thei r entire lives below the surface of the soi l. Perhaps the best known

of these a re the truflles, which have a high repute in cookery. These plants have been a source of wonder since the dawn of knowledge. The ancient Greeks and Roman s marveled that such a plant should exist. Their origin wa s a special puzzle, and many wild an swers were suggested . Some thought them to be tuberou s roo ts (the word "trurlle" means tuber), while others thought lightning or thunder, along with warmth and so il, gave rise to the plant. Cicero thou gh t them to be "children of the earth," while other sc holars of the time thought they might be the unwanted children of the Gods.

One early writer (about 1500) de­sc ribed seeing as many as twenty-fi ve to thirty camels loaded with truffles on the way to marke t in Damascu s. He stated that all the mushrooms were so ld within a few days. Some of the foods menti oned in the Bible may ac tually have been trumes. Some of their popularity as a food ma y have been because they were reputed to "cause women to become more tender and men to be more amiable."

Trurlles may sometimes be located by observing the swarms of nies that hover above th e hidden fungus, upon which they prefer to la y their eggs. The highly-deve loped sense of smell of pigs and goa ts, but more often dogs, is often made use of in locating the hidden plant. There is a story of a poor lame boy who, some hundred and fifty years ago, made hi s living by sniffing out trurlles for hi s neighbors .

Some fungi have very disagreeab le odors. Perhaps the best known of thi s group are the "stink-horns." The

A large puffball.

conical, cylindrical cap on the end or the stalk or a mature rruting bod y is covered with an olive-green mucus which drips rrom it, and is responsible ror the "stink." It is very attractive to flies, especially dung flies and those that feed on dead and decay ing flesh, which soo n remove the mucus, leaving the surrace a white, honeycomb-like network . The rungus then has no or­fensive odor. An actual spo re-count or a single "fly speck" made by a i'ly that had been feeding on the mucus­like substa nce on the cap was reported to have contained 22,400,000 spores, each capable or producing a new stink­horn mu shroom.

The emergence or thi s rruting body is very rapid, and it may "grow" as much as three inches in ha ir an hour. The rapid growth or the rruiting body gave ri se to much wonderment by people years ago. One explanation was

that they were the eggs of spirits or devil s.

The rruiting bodies were form er ly used by country people in Central Europe in ointment s and powders for gout, rheumatism, and epilepsy, and love potions were brewed from them. The Chinese use this plant as a treat­ment for ulcers . As late as 1865 so me­one se riou sly suggested th at the st ink­horn was probably the cause or the di sease cholera and similar epidemics.

Fairy Rings

.. He ")1<1 goe.< hi' 'he/oirr rillg .\'ol'(/ulll1()r [1 ill I' -"hollse!!:

A lid he ")1<1 ('{c{lns Ih<'./Ilirr rillg

A II ea.lI· deelli shall dee." - Old S<,olli.l" Rlil'/JJe

Some or you may have noticed rings or mushrooms in yo ur ya rd or in a rield arter a rain . Such rings a re now known as fairy rings. The y were also once called rairy walks. fairy dan<.:e s, or, by the less romantic and poetic, hag tracks. These colorful names were given to thi s a rrangement or mu sh­room s back when many people be­lieved in the existence or rai ries and other tiny people. Because the mu sh­rooms usu a ll y pop above ground dur­ing the night , and are rir st see n earl y in the morning , people thought they were left by the rairies arter a mid­night party.

Not all ancient people thought the rings were lert by rairies, however. I n Germany they were attributed to witches. Some thought a winged dragon had scorched the earth with

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A mature puffball produces millions of spores.

his tail of fire , and mushrooms were the first plants to grow again in the burnt area.

Country girls used to think the dew from the grass inside the ring was good for the complexion, or could be used for a love potion .

Huge rings of up to fifty yards in diameter have been recorded. Such large rings were sometimes attributed to lightning from a cloud striking the earth below.

The modern explanation of the fairy ring is that, as the fungus grows, it causes chemical, biotic, or physical changes, such as using up the available nutrients, taking from the soil some­thing necessary for its growth, or it may give off a substance poisonous to itself. Thus the plant is only able to grow around the periphery, dying to the inside, but constantly extending

outward into new soil that will support its growth.

Once in awhile a second ring will be seen within the larger ring. However, this inner ring is usually a different species of fungus, having different requirements than the outer ring.

Mushrooms as Food

All the dangerously poisonous mushrooms in this country belong to the genus Amanita. There are over a dozen species of this mushroom. A few are harmless and edible, a few (three or four) may be commonly class­ed as poisonous, and only one is prob­ably responsible for most of the fa­talities resulting from "mushroom poisoning. " However, there are some other kinds of mushrooms that may cause such illnesses or discomforts as nausea , vomiting, and upset stomach . Some, though edible, are un­palatable, because of their bitter, acrid or otherwise disagreeable taste, or be­cause they are so tough and woody a human's digestive tract can't handle them. A feeling of nausea usually causes the person who ate them to throw up, thus ridding the body of the distasteful or undigestible material.

In spite of the fact that people have died from time to time from eating mushrooms the past several thousand years, men still persist in including them in the diet. Thus it is important for a person to learn to recognize the common edible ones, if he wishes to escape illness and possible death. No single feature of any mushroom is

sufficient to determine it s identit\ or edibility. The only safe way is to kno\\ it thoroughly, at all stages of develop­ment, The collector should be able to recognize the appearance of an edible mushroom as readily as he would the face of one of his best friends.

Of the many "rules" that have been proposed to tell the edible frolll the poisonou s, some are entirely un­reliable, while others have so many exceptions that they are misleading and practically worthless.

One edible mushroom that everyone should be able to recognize is the puff­ball. Probably all such mushrooms may be eaten without injury (keep in mind that some rare species that might not yet ha ve been "tested" and could cause illness m<ly exist - remember that even the poisonous A manila group has a few edible species).

Many of the over one thou sa nd varieties that are known to be good to eat belong to the group called the agarics (Latin: "field"). This group includes the common table mushroom. They have brown spores, no cup, <lnd the gills <Ire a delicated pink when young, which turn dark brown later. The characteristics mentioned above are important for a mushroom picker to keep in mind when looking for members of thi s group. They are most common in the fall or late summer.

Another edible mushroom that is held in high esteem by the mu shroom eaters is the morel, a fungus that looks like a cone-shaped sponge, pitted like a honey comb. It grows best among lea ves or wood as hes.

Care should be exercised in the se­

lection of species known to be edible. Select only plants in good condition. Old , partly decayed, water-soaked . worm-e<lten or withered plants should be disca rded . Do not keep even the so und plants too long without cooking them, as so me are very perishable and deteriorate rapidly. I f more are col­lected <It one time than c<ln be eaten it is generally better to cook them all at once and keep them in the refrig­erator cooked rather than raw. Cook the mushroom s the sa me day they are collected if possible. This is especially true in the case of the inky fungi , as the gills soo n change to a black inky nuid. Puffballs should be eaten only when the inner nesh is pure and white.

Many insects, both in the adult and larval stage, like to feed upon mush­rooms. Be sure to look inside the mush­room for these insec ts or their galleries. Mushroom s infested with such insects should not be eaten. A colony of larvae in the lower part of the stem, even though they have not yet invaded the upper part, may have a great effect upon the navor of the cap.

Some mu shroom s are harmless to so me people, but cause illness to others, just as eggs or strawberries can't be eaten by certain individuals.

What Happens When You Eat a Poisonous Mushroom?

There are actually few pOisonous mushroom s, probably less than there are poisonous species among the tlO\\ ering plants. However, some of the species of poison ous mush roo ms

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Mushrooms cannot manufacture their own food, so must grow upon organic matter, such as a dead tog.

can kill mercilessly. The most deadly species belong to the genus Amanita, and have been given such descriptive names as, "Death-Cap," "Fool's Mushroom," "Panther," and "De­stroying Angel."

The sy m ptoms of Amanita pha!­!aides (the Death-Ca p mushroom) poisoning are characteristic and ter­rible. The general course of the di sease is as follow s. After the mushroom has been eaten, no discomfort is felt for a period of from ten to twelve hours . This late onse t of sy mptoms is almost diagnostic . (That is, if some­one has eaten mushrooms, and the above time lapse occurs, followed by illness, a doctor may a lmost ass ume the mushroom s were poi so nou s) . The first di scom fort is followed by sudden and intense abdominal pains with vomiting, cold swea ts, diarrhea, and

excessive thirst. The skin Illay take on a bluish hue. These symptoms be­come less severe after about two da ys, but this period of apparent relief is most dangerous , as they then return in more seve re and inten se forill . Usually the nervous sys tem is grad­ually para lyzed, the liver degenera tes, there is delirium following coma, then collapse and death . Death occurs three to ten days after eating the poisonous mushrooms, depending upon the re­sistance of the victim and the amount of the fungus absorbed into his sys­tem. All parts of the fun gus, including the spores, are poi sonous, and a surprisingly small amount will cause illness and even death. The chance of recovery has been estimated to be from ten percent to fifty percent, depend­ing upon the species of poisonous mushroom eaten. We do know that at least ninety percent of the recorded deaths through fungu s poisoning have been caused by the Amanita pha!­!oides group. Surprisingly, there are some mu sh rooms , such as Satan's mushroom, that are poi so nou s to some people but not to others.

Mushroom poi soni ng is not new . Among the celebrated mummies of the Tour St. Michel at Bordeaux, dating back from the beginning of the fifteenth century , there is a famil y of seven which show strong evidence of having died from poisoning by Amanita phalloides, and traces of pain still show on their faces. The ny Amanita is reported to have killed Czar Alexis of Ru ssia.

All of yo u are probably familiar with the custom of clinking glasses

Puffballs juS! emerging from the ground. Many

poisonous and nonpoisonous mushrooms look much alike a! this stage.

together when drinking a toast. Ac­cording to legend, this custom arose long ago, when poisoning was one of the common methods of "gelling rid" of someone a person didn't want around. The odorless, colorless, taste­less juice of the deadly Death-Cup (Death-Cap) mushroom was ideal for this purpose. A small amount squeezed into the wine cup of the intended vic­tim did the trick. Not until some hours later would the ill-fated person realize what had happened to him-and by then it was too late' Because of the wide-spread custom ofpoisoning, people naturally became suspicious that they might be one of those marked for an untimely end. In order to prove to a guest that the drink was not poisoned, the host would pour some of the guest's wine from his cup into his own . and then take a sip. The guest would. in

turn, to show that he had no intention of disposing of his host, do the same with his cup. Through time, poisoning as a way of eliminating those you don't particularly like has declined in favor, and now the old custom has de­generated down to Just clinking the glasses together before the toast is drunk.

Not all poisonous mushrooms have the same effect upon the victim. For example, one kind has a poison that acts much like the venom of the rattle­snake, separating the red corpuscles of the blood from the serum. Another paralyzes the nerves that control the heart action.

Some soldiers in New Guinea ate Finger-Cherries because of their at­tractiveness. One or two of these fruits did no apparent harm, but nine to ten caused total and apparently permanent blindness.

The Fly-Agaric, though poisonous, is not deadly, and probably wouldn't kill a healthy person. The incubation period is uS1Jaily only one to three hours. There is usually a period of excitement and hallucinations that resemble alcoholic intoxication, soon followed by a deep coma and complete forgetfulness upon awakening. Some­times, however, the person who eats this mushroom has a worse "trip," with delirium, loss of memory, and convulsions. Recovery is rapid. From the above symptoms, you can see why some of the present-day drug users may include some of the mushrooms among the materials they consume to "get high." The name "Fly-Agaric" comes i'rom the ancient practice of

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break up this mushroom and placing it In milk, to stupefy nics. A related is used in Jaoan to kill flies.

The of some mushrooms causes extreme excitement. The Vi of old are said to have eaten this mushroom to become berserk, and days in the United States some found

and just as effective as Some tribes

a person with the does what the spirits inside

him tell him what to do. Modern women-lib advocates will certainly not be in favor of the habit of some

of having the women first chew the m thus most of the toxic and then giving the wad of chewed mushroom to the men, who then ex the excitement and hallucinations.

Certain mushrooms are used during the religious ceremonies of some of the I ndians of Mexico, and may even be considered to be sem i-sacred. The

drugs, and some members of

the present-day culture, are ob­tained from such mushrooms, gen­

grown in Mexico.

There is no antidote available for the poison produced the deadly mushrooms.* As the poison cannot be seen, smelled, or tasted, the powerful toxin is not detected until it is too late. The hope is to clean out the stomach prom with a stomach pump shortly after the mushrooms have been eaten. A few years ago a

student brought his teacher one of the mushrooms his had collected over the week-end, and intended to eat for dinner that the mushroom one of the

t he teacher rushed to the and called the child's par­

ents, thus saving them from severe illness. and possi a horrible death.

.The Institut Pasteur in France has produced a serum that good results when injected hypodermically or intravenously shortly after the firs! sign of poisoning. However. the few cases of mushroom poisomng make it impossible for the pharmacists to stock fresh serum, and we may safely assume that none will be available in time if suddenly needed.

Ergot

that causes various

rye. Animals grain suffer from

a serious disease called Ergotism shows two distinct

gangrenous and convulsive. Though both occur in parts of Europe, America has been remark free of the disease, because of better

of sistant varieties and seed treatment.

In gangrenous the limb affected becomes swollen and In­flamed in a few weeks, with violent burning ns alternating with very cold. Gradually the affected part be­comes numbed, then shrunken and mummified. The extent of the gangrene varies from the mere of nails and the loss of fi ngers and toes, to that of whole limbs.

The underside of the cap of a gill mushroom.

Conv ul sive ergotism shows pro­nounced nervous sy mpt oms, with twitchin gs and tonic spasms of the limbs, and strong permanent con­tractions, particularly of the hand s and feet. I n severe cases the whole body is subjec t to sudden, vio lent , general convulsions. One of the early sy mptoms, which often con tinues, is a ting ling sensation "as if an ts were running about under the skin ."

As might be suspected , the present­day " drug culture" enthusiast s have shown a strong interest in the potent poison produced by ergot. The power­ful hallucinogenic drug , LSD- 25, is a man-made derivative of ergot. The drug is so powerful th at a single ounce is enough to pr ov ide 300,000 human doses. Less than 5 c~ will kill an ele­phant' Weigh the effects produced by the drug in ergot mentioned above when thinking about " taking a trip" on LSD-25'

Some Very Valuable Fungi

Many people think of most of the fungi as destroying crops and forests,

attacking man and his domestic ani­mals, spoiling his food s, and weaken­ing the timbers of hi s buildings. There is no doubt th at they cause a grea t deal of damage, but they also aid in the preparation of certain industrial products and help in the sa ving of a great many lives.

A number of mold s a r~ used because their actlVltles upon orga nic ma­terials result in products useful to man . Yeasts cause bread to ri se, and ferment grains and grapes to produce alcoholic drinks, suc h as wine. Some fungi con­vert nutrient suga r so lutions into citric acid. Fungi can a lso be used to produce gluconic acid and oxa lic acid. Roque­fort and Camembert cheeses are pro­duced by the ac ti on of certain fungi.

One of the greatest discoveries in medicine was that the fungus Pen icil­lium (which most of you have seen grow ing on such foods as bread, jam , apples, oranges, or lem ons as a so ft , greeni sh, fu zzy mass) gives off a sub­stance that inhibit s the growth of certain bacteria. Bac teria are respon­sible for many types of diseases and infection s. The substance obtained from the fungu s is one of the anti­biotics, and has been named penicillin, after the fungus from which it is secu red . One of the best stra ins of this fungu s fo r the production of penicillin was discove red by a housewife, grow­ing on a mouldy cantaloupe in a local mark et' Since the discovery of penicil­lin a great many other types of molds have been found to produce sub­sta nces with germicidal effects. Your doctor has no doubt prescribed at least one of these to help yo u combat so me illness .

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Lichens (a fungus and an alga Ii,iog logether )

grow upon Irees aod rocks. Some have brighl. allraclil'e colors.

• Spore Prints

Remove the cap from the stem of' a mature gill mushroom, and lay it on a piece of paper, gills downward. Pro­tect it from air currents by cover ing it with some thing like a large g lass or bowl. Try to keep the gill s in a vertical position, as this results in the best spo re pri nt.

After waiting a f'ew hours, ca refully lift the cap from the paper. Millions of tiny spores, which have rall en from the cap, will give a pattern rad iating out rrom the center like the spokes of a wheel. The color of th e spo re print can be used as a clue to what I'amily of mushrooms the spec imen belongs. There are five families of gill mush­rooms, each of whose spo res are either white, some shade of pink , rusty brown, purple, or black. A few "odd" species may have spores that have colors of

lilac or green hues. Be sure to warn anyone collecting mu sh rooms to be eaten to be especially ca reful if the spores are white, as white spores are a characteristic of the deadly Amanita mushrooms.

Mushroom Culture

Some people grow mushrooms for a so urce of income. More and more are grown around the larger cities every year. Such an enterprise requires but a small area, such as a cellar, cave, or old quarry. It is essential that a dark environment with a warm , stead y temperature be maintained. [I' yo u are interested, you might write to the United States Department of Agri­culture for helpful bulletins on the su bject.

15

SUGGESTED REFERENCES

Christensen, Clyde M. 1970. Common Fleshy Fungi. Burgess Publishing Company. 426 South 6t h Street, Minneapoli s, Minnesota 554 15.

Frieden, Lucious von. 1969 . Mush ­room s oj the World. Babbs- Mer­rill (Printed in Ital y).

Hesler, L. R. 1960. Mushrooms oj the Great Smokies. The University or Tennessee Press. Knoxvi lle. Ten ­nessee.

Lange, Morten, and F. Bayard Hora. 1963. Mushrooms and Toadstools. E. P. Sutton and Company, 1n­corporated. New York, New York.

McKenney, Margaret. 1962. The Savory Wild Mushroom. University of Washington Press. Seattle , Wash­ington.

Ram sbot tom , John . 1954. Mushrooms and Toadstools. Collins. 14 St. James Place. London, Engla nd.

Thoma s, Willi am S. 1928 . Field Book oj Common Gilled Mushrooms. G. P. Putn am ' s Sons. New York, New York .

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