Theories & Models in Outdoor Education

EnEd 5165

Sometimes a tree grows too fast.

It grows ahead of its roots.You need to allow time for

the roots to take hold.(Anonymous saying about “life”)

Occam’s Razor

• ”when you have two competing theories that make exactly the same predictions, the simpler one is the better.”(sic) or,

• "Entities should not be multiplied unnecessarily.” (14th century)

Social Interdependence Theory (Johnson, D. & Johnson, R.. (2002). Cooperative learning and social interdependence theory. Theory and

Research on Small Groups. Social Psychological Applications to Social Issues . (4) pp. 9-35)

• “Social interdependence exists when individuals share common goals and each individual’s outcomes are affected by the actions of others (Deutsch, 1949, 1962; Johnson & Johnson, 1989 in Johnson & Johnson, 2002. p. 4)

Table 1. Social Interdependence Theory (Johnson & Johnson, 2002. p5.)

Process Cooperative Competitive Individualistic

Interdependence Positive Negative None

Interaction Pattern Promotive Oppositional None

Outcome 1 High effort to achieve

Low effort to achieve

Low effort to achieve

Outcome 2 Positive relationships

Negative relationships

No relationships

Outcome 3 Psychological health

Psychological illness

Psychological pathology

Group members promote each other’s success by: (Johnson & Johnson, 1989)

• Giving & receiving help• Exchanging resources & information• Giving & receiving feedback• Challenging each other’s reasoning• Advocating increased efforts to achieve• Mutually influencing each other’s reasoning & behavior• Engaging in the interpersonal & small-group skills for

effective teamwork• Processing group members effectiveness for the whole

group’s improvement

Foundations of Outdoor Education

•Experiential Education•Environmental Education

•Adventure Education

Which follow the parent disciplines of•Education and Physical Education

• Psychology• Philosophy

Paradigm

Construct

Concept

Facts

Experiential Education

Experiential education is a process through which the learner constructs

knowledge, skill, and value from direct experiences (AEE, 11/3/94)

Experiential Learning Requisites (Dewey, 1938)

• Simple NOT Easy• Highly Planned NOT Spontaneous• Meaningful NOT Meaning-less (exp.

For sake of exp.)• Authentic NOT Contrived• Rooted in Empiricism NOT Laissez faire• Constructs from Personal Meaning

• Individual MORE THAN Group• Structured NOT Phenomenological• Requires Judgment of Instructor NOT

Unguided• Understanding Cause & Effect requires

REFLECTION

Essential Elements of Experiential Education (Terwilliger, 1995)

• RELEVANCE: of the experience to the learner

• PROGRESSIVE: experiences build on past knowledge & experiences

• AUTHENTIC: outcomes are concrete with real consequences

COMBINED WITH THE OUTWARD BOUND MODEL:• CHALLENGING: important to stay w/in potential

ability• REFLECTION: ”processing” helps to shift from

extrinsic to intrinsic benefits

Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.

Outdoor Education

“Outdoor Education is the blending of both adventure and environmental approaches into

a program of activities or experiences. Through exposure to the outdoor setting,

individuals learn about their relationship with the natural environment, relationships

between the various concepts of natural ecosystems, and personal relationships with

others and with their inner self.” (Priest, 1986)

Definition of Outdoor Education (Priest, S. 1986. p. 13)

“Outdoor education: 1) is a method for learning; 2) is experiential; 3) takes primarily in the outdoors; 4) requires uses of all senses and domains; 5) is based upon interdisciplinary curriculum matter; 6) And is a matter of relationships involving people and natural

resources. The metaphorical model of a tree describes two approaches to outdoor education. Adventure education relates to interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships. Environmental education concentrates on ecosystemic and ekistic relationships.”

“What is best taught outdoors, should

there be taught” (L.B. Sharpe, 1949)

Definition of Outdoor Education (Priest, S. 1987)

Priest, S. (1986). Journal of Experiential Education. 17.3. p 15.

EcologicalRelationships

PhysicalSkills

Interpersonal Growthor

Educational Skills

Direct Experience

Ecotourism/Nature-Based Tourism

Adventure Education

*EnvironmentalEducation(Formal)

*Interpretation(Non-formal)

A Model ofOutdoorEducation

A model of environmental education in the U.K. Palmer. J. (1998). Environmental Education

in the 21st Century: Theory, Practice, & Promise. Rutledge. p. 272

Definition of Environmental Education

“Environmental education is aimed at approaching a citizenry that is knowledgeable concerning the

biophysical environment and its associated problems, aware of how to solve those problems, and motivated to work toward their solution.” (Stapp, B., et.al., (1969). Journal of Environmental Education. 1,1. p. 34.)

Definitions of Environmental Education

• Environmental education is learnng that produces an environmentally responsible citizenry (Hine, Hungerford & Tomera, 1987)

“Environmental education is the process of recognizing values and clarifying concepts in order to develop skill and attitudes necessary to understand and appreciate the inter-relatedness among man, his culture, and his bio-physical surroundings. Environmental education also entails practice in decision-making and seelf-formulation of a code of behavior about issues concerning environmental quality.” (International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) & United Nations Education and Cultural Organization (UNESC)) in Palmer. (1998). P 7.)

Approaches to Environmental Education (Scott & Gough, 1993)

• Nature Appreciation• Wilderness Preservation• Earth Salvation• Environmental Issues Resolution• Species Protection• Environmental Ethics• Science Education outside

What is Sustainability? 

• Brundtlund Commission Report, Our Common Future (1987)

o “Sustainable Development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”

• Sustainability Education:Putting the concept intopractice for citizens.

Start where the student is at

NOTWhere you want them

to be (Ausubel, 1975; Constructivism)

THE BELGRADE CHARTER(Goal statement for environmental education from the 1975 UNESCO conference)

THE GOAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IS TO

DEVELOP A WORLD POPULATION THAT IS AWARE

OF, AND CONCERNED ABOUT, THE TOTAL

ENVIRONMENT AND ITS ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS,

AND WHICH HAS THE KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES,

SKILLS, MOTIVATION, AND COMMITMENT TO WORK

INDIVIDUALLY AND COLLECTIVELY TOWARD

SOLUTIONS OF CURRENT PROBLEMS AND THE

PREVENTION OF NEW ONES.

Compiled by the: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

THE TBILISI DECLARATIONTaken from the First Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education,

Tbilisi, Georgia (1977)

Built from the Belgrade Charter Goals of Environmental Education:

• TO FOSTER CLEAR AWARENESS OF, AND CONCERN ABOUT,

ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECOLOGICAL

INTERDEPENDENCE IN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS;

•TO PROVIDE EVERY PERSON WITH OPPORTUNITIES TO ACQUIRE

THE KNOWLEDGE, VALUES, ATTITUDES, COMMITMENT, AND

SKILLS NEEDED TO PROTECT AND IMPROVE THE ENVIRONMENT;

AND

•TO CREATE NEW PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR OF INDIVIDUALS,

GROUPS, AND SOCIETY AS A WHOLE TOWARDS THE

ENVIRONMENT

A GREENPRINT FOR MINNESOTA(MOEE,1993)

MINNESOTA’S GOALS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION:

• TO UNDERSTAND ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS;

• TO UNDERSTAND THE CAUSE AND EFFECT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR AND THE ENVIRONMENT;

• TO BE ABLE TO ANALYZE, DEVELOP, AND USE PROBLEM-SOLVING SKILLS TO UNDERSTAND THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS OF INDIVIDUALS, INSTITUTIONS, AND NATIONS REGARDING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;

• TO BE ABLE TO EVALUATE ALTERNATIVE RESPONSES TO ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES BEFORE DECIDING ON ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION;

• TO UNDERSTAND THE POTENTIAL COMPLEMENTARY NATURE OF MULTIPLE USES OF THE ENVIRONMENT;

• TO PROVIDE EXPERIENCES TO ASSIST CITIZENS TO INCREASE THEIR SENSITIVITY AND STEWARDSHIP FOR THE ENVIRONMENT;

• TO PROVIDE INFORMATION CITIZENS NEED TO MAKE INFORMED DECISIONS ABOUT ACTIONS TO TAKE ON ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES.

Interpretation

• “An educational activity which aims to reveal meanings and relationships through the use of original objects, by firsthand experience, and by illustrative media, rather than simply to communicate factual information.” (Tilden, 1957, p. 8)

What is Interp??

• An informal education process

• “A process of communicating ideas and feelings which help people to understand more about themselves and the environment.”

Interpretation Association Australia.

The Goal of Interpretation

“Through Interpretation, UnderstandingThrough Understanding, Appreciation

Through Appreciation, Protection”

The Interpretive Spectrum

Interpretive Opportunity

Curiosity

Reflection

Appreciation

Stewardship

Understanding

Six Principles of Interpretation (Freeman Tilden, 1957, p9)

• If it doesn’t relate, it is sterile• Information is not interpretation. (Rather,

it is revelation based upon information.)• Interpretation is an art. (Any art is teachable)• The chief aim is provocation (not instruction)

• It should present a whole.• It should be age appropriate (not a “dilution” of

adult material.)

Beck and Cable’s 15 Principles of Interpretation

1. To spark an interest, interpreters must relate the subject to the lives of visitors

2. The purpose of interpretation goes beyond providing information to reveal deeper meaning and truth

3. The interpretive presentation – as a work of art – should be designed as a story that informs, entertains and enlightens.

4. The purpose of the interpretive story is to inspire and provoke people to broaden their horizons

5. Interpretation should present a complete theme or thesis and address the whole person.

Beck and Cable’s Principles

6. Interpretation for children, teenagers and seniors – when these comprise uniform groups – should follow fundamentally different approaches.

7. Every place has a history. Interpreters can bring the past alive to make the present more enjoyable and the future more meaningful.

8. High technology can reveal the world in exciting new ways. However, incorporating this technology into the interpretive program must be done with foresight and care.

9. Interpreters must concern themselves with the quantity and quality (selection and accuracy) of information presented. Focused well-researched interpretation will be more powerful than a longer discourse.

Beck and Cable’s Principles

10. Before applying the arts in interpretation, the interpreter must be familiar with basic communication techniques. Quality interpretation depends on the interpreter’s knowledge and skills, which should be developed continually.

11. Interpretive writing should address what readers would like to know, with the authority and wisdom and the humility and care that comes with it.

12. The overall interpretive program must be capable of attracting support – financial, volunteer, political, administrative – whatever support is needed for the program to flourish.

13. Interpretation should instil in people the ability, and the desire, to sense the beauty in their surroundings – to provide spiritual uplift and to encourage resource preservation.

Beck and Cable’s Principles

14. Interpreters can promote optimal experiences through intentional and thoughtful program and facility design.

15. Passion is the essential ingredient for powerful and effective interpretation – passion for the resource and for those people who come to be inspired by the same.

Beck and Cable, 1998, Interpretation for the 21st Century

Essential Elements of Constructivism(Terwilliger, 1995)

• PRECONCEPTIONS MATTER• RELEVANCE (PERSONAL MEANING)• CONCEPTUAL LEARNING (V. FACTUAL)• COGNITIVE DISSONANCE (FOLLOWED BY

RESTRUCTURE:FREEZE-THAW-REFREEZE)• SUPPORTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

(PHYSICAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL SAFETY: MASLOW)

• ABILITY TO GENERATE, CREATE, PRODUCE, EXHIBIT, DEMONSTRATE

Developmental Stages of Environmental Literacy

• Survival• Skills’ Acquisition• Relationships with the land and its

inhabitants• Metaphysical feeling “connected” to

the place; A feeling of harmony

Learning Stages in Teaching Environmental Literacy

• SENSORY AWARENESS• SKILLS’ DEVELOPMENT & TRAINING• RELATIONSHIPS (ECOLOGICAL)• ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

AWARENESS• ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ACTION

Learning Theory

• Constructivism (Wals, 1987)

• Concept Mapping (Novak, 1977; Bosquet, 1981)

• Personal Meaning (Ausubel, 1963)

• Brain Based (Whole Brain) Learning (Hart, 1983)

• Native American Learning Styles (Reyes, 1989)

• Cooperative Learning (Johnson & Johnson)

Constructivist Teaching Sequence (Driver & Oldham, 1986)

• Orientation (motivation)• Elicitation (awareness)• Restructuring (conflict, alternatives)• Application (consolidation, reinforcement)• Review = reflection (learn about learning)

Native American Learning(Reyes, 1989)(Multi-Cultural (Banks & Banks))

• Use family instructional techniques: Demonstration & imitation

• Let children learn from children• Teach through stories and legends• Utilize visual skills (observation, visual

discrimination, and spatial configuration)• Employ active learning strategies• Advance holistic intuitive learning

(process information from whole to part to understand unity in the large situation)

Indian Learning Styles(Banks, J. & Banks, C. (1995). Handbook of research on multicultural education. Macmillon. Pp

490-491.

• Field dependent/independent learning styles are unreliable, espec. group specific.

• Yet, the research literature overview concludes similarly to Native American, Hispanic & African American that these groups tend to be field dependent in their learning styles.

Indian Learning Styles (summary)

• Prefer visual, spatial, and perceptual information rather than verbal.

• Learn privately rather than in public.• Use mental images to remember and

understand words and concepts rather than word associations.

• Watch and then do rather than employ trial and error.

Link to First Nations Learning Model

http://www.ccl-cca.ca/ccl/Reports/Redefining SuccessInAboriginalLearning/RedefiningSuccessModelsFirstNations.html 

Multiple Intelligences(Gardener, 1983)

• Verbal-linguistic • Logical-mathematical• Visual-spatial• Body-kinesthetic• Interpersonal (build relationships)• Intrapersonal (look inward)• Naturalist

Multiple Intelligence (Gardner, H.,1983)

• Have well-formed spatial ability.• Learn best from non-verbal

mechanisms.• Learn experientially & in natural settings• Have a generalist orientation, interest in

people & things• Value conciseness of speech, slightly

varied intonation, & limited vocal range.• Prefer small-group work.• Favor wholistic presentations and visual

representations.

What is the outcome of in-service training?

In-service can deal with these:Action Skills

Knowledge of Action Strategies

Knowledge of Issues

Situational Factors

Intention to Act?Responsible Environmental Behavior

Attitudes

Locus of Control

Personal Responsibility

Personality Factors

Model of Responsible Behavior (Hines, et al., 1986)

Illustration of the models of theory of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980), the theory of planned behavior

(Ajzen, 1991)

ENVIRONMENTALLY RESPONSIBLEBEHAVIOUR

ENVIRONMENTAL AWARENESS

EXTRINSIC FACTORSenvironmental politics,

living environment, groups, norms

INTRINSIC PERSONALFACTORS

personality, values

spiritual

social

biological

AFFECTIVE emotional aspect

e.g. attitudes, feelings

CONATIVEintentional aspect

proactive and personal

COGNITIVEaspect e.g. knowledge about skilland action strategy, beliefs

INTENTION TO ACT

Leppänen, J., 2012

The Multi-disciplinary (Infusion) Model (Hungerford & Peyton, 1981)

Vocational Studies

Life Sciences

Earth Sciences

Social Studies

Communications

Arts, Humanities

Mathematics

Physical Education

EE

EE

Vocational Studies

Life Sciences

Earth Sciences

Social Studies

Communications

Arts, Humanities

Mathematics

Physical Education

The Inter-disciplinary (Insertion or Mono-disciplinary) Model (Hungerford & Peyton, 1981)

Adventure Education

• A variety of self-initiated activities utilizing an interaction with the natural environment, that contain elements of real or apparent danger, in which the outcome, while uncertain, can be influenced by the participant and the circumstance.” (Ewert, 1989, p.6)

The Outward Bound Process

I. The LearnerMotivated - State of readiness

II. Unique Physical EnvironmentThe use of a novel environment to

promote self awareness/ self growth

III. Unique Social EnvironmentPlacing people with different

backgrounds and abilities together to work toward a common goal creates an interdependence.

IV. Presentation of a Characteristic Set of Problems which Facilitate Mastery (Dissonance. Festinger, L.)

A. Prescriptive & OrganizedB. ProgressiveC. ConcreteD. ManageableE. Consequential

Every activity has a risk of some sortF. Holistic

Involves emotional, mental, and physical components.

V. Adaptive Dissonance, Mastery, and Attendant Reconstruction(Anxiety, Mastery, and Reconstruction)

VI. Summary

Golins, G., Walsh, V. (1975)

The Outdoor Adventure Pursuits Mix PEOPLE •MOTIVATIONS •SKILLS •SOCIAL ORIENTATION •PREFERENCE

OPPORTUNITIES •SETTINGS •PROGRAMS •SUPPORT FACTORS •ACTIVITIES

REWARDS •Psychological •SOCIOLOGICAL •EDUCATIONAL •PHYSICAL

Influencing Factors on the Outcome of a Risk Activity

Unforeseen beneficial circumstances

Proper training

Personal abilities

Correct decision making

Unforeseen detrimental circumstances

Poor training

Personal inability's

Incorrect decision making

Outcomegreater control

loss of control

FEAR MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES

Technique Definition Comments

•Systematic desensitization

•Flooding

•Modeling

•Rehearsal

•Gradual exposure to source

•Prolonged exposure to fear

•Learning new coping methods

•Practicing different adaptive behaviors

•Useful, time-consuming

•Often inappropriate, can be debilitating

•Powerful, can use instructor behavior

•Very useful but requires preplanning and time

Attitude-Behavior Model (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)

Beliefsabout

activity

Attitude about activity

Intentionstowardactivity

Behaviorwith

activity

Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, I. 1991)

Attitude toward

the behavio

r

BehaviorSubjective norm

Perceived

behavioral control

Intention