THE STORY OF SWITZERLAND BY LINA HUG AND RICHARD STEAD

7/31/2019 THE STORY OF SWITZERLAND BY LINA HUG AND RICHARD STEAD

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THESTORYOFSWITZERLAND

BY

LINAHUGANDRICHARDSTEAD

NEWYORKG.P.PUTNAM'SSONSLondon:T.FISHERUNWIN1890

COPYRIGHT,1890BYG.P.PUTNAM'SSONS

RESPECTFULLYDEDICATEDTOPROFESSORGEORGVONWYSSANDPROFESSORG.MEYERVONKNONAU

PREFACE.

Formanyreasons,someofwhichareobvioustotheleastthoughtful,thehistoryofSwitzerlandispeculiarlyinteresting,andnotleastsotoEnglish-speakingpeoples.Inthefirstplace,the"playgroundofEurope"iseveryyearvisitedbylargenumbersofBritishandAmericans,someofwhomindeedarefamiliarwithalmosteverycornerofit.ThentotheAnglo-Saxonracethegrandspectacleofahandfuloffreemennoblystrugglingforandmaintainingtheirfreedom,oftenamidstenormous

difficulties,andagainstappallingodds,cannotbutbeheart-stirring.TothecitizenofthegreatAmericanrepublicastudyoftheconstitutionofthelittleEuropeanrepublicshouldbringbothinterestandprofit--aconstitutionresemblinginmanypointsthatofhisowncountry,andyetinmanyotherrespectssodifferent.Andfewreaders,ofwhatevernationality,can,wethink,perusethisstorywithoutafeelingofadmirationforagallantpeoplewhohavefoughtagainstoppressionastheSwisshavefought,whohavelovedfreedomastheyhavelovedit,andwhohaveperformedthewell-nighincrediblefeatsofarmstheSwitzershaveperformed.AndasSirFrancisO.AdamsandMr.CunninghamwellpointoutintheirrecentlypublishedworkontheSwissConfederation,asastudyinconstitutionalhistory,thevalueofthestoryofthedevelopmentoftheConfederationcanhardlybe

over-estimated.

FewoftheexistingaccountsofSwisshistorywhichhaveappearedintheEnglishlanguagegobackbeyondtheyear1291A.D.,thedateoftheearliestSwissLeague,andofcourseSwitzerlandasanationcannotboastofanearlierorigin.ButsurelysomeaccountshouldbegivenoftheprevioushistoryofthemenwhofoundedtheLeague.Foracountrywhichhasbeenoccupiedatdifferentperiodsbylakemen,Helvetians,andRomans;whereAlamanni,Burgundians,andFrankshaveplayedtheirparts;whereCharlemagnelivedandruled,andCharlestheBoldfought;where


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thegreatfamiliesoftheZaerings,theKyburgs,andSavoystruggled;andwhencethenowmightyhouseofHabsburgsprang(anddomineered)--allthisbefore1291--acountrywithsuchastorytotellofitsearliertimes,wesay,shouldnothavethatstoryleftuntold.AccordinglyinthisvolumethehistoryoftheperiodbeforetheformationoftheConfederationhasbeendweltuponatsomelittlelength.Itshouldbementioned,too,thatinviewoftheverygeneralinterestcausedbytheremarkablediscoveryoftheSwisslakesettlementsafewyearsago,achapterhasbeendevotedtothesubject.

Mindful,however,ofthesuperiorimportanceoftheformationandprogressoftheConfederation,anendeavourhasbeenmadetotracethatprogressstepbystep,showinghowmendifferinginrace,inlanguage,increed,andinmodeoflife,combinedtoresistthecommonenemy,andtobuildupthecompactlittlestate,wenowseeplayingitspartontheEuropeanstage.ThewholeteachingofthehistoryofthecountrymaybesummedupinMr.Coolidge'swords,inhis"HistoryoftheSwissConfederation"(p.65)."Swisshistoryteachesus,allthewaythrough,thatSwisslibertyhasbeenwonbyacloseunionofmanysmallstates."AndMr.Coolidgeaddsanopinionthat"itwillbebestpreservedbythesamemeans,andnotbyobliteratingalllocalpeculiarities,nowheresostriking,nowheresohistoricallyimportantasinSwitzerland."

Itremainstoaddafewwordsastotheauthoritiesconsultedbythe

writersofthislittlevolume.ThestandardSwisshistorieshavenaturallybeenlargelyused,suchasthoseofDr.CarlDndliker,Dierauer,Vulliemin,Daguet,Strickler,Vgelin,andWeber("UniversalHistory").Amongstotherhistoriesandmiscellaneouswritings--essays,pamphlets,andwhatnot--maybementionedthoseofDr.FerdinandKeller,Wartmann,Heer,Heierli,VonArx,Mommsen,Burkhardt,Morel,Marquardt,Dahn,Bdinger,Secretan,VonWyss,MeyervonKnonau,Schweizer,Finsler,Roget,Bchtold,Marcmonnier,Rambert,Hettner,Scherer,Roquette,Freytag,Pestalozzi,Schulze,andKern.AmongsttheEnglishworksconsultedareFreeman'swritings,theLettersoftheParkerSociety,AdamsandCunningham's"SwissConfederation,"Coolidge'sreprintfromthe"EncyclopdiaBritannica"ofthearticleonthe"HistoryoftheSwissConfederation,"Bryce's"HolyRomanEmpire,"&c.

TheauthorsareindebtedformostkindandvaluableassistancetoseveraleminentSwissscholars.ToProf.GeorgvonWyssandProf.MeyervonKnonauspecialthanksaredue,whilstProf.Kesselring,HerrJ.Heierli,andothers,haveshownmuchhelpfulinterestintheprogressofthework.

ZURICHandFOLKESTONE,July,1890.

CONTENTS.

PAGE

PREFACEix

TABLEOFCANTONSxiii

TABLESHOWINGNAMES,AREAS,ANDPOPULATIONSOFCANTONSxxiv


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I.

THELAKEDWELLERS1-12

DiscoveryofLakeSettlements--Dr.FerdinandKeller'sexplorations--Threedistinctepochs--DailylifeoftheLakemen--LakeSettlementsinEastYorkshire.

II.

THEHELVETIANS13-28

Extentoftheirterritory--Theirgovernmentandmodeoflife--Orgetorix--DivicobeatstheRomanforces--CsarroutsHelvetians--Vercingetorix--Valisians--Rhtians.

III.

HELVETIAUNDERTHEROMANS29-43

Csar'smodeofdealingwithHelvetia--Augustus--HelvetiaincorporatedintoGaul--Vespasian--AlamanniandBurgundians--Christianityintroduced.

IV.

THEANCESTORSOFTHESWISSNATION44-57

TheHunsandtheirravages--Alamanni--Burgundians--"TheNibelungenlied"--TheFrankssubduebothAlamanniandBurgundians--IrishmonkspreachinSwitzerland.

V.

THECAROLINGIANS--CHARLEMAGNE58-70

PepinleBref--Charlemagne--HisconnectionwithZurich.

VI.

THEKINGDOMOFBURGUNDY;THEDUCHYOFSWABIA;ANDTHEGERMANEMPIRE71-82

DivisionofCharlemagne'sterritoryintothree--Rudolfthe

Guelf--SwabianDukes--Genealogicaltables.

VII.

BURGUNDYANDSWABIAUNDERTHEGERMANEMPERORS85-94

Bertha,the"SpinningQueen"--HersonConrad--HelvetiaincloseconnectionwithGermany--HenryIII.--StrugglewiththePapalpower.


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VIII.

THEREIGNOFTHEHOUSEOFZAERINGEN95-100

Theirorigin--Freiburgandothertownsfounded--Bernfounded--DefeatedbySavoy--TheCrusades.

IX.

THEHOUSESOFKYBURG,SAVOY,ANDHABSBURG101-117

FalloftheZaerings--Kyburgdynasty--GrowthofFeudalism--TheHohenstaufen--Savoy--RiseoftheHabsburgs--Rudolf.

X.

THECONFEDERATION,OREIDGENOSSENSCHAFT118-130

TheForestCantons--TheOathontheRtli--RudolfoppressestheWaldsttten--Tellandtheapple--InvestigationastothefactsrelatingtothefoundationoftheLeague.

XI.

THEBATTLEOFMORGARTEN131-137

AttemptonZurichbytheHabsburgs--Albrecht--GatheringoftheWaldpeoples--Austriandefeat.

XII.

THELEAGUEOFTHEEIGHTSTATES139-146

LucernejoinstheLeague--Zurichfollows--WarwithAustria--GlarusattachedtotheLeagueasaninferiororprotectedState--ZugjoinstheUnion--Bern.

XIII.

ZURICHANEXAMPLEOFASWISSTOWNINTHEMIDDLEAGES147-157

AbbeyChurchofourLady--InfluenceoftheLadyAbbess--Citizensinthreeclasses--Theygraduallygainfreedom--Tradeofthecity--Zurichaliterarycentre--Uprisingoftheworkingclasses--Anewconstitution.

XIV.

BERNCRUSHESTHENOBILITY:GREATVICTORYOFLAUPEN158-166

Bernofamilitarybent--FormsaWestSwissUnion--SiegeofSolothurn--BernopposestheHabsburgs--AcquiresLaupen--VictoryatLaupen--LeagueoftheEightStatescompleted.


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XV.

THEBATTLESOFSEMPACHANDNAEFELS167-178

OppositiontoAustria--LeopoldIII.,Characterof--Hisplans--DefeatanddeathatSempach--Winkelried--BattleofNaefels.

XVI.

HOWSWITZERLANDCAMETOHAVESUBJECTLANDS179-189

Acquisitionofsurroundingterritoriesdesirable--Appenzell--Valais--Graubnden--Aargau--QuarrelswithMilan.

XVII.

WARBETWEENZURICHANDSCHWYZ190-199

DisputeconcerningToggenburglands--StssiofZurichandVonRedingofSchwyz--Zurichworsted--Makesalliancewith

Austria--Francejoinsthealliance--BattleofSt.Jacques.

XVIII.

BURGUNDIANWARS200-216

CharlestheBold--LouisXI.ofFrance--Causeswhichledtothewar--PolicyofBern--Commencementofhostilities--BattleofGrandson--Morat--SiegeofNancyanddeathofCharles.

XIX.

MEETINGATSTANZ,&C.217-229

PrestigegainedbytheLeague--DisputesrespectingtheadmissionofFreiburgandSolothurn--DietatStanz--NicolasvonderFle--CovenantofStanz--Waldmann--Hisexecution.

XX.

THELEAGUEOFTHETHIRTEENCANTONSCOMPLETED230-242

Maximilian--SwabianWar--SeparationofSwitzerlandfromthe

Empire--BaseljoinstheLeague--Schaffhausen--Appenzell--Italianwars--SiegeofNovara--BattleofMarignano--St.Gall.

XXI.

THEGREATCOUNCILS,LANDSGEMEINDE,ANDDIET,&C.243-253

TwokindsofCanton--ConstitutionofBernandofZurich--Landsgemeinde--Tagsatzung--Intellectualandliterarylife.


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XXII.

THEREFORMATIONINGERMANSWITZERLAND254-268

Zwingli--Hisearlylife--Hisdesireforareformation--AppointedtoZurich--AnationalReformedChurchestablished--Spreadofthenewfaith--TheKappelerMilchsuppe--DisputesbetweenLutherandZwingli--SecondquarrelwiththeForest--Zwinglikilled.

XXIII.

THEREFORMATIONINWESTSWITZERLAND269-278

PoliticalconditionofVaudandGeneva--CharlesIII.andGeneva--The"LadleSquires"--BonivardthrownintoChillon--ReformedfaithpreachedinFrenchSwitzerlandbyFarel--TreatyofSt.Julien--OperationsinSavoy.

XXIV.

GENEVAANDCALVIN279-290Calvin--His"Institutes"--HisConfessionofFaith--BanishmentfromGeneva--Hisreturn--TheConsistoire--The"ChildrenofGeneva"--Servetusburnt--TheAcademyfounded--Calvin'sdeath.

XXV.

THECATHOLICREACTION291-302

Droitd'asile--Pfyffer--CarloBorromeo,ArchbishopofMilan--BorromeanLeague--Protestantsdrivenfrom

Locarno--Switzerlandanasylumforreligiousrefugees--EffectofSwissReformationonEngland--Revivaloflearning--EscaladeofGeneva.

XXVI.

THEARISTOCRATICPERIOD303-314

ThirtyYears'War--Graubndenanditsdifficulties--MassacreinValtellina--Rohan--Jenatsch--Peasants'Revolt--TreatywithFrance.

XXVII.

POLITICALMATTERSINTHEEIGHTEENTHCENTURY315-323

Aristocracyandplebeians--FrenchLeague--MassacreatGreifensee--Davel'splot--Bern--Itsthreecastes--ConstitutionalstrugglesinGeneva--AffrayinNeuchtel.

XXVIII.


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SWITZERLANDANDTHERENAISSANCE:INFLUENCEOFVOLTAIREANDROUSSEAU324-342

Voltaire--ResidenceatFerney--NospecialinfluenceonGeneva--Rousseau--MadamedeStal--Swisssavants--ZurichaPoets'Corner--Breitinger,Bodmer,Haller,Klopstock,&c.--Pestalozzi--Lavater--TheHelveticSociety.

XXIX.

THEFRENCHREVOLUTIONANDSWITZERLAND343-359

SwissGuardsmassacredinParis--InsurrectionofStfa--TreatyofCampoFormio--TheParisHelveticClub--The"LemanicRepublic"--SurrenderofBern--HelveticRepublicproclaimed--OppositionbySchwyz,Stanz,&c.

XXX.

THE"ONEANDUNDIVIDEDHELVETICREPUBLIC"357-368

AlevyorderedbyFrance--Franco-Helveticalliance--Austrian

occupation--Russianoccupation--BattleofZurich--Suwarow'sextraordinarymarches--HeavyFrenchrequisitions--RenggerandStapfer,--CentralistsandFederalists--Napoleonasmediator.

XXXI.

THEMEDIATIONACTANDNAPOLEON369-381

ConferenceinParisonSwissmatters--MediationActsigned--TheBockenkrieg--Sixnewcantonsformed--Materialandintellectualprogress--ExtinctionofDiet--The"LongDiet"--CongressofVienna--Completionoftwenty-twocantons.

XXXII.

SWITZERLANDUNDERTHECONSTITUTIONOF1815-48382-394

DissatisfactionwithresultsofViennaCongress--TheFrenchrevolutionof1830--The"DayofUster"--TheSiebnerConcordat--CatholicLeague--Progressofeducation--PoliticalrefugeesinSwitzerland--LouisPhilippe--LouisNapoleon--DisturbancesinZurichbytheAnti-Nationalists--TheSonderbundWar.

XXXIII.

UNDERTHECONSTITUTIONOF1848395-407

NewFederalConstitution--FederalAssembly--FederalCouncil--FederalTribunal--Powersoftheindividualcantons--Militaryservice--Neuchteltroubles--FederalPactamended--TheInitiative--TheReferendum.


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XXXIV.

INDUSTRY,COMMERCE,RAILWAYS,EDUCATION.THE"RIGHTOFASYLUM"408-421

Extentoftrade--Exportsandimports--Railways--Education--Kellerthepoet--TheGenevaConvention--InternationalPostalUnion--InternationalLabourCongress--Switzerlandasapoliticalasylum--Franco-GermanWar--Summaryofpopulationstatistics.

GENEALOGICALTABLES83,84

INDEX423

LISTOFILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

LAKEDWELLINGS,ZURICHLAKE,FROMADESIGNBYDR.FERDINANDKELLERFrontispiece

MAP,SHOWINGLAKESETTLEMENTSAROUNDZURICHLAKE,BYMR.HEIERLI2

(1)DECORATIONONSWORDHILT;(2AND3),STONECELTSFOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS(COPIEDBYPERMISSIONFROM"HARPER'SMAGAZINE")4

(1)VESSEL;(2)SPECIMENSOFWOVENFABRICSFOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS(COPIEDBYPERMISSIONFROM"HARPER'SMAGAZINE")7

SPECIMENSOFPOTTERYFOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS(COPIEDBYPERMISSIONFROM"HARPER'SMAGAZINE")10

JOHANNISSTEIN,WITHRUINSOFCASTLEOF"HOHENRHTIA,"NEARTHUSIS,GRAUBNDEN16

HOUSE(FORMERLYCHAPEL)INROMAUNSHSTYLE,ATSCHULS,LOWERENGADINE,GRAUBNDEN27

SILVERCOIN,VERCINGETORIX(DR.IMHOOF,WINTERTHUR)29

GOLDCOIN,VESPASIAN[VESPASIANUSIMPERATOR-AETERNITAS](DR.IMHOOF)34

GOLDCOINOFSIXTEENTHCENTURY[ST.FELIX,ST.REGULA-SANCTUSCAROLUS](DR.IMHOOF)42

THEEIGER52

GREATMINSTERANDWASSERKIRCHE,ZURICH(APPENZELLER,ZURICH)67

FURKAPASS79


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CATHEDRAL(EXTERIOR),LAUSANNE92

CHTEAUDEVUFFLENS,VAUD(FOURTEENTHCENTURY)102

BRONZEFIGURESFROMMAXIMILIANMONUMENT,INNSBRUCK(ARTHUROFTHEROUNDTABLE,BRITAIN;THEODOBERT,DUKEOFBURGUNDY;ERNEST,DUKEOFAUSTRIA;THEODORIC,KINGOFTHEOSTROGOTHS)106

THEOLDHABSBURGCASTLE,CANTONAARGAU112

THALEROFTHETHREECANTONS(URI,SCHWYZ,ANDUNTERWALDEN)120

MAPOFOLDSWITZERLAND138

UPPERFALLOFTHEREICHENBACH(MEYRINGEN)160

PORCHOFBERNMINSTER,WITHSTATUEOFRUDOLFVONERLACH165

WINKELRIED'SMONUMENT,STANZ174ARMSOFURI189

ST.JACQUESMONUMENT,BASEL,BYSCHLTH196

ARMSOFSCHWYZ198

ELIZABETH,WIFEOFALBERTII.;MARIAOFBURGUNDY;ELEANOROFPORTUGAL;KUNIGUNDE,SISTEROFMAXIMILIAN(FROMMAXIMILIANMONUMENT,INNSBRUCK)201

MAPOFGRANDSON210

OLDWEAPONSANDARMOURINZURICHARSENAL214

INNERCOURTOFTHEABBEYOFOURLADY.LUTHCHAPTEROFZURICH220

ARMSOFUNTERWALDEN229

MARBLERELIEVI,MAXIMILIANMONUMENT,INNSBRUCK231

CITYWALLSOFMURTEN235

CUSTOM-HOUSE,FREIBURG240

SARNEN,BERN244

CITYWALLS,LUCERNE246

ULRICHZWINGLI256

MINSTER,BERN270


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THALEROF1564(ST.GALL)289

HIGHALTAR,CHURCATHEDRAL306

ROUSSEAU329

PESTALOZZI330

HALLER333

LAVATER340

THELIONOFLUCERNE344

LAHARPE348

REDING354

DILIGENCECROSSINGTHESIMPLONPASS362

INTERLAKEN,FROMTHEFELSENEGG386

POLYTECHNIKUMATZURICH397

VIEWOFSION404LAWCOURTSATLAUSANNE407

"VICTIMSOFTHEWORK,"ST.GOTHARDTUNNEL,FROMABAS-RELIEFBYVELA(BYSPECIALPERMISSIONOFSCULPTOR)411

PORTRAITOFGOTFRIEDKELLER,THEPOET413

INTERIOROFLAUSANNECATHEDRAL419

TABLE

SHOWINGNAMES(GERMANANDFRENCH),AREAS,ANDPOPULATIONSOFCANTONS.

----------------------------+------------------------+---------+-------------||Areain|PopulationGermanName.|FrenchName.|Square|(approximate)||Miles.|Dec.1,1888.----------------------------+------------------------+---------+-------------1.Aargau|Argovie|543|193,000

2.Appenzell|Appenzell||{AusserRhoden|{RhodesExtrieures|100|54,000{InnerRhoden|{RhodesIntrieures|60|13,0003.BaselStadt|Ble-Ville|14|74,000"Land|"Campagne|163|62,0004.Bern|Berne|2,660|539,0005.Freiburg|Fribourg|644|119,0006.St.Gallen|St.Gall|779|229,0007.Genf|Genve(Geneva)|109|107,0008.Glarus|Glaris|267|33,000


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9.Graubnden|Grisons|2,774|96,00010.Luzern|Lucerne|579|135,00011.Neuenburg|Neuchtel|312|109,00012.Schaffhausen|Schaffhouse|116|37,00013.Schwyz|Schwyz(Schwytz)|351|50,00014.Solothurn|Soleure|303|85,00015.Tessin|Tessin(Italian,Ticino)|1,095|127,00016.Thurgau|Thurgovie|381|105,00017.Unterwalden{ObdemWald|Unterwalden{LeHaut|183|15,000{Middem"|{LeBas|112|12,00018.Uri|Uri|415|17,00019.Wallis|Valais|2,026|102,00020.Waadt|Vaud|1,244|251,00021.Zug|Zoug|92|23,00022.Zrich|Zurich|665|332,000----------------------------+------------------------+---------+-------------Total|15,987|2,920,723[1]+---------+-------------

FOOTNOTES:

[1]Thisgrandtotalofthepopulation,onDec.1,1888,istakenfromtheprovisionalCensusTablesissuedbytheSwissGovernmentin1889.

THESTORYOFSWITZERLAND.

I.

THELAKEDWELLERS.

Whofirstlivedinthiscountryofours?Whatandwhatmannerofmenweretheywhofirstsettledonitsvirginsoilandmadeit"home"?Thesequestionsnaturallypresentthemselveseverynowandthentomostthoughtfulpeople.Andthemanwithanypretensionstoculturefeelsaninterestinthehistoryofothercountriesbesideshisown.

Buthoweverinterestingthesequestionsastoprimarycolonizationsmaybe,theyareusuallyexactlythemostdifficultofanswerthatthehistoryofacountrypresents.NowandthenindeedwemayknowtolerablywellthestoryofsomeearlyGreekimmigration,orwemaypossessfullaccountsofthemodernsettlementofaPitcairnIsland;butinfarthegreaternumberofinstanceswecanbutdimlysurmiseorrashlyguesswhoandwhatweretheearliestinhabitantsofanygivenregion.

MAPSHOWINGTHECHIEFLAKESETTLEMENTSINORNEARLAKEZURICH,ByProf.T.Heierli,Zurich.

InthecaseofSwitzerland,however,weareparticularlyfortunate."Everyschoolboy"hasheardofthewonderfuldiscoveriesmadeontheshoresofthebeautifulSwisslakesduringthelastfewyears,andthesameschoolboyevenunderstands,ifsomewhathazily,theimportanceattachingtothesediscoveries.Nevertheless,someshortaccountoftheearliestinhabitantsoftheruggedHelvetiamustoccupythisfirst


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chapter.Andtothegeneralreadersomelittleinformationastowhatwasfound,andhowitwasfound,onthelakeshores,maynotcomeamiss.

Inthewinterof1853,thewatersofZurichlakesanksolowthatawidestretchofmudwaslaidbarealongtheshores.ThepeopleofMeilen,alargevillagesometwelvemilesfromthetownofZurich,tookadvantageofthisunusualstateofthingstoeffectcertainimprovements,andduringtheoperationstheworkmen'stoolsstruckagainstsomeobstacles,whichprovedtobegreatwoodenprops,orpiles.Thesepiles,thetopsofwhichwerebutafewinchesbelowthesurfaceofthemud,werefoundtobeplantedinrowsandsquares,andthenumberofthemseemedtobeenormous.Andthentherewerepickedoutofthemudlargenumbersofbones,antlers,weapons,implementsofvariouskinds,andwhatnot.Dr.FerdinandKeller,agreatauthorityonHelvetianantiquities,wassentfromZurichtoexaminethespot,andhepronouncedittobealakesettlement,probablyofsomeveryancientCeltictribe.Manymarksofaprehistoricoccupationhadpreviouslybeenfound,buthithertonotracesofdwellings.Naturallythenewsofthisimportantdiscoveryoflakehabitationscausedagreatsensation,andgaveagreatimpulsetoarchologicalstudies.Dr.KellercalledtheseearlysettlersPfahl-bauer,orpile-builders,fromtheirpeculiarmodeofbuildingtheirhouses.

[Illustration:(1)DECORATIONONSWORDHILT;(2AND3)STONECELTS,

FOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS.(Copiedbypermissionfrom"Harper'sMagazine.")]

Duringthecourseofthelastthirtyyears,overtwohundredoftheseaquaticvillageshavebeendiscovered--ontheshoresofthelakesofConstance,Geneva,Zurich,Neuchtel,Bienne,Morat,andothersmallerlakes,andoncertainriversandswampyspotswhichhadoncebeenlakesorquasi-lakes.TheAlpinelakes,however,withtheirsteepandofteninaccessiblebanks,shownotraceoflakesettlements.

Thelakedwellingsaremostly[2]placedonpilesdrivensome10feetintothebedofthelake,andasmanyasthirtyorfortythousandof

thesepileshavebeenfoundinasinglesettlement.Thehousesthemselvesweremadeofhurdlework,andthatchedwithstraworrushes.Layersofwattlesandclayalternatingformedthefloors,andthewallsseemtohavebeenrenderedmoreweather-proofbyacoveringofclay,orelseofbulrushesorstraw.Arailingofwickerworkranroundeachhut,partlynodoubttokeepoffthewashofthelake,andpartlyasaprotectiontothechildren.Lightbridges,organgwayseasilymoved,connectedthehutswitheachotherandwiththeshore.Eachhousecontainedtworoomsatleast,andsomeofthedwellingsmeasuredasmuchas27feetby22feet.Hearthstonesblackenedbyfireoftenremaintoshowwherethekitchenshadbeen.Matsofbast,straw,andreedsaboundinthesettlements,andshowthatthelakemenhadtheirnotionsofcosinessandcomfort.Largecrescent-shapedtalismans,carvedonone

side,werehungovertheentrancestothehuts,showingprettyclearlythatthemoon-goddesswasworshipped.TheprehistoriccollectionsinthepublicmuseumsatZurich,Berne,Bienne,Neuchtel,andGeneva,nottospeakofprivatecollections,areveryextensiveandveryfine,containingtools,handsomeweapons,knivesofmostexquisiteshapeandcarving,women'sornaments,someofthemofthemostelegantkind.A"ladyofthelake"infulldresswouldseemtohavemadeanimposingshow.Anundergarmentoffinelinenwasgirdedatthewaistbyabroadbeltofinlaidorembossedbronzework.Overtheshoulderswasthrownawoollencloakfastenedwithbronzeclasps,orpins,whilstneck,arms,


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andanklesweredeckedwithagreatstoreoftrinkets--necklaces,anklets,bracelets,rings,spangles,andsoforth.Thewholewassetoffbyadiademoflongpinswithlargeheadsbeautifullychiselled,andinlaidwithbeadsofmetalorglass,thesepinsbeingstuckthroughasortofleathernfilletwhichboundupthehair.Sobeautifularesomeofthetrinkets,thatimitationsofthemingoldareinrequestbytheladiesofto-day.

[Illustration:(1)VESSEL;(2)SPECIMENSOFWOVENFABRICSFOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS.

(Copiedbypermissionfrom"Harper'sMagazine.")]

ItiscurioustofindthatoneofthemostextensivelakecoloniesinSwitzerlandissituatedinandspreadoverthevastmarshesofRobenhausen(Zurich)whichonceformedpartofLakePfffikon.Thevisitorwhoisnotdeterredbytheinconvenienceofadescentintoadampandmuddypitsome11feetdeep,whereexcavationsarestillbeingcarriedon,findshimselffacingthreesuccessivesettlements,oneaboveanother,andallbelongingtotheremotestoneage.Betweenthesuccessivesettlementsarelayersofturf,some3feetthick,thegrowthofmanycenturies.Theturfitselfiscoveredbyastratumofstickymatter,4inchesthick.Inthisarenumbersofrelicsembedded,bothdestructibleandindestructibleobjectsbeingperfectlywellpreserved,

theformerkeptfromdecaythroughhavingbeencharredbyfire.ThelateProfessorHeerdiscoveredandanalysedremainsofmorethanahundreddifferentkindsofplants.Grains,andevenwholeearsofwheatandbarley,seedsofstrawberriesandraspberries,driedapples,textilefabrics,implements,hatchetsofnephrite--thismineralandtheOrientalcerealsshowclearlyenoughthatthelakementradedwiththeEast,thoughnodoubtthroughtheMediterraneanpeoples--spinning-wheels,corn-squeezers,floorings,fragmentarywalls--allthesearefoundinplenty,ineachofthethreelayers.Thetopmostsettlement,however,containsnodestructiblematters,suchascorn,fruits,&c.Thisistobeaccountedforbythefactthatthetwolowersettlementsweredestroyedbyfire,andtheuppermostonebythegrowthoftheturf,orbytherisingmarshes.Inthelattercasetherewasnofriendlyaction

offiretopreservethevariousobjects.

Thescholar'smindisatoncecarriedbacktotheaccountgivenbyHerodotusofThrakianlake-dwellers.[3]Thepeopleofthistribe,hetellsus,builttheirhousesoverwater,soastogainfacilitiesforfishing.Theyusedtoletdownbasketsthroughtrapdoorsinthefloorsoftheirhuts,andthesebasketsrapidlyfilledwithallkindsoffishthathadgatheredaround,temptedbythedroppingsoffood.

Thoughthelakemendependedchieflyonthewaterfortheirsupplyoffood,yettheywerehunters,andgreattillersofthegroundaswellasfishermen.Theygrewwheatandbarley,andkepthorses,cattle,sheep,andgoats.Thewomenspunflaxandwool,andwovethemintofabricsfor

clothing.Theircrockerywasatfirstofaveryprimitivedescription,beingmadeofblackclay,andshowingbutlittlefinishorartisticdesign.Butthechildrenwerenotforgotten,fortheyweresuppliedwithtinymugsandcups.[4]

[Illustration:SPECIMENSOFPOTTERYFOUNDINSWISSLAKEDWELLINGS.

(Copiedbypermissionfrom"Harper'sMagazine.")]

Withregardtothedatewhentheimmigrationoflakemenbeganthe


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savantsarehopelesslyatvariance.Nordotheyagreeanybetterastothedatesofthestoneandbronzeepochsintowhichthehistoryofthelakesettlementsdividesitself.Butasinsomeofthemarshystationsthesetwoepochsreachontotheageofiron,itisassumedbymanyauthoritiesthatthelakedwellerslivedontohistoricaltimes.ThisisparticularlyshowninthealluvialsoilandmarshesbetweenthelakesofNeuchtelandBienne,Prfargierbeingoneofthechiefstations,wheresettlementsbelongingtothestone,bronze,andironagesarefoundrangedoneaboveanotherinchronologicalorder.Inthetopmoststratumorcolony,thelakemen'swaresarefoundminglingpell-mellwithironandbronzeobjectsofHelvetianandRomanmake,afactsufficient,probably,toshowthatthelakedwellersassociatedwithhistoricalpeoples.Itwouldbeuselessaswellastedioustosetforthatlengthallthetheoriesprevailingastotheoriginandageofthelakedwellings.Sufficeittosaythat,bysomeauthorities,thecommencementofthestoneperiodisplacedatsixthousand,andbyothersatthreethousandyearsbeforetheChristianera,thelatterbeingprobablynearestthetruth.Astotheageofbronze,wemaysafelyassignitto1100-1000B.C.,forProfessorHeerprovesconclusivelythatthetimeofHomer--theGreekageofbronze--wascontemporarywiththebronzeepochofthelakemen.[5]

TheLakeperiodwouldseemtohavedrawntoacloseabout600-700B.C.,whentheageofbronzewassupersededbythatofiron.Accordingtothe

mostpainstakinginvestigationsmadebyMr.Heierli,ofZurich,nowthegreatestauthorityonthesubjectinSwitzerland,thelakemenlefttheirwaterysettlementsaboutthedatejustgiven,andbegantofixtheirhabitationsonterrafirma.Varioustombsalreadyfoundonlandwouldbearwitnesstothischange.Whenthesepeculiarpeoplehadoncecomeonshoretolivetheywouldbegraduallyabsorbedintoneighbouringandsucceedingraces,nodoubtintosomeoftheCeltictribes,andmostlikelyintotheHelvetianpeoples.Thustheyhavetheirpart,howeversmallitmaybe,inthehistoryoftheSwissnation.ItmustbeaddedthatthePfahl-bauerarenolongerheldtohavebeenaCelticpeople,butarethoughttohavebelongedtosomepreviousrace,thoughwhichhasnotasyetbeenascertained.

Butenoughhasbeenwrittenonthesubject,perhaps.Yet,ontheotherhand,itwouldhavebeenimpossibletopassoverthelakemeninsilence,especiallynowwhentheimportantdiscoveriesofsimilarlakesettlementsinEastYorkshirehavedrawntothesubjecttheattentionofallintelligentEnglish-speakingpeople.[6]

FOOTNOTES:

[2]Therearetwodistinctkindsofsettlement,butweareheredealingwiththefirstorearlierkind.

[3]Herod,v.16.

[4]Thelaketribesofthebronzeage,however,notonlyunderstoodtheuseofcopperandbronze,butwerefarmoreproficientintheartsthantheirpredecessors.Someofthetextilefabricsfoundareofthemostcomplicatedweaving,andsomeofthebronzearticlesareofmostexquisitechiselling,thoughthesewereprobablyimportedfromItaly,withwhichcountrythelakedwellerswouldseemtohavehadconsiderabletraffic.Theearliestspecimensofpotteryareusuallyornamentedbymererudenailscratchings,butthoseofthebronzeperiodhavehadtheirstraightlinesandcurvesmadebyagravingtool.Infact,thelatertribeshadbecomeloversofartforitsownsake,andeventhe


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smallestarticlesofmanufactureweredecoratedwithdesignsofmoreorlesselaborationandfinish.

[5]TheproductsofthesoilseemtohavebeenthesameamongstthelakemenasamongstHomer'speople.Bothknewbarleyandwheat,andneitherofthemknewrye.Intheirmodeofdressingandpreparingbarleyforfoodthetwopeoplesconcurred.Itwasnotmadeintobread,butroastedtobringoffthehusk.AndroastedbarleyisstillafavouritearticleofdietintheLowerEngadine.TheGreeksateitattheirsacrifices,andalwaystooksuppliesofitwhenstartingonajourney.SoTelemachusaskshisoldnurseEurykleiatofillhisgoatskinwithroastedbarleywhenhesetsoutinsearchofhisfather.AndyoungGreekbrideswererequiredtocompletethestockofhouseholdbelongingsbyprovidingontheirmarriagedayaroastingvesselforbarley.

[6]ThosewhowishtoseeprettywellallthatcanbesaidonthemattershouldreadthevaluablearticleinTheWestminsterReview,forJune,1887.

II.

THEHELVETIANS.

Thehistoryofacountryoftenincludesthehistoryofmanypeoples,forhistoryisastageonwhichnationsandpeoplesfigurelikeindividualcharacters,playingtheirpartsandmakingtheirexits,otherssteppingintotheirplaces.AndsotheSwisssoilhasbeentroddenbymanypossessors--Celts,Rhtians,Alamanni,Burgundians,Franks.ThesehaveallmadetheirmarkuponandcontributedtothehistoryoftheSwissnation,andmustallfigureintheearlierportionsofourstory.

DimaretheglimpseswecatchoftheearlyconditionoftheHelvetians,butthemistthatenshroudsthispeopleclears,thoughslowly,atthe

endofthesecondcenturybeforeChrist,whentheycameintoclosecontactwiththeRomanswhochronicledtheirdeeds.TheHelvetiansthemselves,indeed,thoughnotignorantoftheartofwriting,werefartoomuchoccupiedinwarfaretobepainstakingannalists.AttheCelto-Romanperiodofwhichwearetreating,HelvetiacomprisedalltheterritorylyingbetweenMountJura,LakeGeneva,andLakeConstance,withtheexceptionofBasle,whichincludedGraubnden,andreachedintoSt.GallandGlarus.Itwasparcelledoutamongstmanytribes,evenasitisinourownday.TheHelvetians,whohadpreviouslyoccupiedallthelandbetweentheRhineandtheMain,hadbeendrivensouthbytheadvancingGermans,andhadcolonizedthefertileplainsandthelowerhillgroundsofSwitzerland,leavingtoothersthemoredifficultAlpineregions.Theysplitintofourtribes,ofwhichweknowthenamesof

three--theTigurini,Toygeni,andVerbigeni.ThefirstnamedseemtohavesettledaboutLakeMorat,withAventicum(Avenches)astheircapital.BaslewastheseatoftheRauraci;tothewestofNeuchtelwasthatoftheSequani;whilstGenevabelongedtothewildAllobroges.TheValais[7]districtwasinhabitedbyfourdifferentclans,andwasknownasthe"Poeninevalley,"onaccountoftheworshipofPoeninusontheGreatSt.Bernard,wherewasatempletothedeity.IntheTicinoweretheLepontines,aLiguriantribewhosenamestilllingersin"LepontineAlps."ThemountainfastnessesoftheGrisons(Graubnden)wereheldbythehardyRhtians,aTuscantribe,who,onceovercomeby


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theRomans,speedilyadoptedtheirspeechandcustoms.Romansh,acorruptLatin,holdsitsowntothisdayinthehigherandremotervalleysofthatcanton.

Allthesetribes,exceptthetwolastmentioned,belongedtothegreatandmartialfamilyoftheCelts,andofthemallthewealthiest,themostvaliant,andthemostconspicuousweretheHelvetians.[8]OfthelifeanddispositionoftheseHelvetiansweknowbutlittle,butnodoubttheyborethegeneralstampoftheCelts.Theymanagedthejavelinmoreskilfullythantheplough,andtotheirpersonalcourageitisratherthantotheirskillintacticsthattheyowetheirreputationasgreatwarriors.Butincourseoftimetheircharacterwasgreatlymodified,and,owingprobablytotheirsecludedposition,theysettleddownintomorepeacefulhabits,androsetowealthandhonour,combiningwiththeirgreatpowersacertainamountofculture.Theypractisedtheartofwriting,havingadoptedtheGreekalphabet,andgold,whichwaspossiblyfoundintheirrivers,circulatedfreelyamongstthem.TojudgefromtherelicsfoundinHelvetiantumulitheHelvetianswerefondofluxuriesinthewayofornamentsandfinearmour,andtheyexcelledintheartofworkingmetals,especiallybronze.Theyhadmadesomeprogressinagriculture,andintheconstructionoftheirhouses,andmoreespeciallyofthewallsthatguardedtheirtowns,whichstrucktheRomansbytheirneatnessandpracticalness.Norwouldthisbetobewonderedatiftheoldlegendscouldbetrusted,whichtellusthat

HerculeshimselftaughttheHelvetianstobuild,andlikewisegavethemtheirlaws;anallusion,nodoubt,tothefactthatculturecametothemfromtheeast,fromthepeoplesaroundtheMediterranean.Besidesmanyhamlets,theyhadfoundednofewerthanfourhundredvillagesandtwelvetowns,andseemtohavebeenwellabletoselectfortheirsettlementsthemostpicturesqueandconvenientspots.Formanyoftheirplace-nameshavecomedowntous,insomecasesbutlittlechanged.ThusofcolonieswehaveZuricum(Zurich),Salodurum(Soleure),Vindonissa(Windisch),Lousonium(Lausanne),andGeneva;ofriversnavigableorotherwiseuseful,Rhine,Rhone,Aar,Reuss,Thur;ofmountains,JuraandperhapsCamor.DislikingthehardshipsofAlpinelifetheHelvetiansleftthegiantmountainstoasturdierrace.

[Illustration:JOHANNISSTEIN,WITHRUINSOFCASTLEOF"HOHENRHTIA,"NEARTHUSIS,GRAUBNDEN.

(FromaPhotograph.)]

Thenatureoftheirpoliticalcodewasrepublican,yetitwaslargelytincturedwithelementsofanaristocratickind.Theirnobleswerewealthylandedproprietors,withnumerousvassals,attendants,andslaves.Incasetheirlordwasimpeachedtheseretainerswouldtakehispartbeforethepopulartribunal.ThecaseofOrgetorixmaybecited.Hewasadynasticleader,andheadoveronehundredvalleysettlements;hisnameappearsonHelvetiansilvercoinsasOrcitrix.Hewasbroughttotrialonachargeofaspiringtothekingship,andnofewerthana

thousandfollowersappearedatthecourttoclearhim,butvoxpopulivoxdei,andthepopularvoteprevailed.Orgetorixwassentencedtodiebyfire,apunishmentawardedtoallwhoencroacheduponthepopularrights.

TheirformofreligionwasmostprobablythatcommontoalltheCelts,Druidicalworship.Investedwithpower,civilandspiritual,theDruidsheldabsoluteswayoverthesuperstitiousCeltictribes.ProudastheCeltswereoftheirindependence,theyyetwereincapableofgoverningthemselvesbecauseoftheperpetualdissensionsamongstthetribes;and


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theywereoverawedbytheintellectualsuperiorityofapriesthoodthatprofessedallthesciencesoftheage--medicine,astrology,soothsaying,necromancy--andhadtakenintoitshandstheeducationoftheyoung.Thecommonpeopleweremereblinddevotees,andrenderedunquestioningobediencetothedecreesoftheDruids.Druidismwas,infact,theonlypowerwhichcouldmovethewholeCelticrace,andcouldknittogethertheCeltsoftheThamesandthoseoftheGaronneandRhone,whentheymetatthegreatyearlyconvocationatChartres,thenthe"MetropolisoftheEarth."HumansacrificewasoneofthemostcruelandrevoltingfeaturesoftheDruidicalreligion.

TheCeltswereapeculiarlygiftedpeople,thoughdifferinggreatlyfromthecontemporaryGreeksandRomans.TheyhadbeenagoverningracebeforetheRomansappearedonthestage,andwrestedfromthemtheleadingpart.Theyhadoverrunthewholeworld,sotospeak,castingaboutforafixedhome,andspreadasfarastheBritishIsles,makingGaultheirreligiousandpoliticalcentre,andsettleddownintomorepeacefulhabits.Drivenbyexcessofpopulation,ortheirunquenchablethirstforwar,orsimplytheirnomadichabits--onecannototherwiseaccountfortheirretrogression--theymigratedeastwardswhencetheycame--toItaly,Greece,andAsiaMinor--demandingterritory,andstrikingterrorintoeverynationtheyapproachedbytheirwarlikehabits.TheyknockedatthegatesofRome,andtheGalatianswereconspicuousbytheiratrocities.[9]Brilliantqualitiesandgreat

nationalfaultshadbeentheirpeculiarcharacteristics.Quick-wittedtheywere,highlyintelligent,ingenious,frank,versatile;attachingmuchvaluetogloire,andesprit;susceptibleofandaccessibletoeveryimpression,skilledhandicraftsmen;butinclinedtobevain,boastful,andfickle-minded,aversetoorderanddiscipline,andlackinginperseveranceandmoralenergy.This,accordingtobothancientandmodernwriters,wastheircharacter.Theyfailedtocreateaunitedempire,andtoresisttheirdeadlyenemy,Rome.

Whattheydidexcelinwasfighting.Dressedingaudycostume--widetunic,brightplaid,andtogaembroideredwithsilverandgold--theCelticnoblewouldfightbypreferenceinsinglecombat,toshowofftopersonaladvantage,butinthebruntofbattlehethrewawayhis

clothingtofightunimpeded.Bituitus,kingoftheArverni,attiredinmagnificentstyle,mountshissilverchariot,and,precededbyaharperandapackofhounds,goestomeetCsarinbattle,andwinhisrespectandadmiration.

TheHelvetianswerepeacefulneighbourstoItalysolongastheydidnotcomeintodirectcontactwiththeRomans,butontheRhinetheywereengagedindailyfeudswiththeGermantribes,whohaddriventhemfromtheirsettlementsintheBlackForest,andhadcontinuedtheirraidsbeyondtheriver.Forthesakeofplunder,orfrommererestlesshabits,theGermanshadlefttheirnorthernhomesontheBalticandNorthSeas,theCimbri,andtheirbrethren,theTeutonsandothers,andwereslowlymovingsouthward,repellingorbeinginturnrepelled.Themostdaring

crossedtheRhine,andmadetheirwaystraightthroughthelandsoftheBelgiansandHelvetianstowardstheSouth,therebyanticipatingthegreatdislocationofpeopleswhichwastotakeplacebutfivehundredyearslater,whentheRomanEmpire,sappedattheroot,crumbledtopieces,unablelongertoresistthetideofbarbarianinvasion.

OnoneoftheseexpeditionstheCimbri,givingaglowingaccountofsunnyGaul,andthebootytobeobtainedthere,werejoinedbytheHelvetianTigurini,whoseleaderwastheyoungandfieryDivico(B.C.107).Theystartedwiththeintentionoffoundinganewhomeinthe


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provinceoftheNitiobrogesinSouthernGaul;butwhentheyhadreachedthatterritorytheyweresuddenlystoppedonthebanksoftheGaronnebyaRomanarmyundertheconsulCassiusandhislieutenantPiso.But,littleimpressedbythemilitaryfameoftheRomans,theTigurini,lyinginambush,gavebattletotheforcesofgreatRome,andutterlyroutedthematAgen,ontheGaronne,betweenBordeauxandToulouse.Itwasabrilliantvictory;boththeRomanleadersandthegreaterpartoftheirmenwereslain,andtherestbeggedfortheirlives.TheproudRomanswereunderthehumiliatingnecessityofgivinghostagesandpassingundertheyoke--astainontheRomanhonournottobeforgotten;butthevictors,beinganythingbutdiplomats,knewnobetterusetomakeoftheirsplendidvictorythantowanderaboutforatimeandthengohomeagain.

Afewyearslater(102and101B.C.)theTigurini,Toygeni,Cimbri,andTeutonsjoinedtheirforcesonalastexpeditionsouthwards.TheexpeditionendedinthedestructionoftheseGermantribes.TheToygeniperishedinthefearfulcarnageatAquSexti,andtheCimbrilateronatVercell.WhentheTiguriniheardofthislast-mentioneddisastertheyreturnedhome.

CsarhadbeenappointedgovernoroftheProvince(Provence)whichextendedtoGeneva,theverydoorofHelvetia;ontheRhinetheGermanscontinuedtomaketheirterribleinroads.Thustherewasbutlittle

scopeforthestirringHelvetians,andthesoilaffordedbutascantysupplyoffood;sotheyturnedtheireyeswistfullyinthedirectionoffairGaul.Meetingincounciltheydecidedonageneralmigration,leavingtheircountrytowhoevermightliketotakeit.ThenroseupOrgetorix,oneoftheirwealthiestnobles,andsupportedtheplan,volunteeringtosecureafreepassagethroughtheneighbouringprovincesoftheAllobrogesanddui.The28thofMarch,B.C.58,wasthedayfixedforthedeparture,andGenevawastobethemeeting-place;thencetheyweretoproceedthroughtheterritoryoftheAllobroges.Fortwoyearspreviouslytheyweretogetreadytheirprovisions,andtocollectcarts,horses,andoxen,butbeforetheperiodhadexpiredOrgetorixwasaccusedoftreason,andbeingunabletoclearhimself,putanendtohisownlifetoescapepublicobloquy.Thisepisodemadenodifferencein

thegeneralplan.TheHelvetians,indeed,insistedonitsbeingcarriedout.Settingfiretotheirtownsandvillagestopreventmenfromreturning,theystartedontheiradventurousjourneyonthatspringmornof58B.C.Csar'sfiguresseemverylarge,but,ifheistobetrusted,thetribesnumberedsome368,000men,ofwhich263,000wereHelvetians,therestbeingneighboursoftheirs.But93,000werecapableofbearingarms.

Acuriousyetthrillingsightmusthavebeenthatmotleycaravanofprodigiousproportions--tenthousandcartsdrawnbyfortythousandoxen,carryingwomen,children,andtheoldmen;ridersandarmour-bearersalongside,toilingpainfullythroughwoodsandfords,andupanddownruggedhills;behindtheemigrantsthesmokingandsmoulderingruinsof

thehomestheywereleavingwithbutlittleregret.Yettheywerenomereadventurers,butlookedforwardwithswellingheartstoabrightertimeandamoreprosperoushome.ArrivingatGenevatheyfoundthebridgeovertheRhonebrokenupbyCsar'sorder.Csarwas,intruth,afactortheyhadnotreckonedupon,and,afteruselessattemptstomakeheadway,theyturnedtheirstepstowardsMountJura,andwhilsttheyweretoilingoverthesteepandruggedPasdel'Ecluse,CsarreturnedtoItalytogathertogetherhislegions.ReturningtoGaulhearrivedjustintimetoseetheHelvetianscrosstheArar(Sane)withtheutmostdifficulty.TheTiguriniwerethelasttocross.Andonthem


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Csarfellandcutthemdown,thusavengingthedeathofPiso--thegreat-grandfatherofCsar'swife--andwipingoutthestainonthehonouroftheRomanarms.HislegionscrossedtheSaneintwenty-fourhours,andthisperformancesoexcitedtheadmirationoftheHelvetians,whohadthemselvestakentwentydaystocross,thattheycondescendedtosendlegatestotreatwithCsarforafreepassage.Theypromisedhimthattheywoulddonoharmtoanyoneifhewouldcomplywiththerequest,butthreatenedthatifheshouldinterceptthemhemighthavetoseesomethingoftheirancientbravery.Nothreatsorentreatieswereofavail,however,withsuchamanasCsar,who,smilingattheirnavesimplicity,askedthemtogiveshostagesasasignofconfirmationoftheirpromise."Hostages!"criedDivico,theheroofofAgen,inarage,"theHelvetiansarenotaccustomedtogivehostages;theyhavebeentaughtbytheirfatherstoreceivehostages,andthistheRomansmustwellremember."Sosayinghewalkedaway.

TheHelvetianscontinuedtheirmarch,Csarfollowingatadistance,watchingforanopportunityofattackingthem.AtBibracte,animportantcityofGaul(nowMontBeuvray),westofAutuninBurgundy,theopportunityoffereditself.Csarseizedahillandpostedhistroopsthere,andchargedtheenemywithhiscavalry.TheHelvetiansfiercelyrepulsedtheattack,andpouredontheRomanfront,butwerequiteunabletostandagainsttheshowersoftheRomanpila,whichoftenpenetratedseveralshieldsatonce,andthusfastenedthemtogetherso

thattheycouldnotbedisentangled.Disconcertedbythisunexpectedresult,theHelvetiansweresoondiscomfitedbythesharpattackwithswordswhichinstantlyfollowed.Retiringforawhiletoahillcloseby,thebarbariansagaindrewupinbattleorder,andagaindescendedtocombat.Longandfiercewasthestrugglewhichfollowed;theHelvetiansfightinglikelionstilltheevening,neveronceturningtheirbacksontheenemy.ThisisCsar'sownreport.Butbarbarianheroismwasnomatchfortheregular,well-organized,andhighly-trainedRomanarmy,andoncemoredrivenback,theywithdrewtothehillwherehadbeenlefttheirwivesandchildrenwiththebaggage.Fromthisplacetheyventuredtomakealastresistance,andtheydrewuptheircartsintheformofadeepsquare,leavingroominthemiddleforthenon-combatantsandthebaggage.Thenmountingtheirextemporizedfort--theso-called

Wagenburg--theHelvetianmencommencedthefray,eventheirwomenandchildrenhurlingjavelinsattheenemy.NottillmidnightdidtheRomansseizeandenterontheruderampart,andwhentheydidtheclashingofarmshadceased.Allthevaliantdefenderslayslainattheirfeet,andthespiritofboldindependenceoftheHelvetianswascrushedforever.

Afterthisfearfuldisastertherestoftheemigrants,tothenumberof110,000,continuedtheirmarchthroughGaul,butlackingbothfoodandcapableleaders,andbeingmoreoverill-usedbytheGauls,theysenttoCsarforhelp.Hedemandedhostages,andorderedthemtoreturnhomeandrebuildtheirtownsandvillages.And,further,hesuppliedthemwithfoodforthejourney,andrequestedtheAllobrogestodothesamewhentheHelvetiansshouldarriveintheirprovince.Csaradmitsthat

thisapparentgenerosityonhispartwasdictatednotbycompassion,butbypolicy.Itwastohisinterestthatthesebarbariansshouldre-occupyHelvetia,becausetheywouldkeepwatchontheRhine,andpreventtheirruptionoftheGermansintothecountry.Intheirconditionnow,hecallstheHelvetiansASSOCIATES(foederati),andnotSUBJECTS,andleavesthemtheirownconstitution,and,tosomeextent,theirfreedom.Buttheydidnotrelishthisforcedfriendship,whichwasindeedmorelikebondage;andwhentheCeltsofGaulroseinrevoltunderthenobleandbelovedVercingetorix,whohadbeenafriendofCsar,theyjoinedtheirbrethren(52B.C.),andwereagainvanquished.Onthedefeatof


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theHelvetiansatBibractefollowedthatoftheValisians,in57B.C.ToestablishadirectcommunicationbetweenCentralGaulandItaly,CsartookthosesamemeasureswhichNapoleonI.employedlongafterwards;heconqueredtheValais(byhislieutenantGalba),thathemightsecurethepassageoftheGreatSt.Bernard.AsplendidroadwasformedoverMountPoeninus,andatempleerectedtoJupiterPoeninus,wherethetravellerleftvotivetabletsasathanksgivingofferingafterafortunateascent.

ThesubjugationofRhtiawasdelayedformorethanageneration.ToguardtheempireagainsttheEasternhordes;againstthemountainrobbersofGraubndenandtheTyrol,whodescendedintothevalleysofthePo,ravagingthecountryasfarasMilan,andnodoubtliberallypayingbackintheirowncoin,theRomanswhohadmadefromtimetotimesuchhavocintheAlpinehomes--toguardagainstthese,andthewildVindeliciansofBavaria,Augustussentthetwoimperialprincestoreducethemtosubjection.DrususmarchedintotheTyrol,whilstTiberiusadvancedonLakeConstance,whereeventheRhtianwomenengagedintheconflict,and,indefaultofmissiles,hurledtheirsuckingchildrenintothefaceoftheconquerors,throughsheerexasperation.Theirsavagecourageavailedthemnothing,however;theincursionsfromtheEastwererepressed;andoncetheRhtianswereovercome,theybecamethemostusefulofauxiliariestotheRomanarmy.Horace'sodetoDrususalludestotheRhtiancampaign.

TheRhto-RomaninhabitantsofGraubnden--fortheystilloccupythehighvalleysoftheEngadineandoftheVorder-Rhine--presentmuchinterestinpointoflanguageandantiquities.ThesturdyRhtiansbelongedtotheart-lovingEtruscanrace,whoseproficiencyintheamphora-technicwesohighlyvalue.AnoldlegendcallstheirancestorRtusaTuscan.Andnotwithoutshowofreason,saysMommsen,fortheearlydwellersofGraubndenandtheTyrolwereTuscans,andspokeadialectagreeingwiththatofthedistrictofMantua,aTuscancolonyinthetimeofLivy.InGraubndenandTicinowerefound,somethirtyyearsago,stonesbearinginscriptionsinthatdialect.TheRhtiansmayhavedroppedbehindintheseAlpineregionsontheimmigrationofEtruscansintothevalleysofthePo;or,theymayjustaslikelyhavefledthere

ontheadventoftheCelts,whenthatwarlikeraceseizedonthefertileplainsoftheriver,anddrovetheEtruscansfromtheirhomesouthwardandnorthward.Bethatasitmay,however,itiscertainthattheRhtians,onceblendedwiththeRomans,havepreservedtheLatintongueandcustomstothisday,forRomaunshacorruptLatin,withnodoubtsomeadmixtureofTuscan,isstillspokenbymorethanone-thirdofthepopulationoftheGrisons.

[Illustration:HOUSE(FORMERLYCHAPLE)INTHEROMAUNSHSTYLE,ATSCHULS,LOWERENGADINE,GRAUBNDEN.

(AfteraPhotographbyGuler.)]

FOOTNOTES:

[7]Valais(German,Wallis)meansvalley,andissocalledfromitsbeingalongnarrowdaleorvalehemmedinbyloftymountains.

[8]Mommsen,"RomanHistory,"vol.ii.p.166.

[9]"StoryofAlexander'sEmpire,"byMahaffy,p.79.


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III.

HELVETIAUNDERTHEROMANS.

[Illustration:SILVERCOIN,VERCINGETORIX.

(Dr.Imhoof,Winterthur.)]

OnthesurrenderofthenobleVercingetorix,avaliantknight,butnostatesman--hedeliveredhimselfuptoCsar,trustinginhisgenerosityonthepleaofformerfriendship,anddiedaprisonerofRome--thewarwithGaulwasvirtuallyatanend.Thesporadicrisingsthatfollowedlackedthespiritofunion,andledtonoresultsofanyconsequence.DuringthesevenyearsofhisgovernorshipinGaul(58-51B.C.),Csarhadcompletedthesubjectionoftheentirecountry,withtheexceptionoftheprovinceofNarbonensis,whoseconquestwasofmoreancientdate.Hefolloweduphisvictories,andsecuredtheirresultsbyorganizingalineofsecuredefencesonthenorthernboundaryofGaul,alongtheRhine,creatingtherebyanewsystemofopendefences--defencesoffensive,sotospeak--whichhesketchedoutwithfulldetails,andmadeGaulherselfabulwarkagainsttheinroadsoftheaggressive

Germans.Tosecurepeaceandvoluntarysubmission,healsoregulatedtheinternalaffairsofthenewprovince,leavingher,however,mostofheroldnationalinstitutions,hopingbyconciliatorymeasurestograduallybringherunderRomaninfluences,andwinhertosidewithRome.Butitwaslefttootherstocarryouthisplans,theEmperorAugustusbeingthefirsttoputthemintopractice;forcivilwarwasagainthreateningItaly,andCsarreturnedhometocarryonhisgreatcontestwithPompeyforsupremacyintheState.

AlthoughCsar'splanswerebutasketchtheywerefaithfullycarriedout,andtheGallicconquestprovedtobemore,andaimedhigher,thanthemeresubjectionoftheCelts.Csarwasnotonlyagreatgeneral,butalsoafar-seeingpolitician.Hehadclearlyunderstoodthatthe

barbarianGermansmightwellprovemorethanamatchfortheGreek-Latinworldiftheycameintoclosecontactwithit.HisdefeatofAriovistus,whowasonthepointofformingaGermankingdominGaul,andhiswisemeasuresofdefence,keptthebarbarianhordesatbayforcenturies,andthustherewasampletimegivenfortheGreek-LatinculturetotakerootthroughouttheWest.IthappenedconsequentlythatwhenRomecouldnolongerofferanyseriousresistance,andtheGermanspouredintoherlands,thepeopleoftheWestwerealreadyRomanized,andthoseofGaul,Britain,andSpain,becamethemediumoftransmittingtotheGermansthespiritofclassicism,bywhichtheywouldotherwisehavehardlybeenaffected;andthosenationsbecametheconnectinglinkbetweentheclassicalageandtheGermanerawhichabsorbeditshigh-wroughtculture.IfAlexandermaybesaidtohavespreadHellenism

overtheEast;Csarmaybetakentohavedoneasmuch,andindeedvastlymorefortheWest,foritisowingtohim,thoughwecanscarcelyrealizethefactinourday,thattheGermanraceisimbuedwiththespiritofclassicalantiquity.

ThefallofCsar,andthestateofanarchythatfollowedagain,delayedtheworkofpacification,andHelvetiawaslefttotakecareofherself.ButwhenAugustuswasfirmlyseatedontheimperialthrone,heresumedthetaskwhichhadbeenbequeathedtohim.TheorganizationofGaulwaschieflyhiswork,anditrequiredanenergeticyetmoderatepolicy.The


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oldNarbonensisdistrict,whichhadlongbeenmouldedintoaRomanprovince,wasplacedundersenatorialcontrol.NewGaul,orGalliaComata(GauleChevelue),asthewholeterritorywascalledwhichCsarhadconquered,wassubmittedtoimperialauthority,andtreatedmoreadequatelyinaccordancewiththeancientconstitutionsofthevarioustribes.TofacilitatetaxationandadministrationNewGaulwasdividedintothreeprovinces,eachruledbyaRomangovernor.Ofthesethreeprovinces,onewasBelgica,extendingfromtheSeineandthemouthoftheRhinetoLakeConstance,thusincludingHelvetiaproper.Belgica,onaccountofitssize,wassubdividedintothreecommands,inoneofwhich,thatofUpperGermany,Helvetiafounditselfplaced.ThuswefindHelvetiaincorporatedwithGaul.

ThepoliticalcapitaloftheTresGalli,orThreeGauls,wasLugdunum(Lyons),owingtoitscentralposition,anditseemstohavebeenaveryimportantcity.HereDrusushadraisedanaltartohisimperialfather,Augustus,andtheGeniusoftheCity.Heremettherepresentativesofthesixty-fourGallicstates(includingthoseoftheHelvetiansandtheRauraci)ontheanniversaryoftheemperor.Here,too,wastheseatoftheGallicDiet;andhere,intheamphitheatre,tookplacerhetoricalcontests,theCeltsholdingeloquenceinhighhonour.

EasternSwitzerland,thatis,Graubnden,andthelandaroundLakeWallenstatt,asfarasLakeConstance,wasjoinedwithRhtia,which

likewiseincluded,amongstotherdistricts,theTyrolandSouthernBavaria.ThewholeofthisterritorywasruledbyagovernorresidingatAugustaVindelicorum(Augsburg).TheValaisdistrictwasjoinedtosomepartofSavoy,andruledbytheprocuratorofthePoenineAlps.Ticinodoesnotconcernushere,asitremainedaportionofItalydowntothesixteenthcentury.

YetthoughthusarbitrarilymadeapartofGaul,Helvetiaformedaprovinceofitself,andhaditsownhistoryandkeptitsownconstitution,thankstoCsar'swiseandgenerouspolicy,bywhichheprovidedthattheCeltsshouldnotbeinterferedwithintheirmethodofgoverningbytribes(pagiorcivitates),norintheirconstitution,solongasitdidnotclashwiththeRomanlaws.WhenCsarhaddefeated

theHelvetianshesentthembacktorebuildtheiroldhomes,andtheyre-occupiedtheirancientterritory,withtheexceptionofthatportionwhichstretchesfromFortl'EclusetoGenevaandAubonne,andbordersonMountJura.ThisportionwaswrenchedawayandgiventotheEquestrianJuliancolonysettledatNoviodunum(Nyon)onGenevalake,tokeepthepassesofthemountain(43B.C.).TheJurarangeseparatedHelvetiafromtheterritoryoftheRauraci,whereanotherveterancolonywasaboutthesametimeestablishedasasafeguardfortheRhine,tochecktheincursionsoftheGermans.TheColoniaRauracorumwasafterwardscalledAugustaRauracoruminhonouroftheemperor.ThecolonistsofthesetwosettlementsweremostlyRomans,orhadbeenadmittedtoRomancitizenship,andoccupiedadifferentpositionfromtheinhabitantsofthecountrygenerally,fortheywereallowedRomanprivilegesand

favours--exemptionfromtaxationmostlikelyamongstothers--but,ontheotherhand,theywereentirelydependentontheRomanGovernment.

ThelaboriousinvestigationsofthelearnedMommsenandCharlesMorelgotoshowthattheHelvetiansweremildlytreatedbytheirmasters.TheyhadbeenreceivedintotheRomanpaleasfriends(foederati),andassuchlivedonfavourabletermswiththese,andenjoyedashighadegreeoflibertyandautonomyaswascompatiblewiththeirpositionasRomansubjects.TheRhtianshadbeentakenfromtheircountry;theHelvetii,onthecontrary,hadbeensentbackhomeandentrustedwiththe


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guardianshipoftheRhine,merelybeingrequiredtofurnishacontingentforserviceabroad.Theywereallowedtomaintaingarrisonsoftheirown--thatofTenedoontheRhine,forinstance--tobuildforts,toraisemilitiaincaseofwar.And,ashasbeforebeenmentioned,theirreligiousworshipwasnotinterferedwith,northeirtraditionaldivisionintopagi,ortribes,andtheywereallowedanationalrepresentativeattheGalliccapital,Lyons.Helvetiatooktherankofastate(CivitasHelvetiorum),itschiefseat(chef-lieu)beingAventicum,whichwasalsothecentreofgovernment.SolongasHelvetiaconformedtotheregulationsimposedbytheimperialgovernmentshewasallowedtomanageherownlocalaffairs.Latinwasmadetheofficiallanguage,thoughthenativetonguewasnotprohibited.

[Illustration:GOLDCOIN,VESPASIAN(VESPASIANUSIMPERATOR-AETERNITAS).

(ByDr.Imhoof,Winterthur.)]

A.D.69-79.UnderVespasian,however,agreatchangetookplace.Thankstothemunificenceofthatemperor,whohadagreatlikingforAventicum,thiscitylostitsCelticcharacter,andwasmadeasplendidcityaftertheItaliantype.HehadsenttherehisbefriendedandfaithfulFlaviancolonyoftheHelvetianstolive,givingherthelengthytitleofColoniaPiaFlaviaConstansEmeritaHelvetiorumFoederatainreturnforservices,forshehadstaunchlysupportedhis

partyagainstVitelliuswhenthelattercontendedwithGalbafortheimperialthrone.TheinhabitantsmostlikelyreceivedtheLatinRight(DroitLatin),orwereconsideredRomancitizens,andassuchweremoreintimatelyconnectedwithRome,andhadtosubmittoclosercontrol.HerinstitutionswereassimilatedtothoseofItaliantowns.Shehadasenate,acouncilofdecuriones,citymagistrates,aprfectusoperumpublicorum(orspecialofficertoattendtotheconstructionofpublicbuildings),Augustanflamens,orpriests,andsoforth.

NotwithstandingtheoverwhelmingimportanceofAventicum,acertainamountofself-governmentwaslefttothecountrydistricts,towns,andvillages(vici).TheinhabitantsofVindonissa(Windisch),Aqu

(Baden),Eburodunum(Yverdon),Salodurum(Soleure),erectedpublicbuildingsoftheirownaccord.ThetownsoftheValais,Octodurum(Martigny),Sedunum(Sion),&c.,hadtheirowncitycouncilandmunicipalofficers,andreceivedtheLatinRight.InthecaseoftheHelvetians,thoseofthecapitalandthoseoftheprovincesequallyenjoyedthatRight;whereas,withAugustaRauracorum,thecasewasdifferent,onlythecolonistswithinthewalledcitiesbeinggrantedthelikestandingandliberties.Onthewholeitmaybesaidthat,thoughHelvetiakeptmanyofherownpeculiarities,andsomeofherancientliberties,shesubmittedtoRome,andwasgreatlyinfluencedbytheadvancedcivilizationoftheempire.TheHelvetians,indeed,underwentthatchangeofspeechandcharacter,whichsplitthemintotwonations,FrenchandGermans.

OneofthechieffactorscontributingtotheRomancolonizationofHelvetiawasthemilitaryoccupationofitsnorthernfrontier,thoughthisoccupationweighedheavilyonthecountry.ThegreatobjectofRomewastokeepbacktheGermans,whowereforeverthreateningtobreakintotheempire.Vindonissawasoneofthemilitaryheadquarters,anditsselectionforthepurposewasjustifiedbyitsexcellentposition,situatedasitwasonanelevatedneckofland,washedbythreenavigablerivers,theAare,Reuss,andLimmat,andatthejunctionofthetwogreatroadsconnectingEastandWestHelvetiawithItaly.A


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capitalsystemofroads,too,wasplannedalloverthecountry.

TherewouldnodoubtoftenbebutlittlelovelostbetweentheHelvetiansandthesoldieryinoccupation.Tacitus("Annals")tellsofonebloodyepisode.Afterthedeathofthemadmanhero,thetwenty-firstlegion,surnamedRapax,orRapacious,nodoubtforgoodreasons,wasquarteredatVindonissa.Ccina,aviolentman,lieutenantofVitellius,thencommanderoftheRhinearmy,marchedintoHelvetiatoproclaimVitelliusemperor.ButtheHelvetianssupportedhisopponentGalba,notknowingthathehadjustbeenmurdered,andfelluponthemessengersofCcina,andputtheminprison,afterfirstseizingtheirletters.ThelieutenantenragedatthisaffrontlaidwastetheneighbouringAqu(BadennearZurich),aflourishingwatering-placemuchfrequentedforitsamusements,Tacitustellsus.CallingintheRhtiancohorts,hedrovethemtotheBoetzberg,andcutthemdownbythousandsinthewoodsandfastnessesofMountJura;then,ravagingthecountryashewent,CcinamarchedontoAventicum,whichatoncesurrendered.Alpinus,anotableleader,wasputtodeath,andtherestwerelefttotheclemencyofVitellius.However,theRomansoldierydemandedthedestructionofthenation,butClaudiusCossus,aHelvetianofgreateloquence,movingthemtotearsbyhistouchingwords,theychangedtheirminds,andbeggedthattheHelvetiansmightbesetatliberty.

Howeverthismilitaryoccupationwas,aftersixtyyearsofduration,

drawingtoaclose.UnderDomitianandTrajanallthelandbetweenStrasburgandAugsburg,asfarastheMain,wasconqueredandannexedtotheRomanEmpire.AnartificialrampartwasformedacrosscountryfromthemouthoftheMaintoRegensburgontheDanube,andthemilitarycordonwasremovedfromtheSwissfrontiertothenewboundaryline.Helvetia,nownolongertherendezvousoftheRomanlegionaries,quietlysettledintoaRomanprovince,wherethelanguage,customs,art,andlearningofRomeweresoontobeadopted.

Ifthemilitarystationswerestarting-pointsofthenewculture,itwasthemorepeacefulimmigrantswhointroducedagriculture,commerce,andwealth,or,atanyrate,causedittomakeprogress.GraduallytheHelvetiansamalgamatedwiththeRomans,adoptingeventheirreligion.

Horticultureandvine-culturewereintroduced.ARomanfarmergrewvinesonapatchofgroundnearCully,onLakeGeneva,andonaninscribedstone(dugupatSt.Prex)begsBacchus(LiberPaterCocliensis)toblessthevintage.Helittleanticipatedthathisplantationwouldbetheancestor,asitwere,ofthefamousLaCte,nowsohighlyvalued.

Wherevertheart-lovingRomanfixedhisabodehebuilthishouse,withthewonderfulRomanmasonry,andfurnisheditwithalltheluxuryandarthisrefinedtastesuggested.ThusthecountrygraduallyassumedaRomanaspect.Manytownsandvici,orvillagesettlements,spranguporincreasedinimportanceunderRomaninfluence--Zurich,Aqu(BadennearZurich),Kloten,Vindonissa,andothers.[10]Yettheeasternportionofthecountrycouldnotcompeteinthematteroffinebuildings

withthewesterncantons.Indeed,intheeasterndistrictstheHelvetianinfluencewasneverpredominatedoverbytheLatininfluence,andtheHelvetiansclungtotheirnativespeechdespitetheLatintonguebeingtheofficiallanguage.

Butitwasthemildandsunnywestwhichmostattractedtheforeigner,asitstilldoes.WealthyRomanssettledingreatnumbersbetweenMountJuraandthePennineranges.EverynookandcorneroftheCantonVaudbearsevendowntoourdaysthestampofRomancivilization.TheshoresandsunnyslopesofGenevalakewerestrewnwithvillas,andthewoody


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stripoflandbetweenVilleneuveandLausanneandGenevawasalmostasmuchinrequestforcountryseatsbythegreatamongsttheRomansasthatdelightfulstretchofcoastontheBayofNaples,fromPosilippotoPozzuoliandBai,whereCiceroandVirgil,andmanyRomansoflessermark,hadtheirvillegiatures.

Butthemostremarkableplace,whetherforart,learning,oropulence,wasAventicum,theHelvetiancapital.Ofthistownsomementionhasbeenmadeabove,and,didspacepermit,afulldescriptionmightwellbegivenofthistrulymagnificentandtrulyRomancity.Itstheatre,academy,senate-house,courts,palaces,baths,triumphalarches,andprivatebuildingswerewonderful.Am.Marcellinus,theRomanwriter,whosawAventicumshortlyafteritspartialdestructionbytheAlamanni,greatlyadmireditspalace'sandtemples,evenintheirsemi-ruinouscondition.ThecitynextinbeautyandsizewasAugustaRauracorum(BaselAugst),wheretheruinsofavastamphitheatrestillcommandourwonderingadmiration.

Butthisperiodofgrandeurwasfollowedbythegradualdownfalloftheempire,whichwasalreadyrottenatthecore.ThedegenerateRomansofthelatertimeswereunabletostandagainsttheattacksofthemorevigorousGermans.Thestoryistoolongtotellindetail,butafewpointsmaybebrieflynoted.In264A.D.theAlamannisweptthroughthecountryontheirwaytoGaul,levellingAugustaRauracorumwiththe

ground,andconsiderablyinjuringAventicum.AttheendofthethirdcenturytheRomansrelinquishedtheirrampartbetweentheRhineandtheDanube,andfellbackupontheoldmilitaryfrontierofthefirstcentury.Helvetiathusunderwentasecondmilitaryoccupation.YettheprestigeofRomewasgone.In305A.D.theAlamanniagainoverranHelvetia,andcompletedtheruinofAventicum.WeakerandweakergrewtheRomanpower,andwhentheGothspressedintoItalytheimperialtroopswereentirelywithdrawnfromHelvetia.AsfortheHelvetiansthemselves,theywerequiteunabletoofferanyresistance,andwhentheAlamannioncemoreburstintotheland(406A.D.),theywereabletosecureentirepossessionoftheeasternportions.TheBurgundians,anotherGermantribe,followedsuit,andin443A.D.fixedthemselvesinWestHelvetia.TheinaccessiblefastnessesofGraubndenaloneremained

untouchedbythetideofGermaninvasion,whicheffectedsuchchangesintheneighbouringdistricts.

Atthisperiodofworldlygrandeurandinternaldecay,occursanotherhistoricaleventofthegreatestimportance,theriseofChristianity,containingthevitalelementsnecessaryforbringingaboutthespiritualregenerationoftheworld.Thesocialandpoliticaldecompositionthroughouttheempire,thecrueltyrannyofthesovereigns,thedecrepitudeofthestateanditsinstitutions,thegrowingindifferencetothenationalreligion,whichshoweditselfinthefacileadoptionof,orratheradaptationto,theEasternformsofworship--theadoptionofthedeitiesIsisandMithra,forexample--alltheseandmanyotherthingsunnecessarytomention,wereunmistakablesignsthatRomanrule

wasdrawingtoitsclose,andtheyalsopreparedthewayforthereceptionofthenewdoctrine.ThebeliefinoneGodofmercyandlove;ofoneSaviour,theRedeemeroftheworld;ofafuturelife,--werestartlingbutgoodtidingstothepoorandoppressed,andmadetheirinfluencefeltalsoontherichandcultivated,whosawinChristianityatolerance,benevolence,humanlove,loftinessofprincipleandmoralperfectionwhichhadnotbeenattainedbythecreedsofantiquity.ThepassionateardourandforceofconvictionamongsttheChristianswassuchthattheyfacedsufferinganddeathratherthanabjuretheirtenetsordesistfrompreachingthemtoothers.


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TheaccountsoftheintroductionofChristianityintoSwitzerlandaremostlylegendary,yetitisgenerallybelievedthatitwasnottheworkofspecialmissionaries.ItismorelikelythatthenewfaithcametothelandaspartandparceloftheRomanculture.Indeedthisisnowtheopinionmostgenerallyreceived.Themilitaryoperationsoftheempirerequiredcontinualchangesoflocalityonthepartofthetroops;thuswefindEgyptian,Numidian,andSpanishsoldiersquarteredontheRhineandtheDanube,andsuchastheywouldmostprobablybethefirsttobringinthenewfaith.

AtfirsttheRomanauthoritieslookeduponChristiansasstaterebels,andfiercepersecutionsfollowed.TheoldestChristianlegendofthiscountrytellsofsuchaconflictbetweenthestateofficialsandtheChristians,andnodoubtcontainssomeadmixtureoftruth,asmanyofthesestoriesdo.AlegionleviedatThebesinEgypt--hencecalledtheThebade--wassenttoColognetotaketheplaceoftroopsrequiredtoquellarisinginBritain.ComingtotheValais,theywererequiredbytheEmperorMaximiantosacrificetotheheathengods(A.D.280-300),butbeingmostlyChristianstheyrefused,andweremassacredwiththeirchief,Mauritius.Some,however,escapedforthetime,butwerecalledupontoreceivethemartyr'scrownlateron,andinotherplaces.Twosuch,UrsusandVictor,cametoSoleurewithsixty-sixcompanions,andwereputtodeathbyorderofHirtus,theRomangovernor.Twoothers,

FelixandhissisterRegula,reachedZurich,wheretheirsuccessfulconversionsirritatedDecius,whoputthemtotherack,andthenbeheadedthem.Yet,wonderfultotell,thelegendgoeson,theyseizedtheirheadsthathadfallen,and,walkingwiththemtothetopofahillcloseby,buriedthemselves,bodiesandheadstoo.ThiswonderfulfeatwasanexactcounterpartofthatreportedtohavebeenperformedalsobyUrsusandVictoratSoleure.FelixandRegulabecamethepatronsaintsofZurich,andplayaconspicuouspartinitslocalhistory.TraditionsaysthatCharlemagnehimselfinlaterdayserectedaminsterontheirburialspot.Thus,asever,thebloodofmartyrsbecametheseedoftheChurch.

[Illustration:GOLDCOINOFSIXTEENTHCENTURY(ST.FELIX,ST.

REGULA-SANCTUSCAROLUS).(ByDr.Imhoof,Winterthur.)]

TheRomantownsGeneva,StMaurice,AugustaRauracorum,Aventicum,Vindonissa,andCuriahadbeenepiscopalseessincethethirdcentury,thoughsomeoftheseseeswereinprocessoftimeremovedtootherplaces.Thus,Augusta,Vindonissa,andSt.MauricewereremovedtoBasel,Constance,andSionrespectively.

FOOTNOTES:

[10]Weknowlittleofthem,mostlikelytheywerebutvici(villagesettlements).AqualoneweknowfromTacituswasacity-likewatering-place;Klotenhadhandsomevillas,butwhatitwaswedonot

know.

IV.

THEANCESTORSOFTHESWISSNATION.

THEALAMANNI;BURGUNDIANS;FRANKS;MEROVINGIANS.


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ThefifthcenturywasremarkableforwhatmaybecalledthedislocationofthepeoplesofEurope--themigrationsoftheGermansintotheRomanEmpire,and,mightiestmovementofall,theirruptionoftheHunsundertheirterriblekingAttila,the"ScourgeofGod."ThemeresightofthehideousAsiaticsfilledmenwithhorror.Neverafoot,buteverontheirill-shapedbutrapidsteeds,towhosebackstheyseemedasiftheywereglued,andonwhichtheylivedwell-nighdayandnight,itseemedasifmanandhorsehadgrownintoonebeing.Theirlargeheadsill-matchedtheirmeagrebodies;theirtawnyfaceswithdeep-seteyesandhigh,protrudingcheek-bonesmadethemresemblerough-cutfiguresinstoneratherthanhumanbeings.TheGothsregardedthemastheoffspringofspiritsofthedesertandofwitches.ThesemassesofAsiaticbarbarism,whichhadburstintoEurope,stayedforawhileinHungary,butsoonrolledtowardstheWest,dislodgingallthepeopleswithwhomtheycameincontact.MarchingtotheRhine,theydrovetheBurgundiansfromtheirsettlementsinthedistrictofWorms,alandsorichinsongandsaga,andenteredGaultofoundanewkingdom.ButthedoomoftheHunswasathand,forAtiustheRomangeneral,andthelastdefenderoftheempire,defeatedthem,A.D.451,inatrulygiganticbattleontheCatalaunianPlain,intheChampagnecountry.Theslaughterwassoterriblethatthesayingwentabroadthattheriverranhighwiththebloodof300,000men.

Butitwasclearthatthetotteringempirecouldnotdefenditselfagainstawholeworldincommotion.ThetimehadcomewhenRomewastoleavethestageofhistory.ThegreatGermannationwasforming.ItwouldbetediousandprofitlesstomentionalltheGermantribesbeyondtheRhineandDanube,awell-nighendlesslistofnames,impossibletoremember.Besides,thepettytribesandclansgraduallyformedallianceswitheachotherforgreatersecurity,and,droppingtheirancientnames,tookcollectiveonesmorefamiliartoourears--Saxons,Franks,Thuringi,Burgundians,Alamanni,andBavarians.

OfthesetheAlamanniandtheBurgundiansarethosefromwhomtheSwissaredescended,andthusSwitzerland,likeEngland,hastolookbackto

Germanyasitsancestralhome.Thetall,fair-haired,true-heartedAlamanniforwhomCaracallahadsuchanadmirationthattobelikethemheworearedwig,aresaidtohavebeendescendantsoftheSemnones,whohadmigratedfromLusatiaontheSpree(inSilesia)totheMain.ThenameAlamanniisgenerallyheldbythelearnedtobederivedfromalah,atemple-grove,andimpliesacombinationofvarioustribes,"thepeopleoftheDivinegrove."TheSuevi,ofwhomtheSemnoneswerethemostconspicuoustribe,hadasacredgroveinthedistrictoftheSpree,wheretheymetforworship.InthefifthcenturywefindtheAlamannioccupyingthedistrictfromtheMaintotheBlackForest,EastHelvetia,andAlsatiaasfarastheVosges.

WhenthisformidablehordetookpossessionofEasternHelvetiathey

foundbutlittletroublefromtheCelto-Romanpopulation,who,thinnedbypreviousinvasions,andunaccustomedtofighting,couldoffernoseriousresistance,andsankintoslavesandservants.Thetownswerelaidinruins,thecountryravaged,andallculturetroddenunderfoot.Itseemedasif"thehandonthedialofhistoryhadbeenputbackbycenturies,"[11]andcivilizationhadoncemoretobeginherwork.Theyoutnumberedthenatives,andwerenotabsorbedbythem,butonthecontraryonthehalf-decayedstockoftheRomanprovincetheAlamanniweregraftedasatrueGermanpeople,retainingtheiroldlanguage,institutions,andmodeofliving.


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TheAlamannididnotatoncedevelopintoacivilizedandcultivatedpeople,butretainedtheirfondnessforwarandhunting,andothercharacteristicsoftheirancientlife.Theirgrandandmajesticwoodshadstampedthemselvesontheintrepid,dauntlessspirits,whosedeepsubjectivenessandtruthfulnaturescontrastsstronglywiththepolishedartfulnessoftheRomans.Forthemightyaspectsofnature--forest,mountain,sea--playtheirpartinmouldingthecharacterofanation.AndtheirimpenetrablewoodshadinfluencedthedestiniesoftheGermansintheearlyperiodsoftheirhistory--hadsavedthemfromtheRomanyoke,thelabyrinthsofswampandriver,defyingeventheforcesofthewell-nighall-powerfulempire.Then,too,whenhardfightingwasafoot,andmenhadburnttheirhomesteadsbeforetheadvanceofthefoe,thevastforestformedasaferetreatforwomenandchildren.Theoriginalhouse,bytheway,wasamerewoodententonfourposts,andcouldbecarriedoffoncartsthatfittedunderneath.ThenextstagewasahutinthestyleoftheSwissmountain-shed,butitwasstillmovable--was,infact,achattelthemoretobetakenalongontheirwanderings.[12]

Theirmodeofsettlingintheirnewcountrywascuriousenough,thoughtheearlysettlementofEnglandwasverysimilarincharacter.DislikingwalledtownsoftheRomanfashion,theGermansfelttheirfreedomofmovementimpededandtheirmindsoppressedbylivingwithintheprison-likefortificationsofstrongcities.Butlovingseclusionand

independence,nevertheless,theybuiltextensivefarmsteads,whereeachmanwashisownmaster.Tothehomesteadwereaddedfields,meadows,andanextensivefarmyard;thewholehedgedaboutsoastokeeptheowneralooffromhisneighbours.Eachfarmerpitchedhistentwherever"springormead,orsylvanwoodtemptedhim,"reportsTacitus.ThislikingforseclusiononthepartoftheGermansiswellshowninthecaseofZurich,foratonetimethecantonhadthreethousandfarmhomesteads,asagainstahundredhamletsandtwelvevillages.

Themodeofpartitioningthelandshowsdemocraticfeatures.Itwasdividedamongstthecommunityaccordingtothesizeoffamiliesandherdsofcattle,butonelargeplotwasleftforthecommonuse.ThelargeAllmend,orcommon,suppliedwoodforthecommunity,andthere,

too,mightfeedeveryman'sflocksandherds.Thenoblemanassuchhadnodomainsspeciallysetapartforhim,hispositionandprivilegeswerehonorary.Hemightbechosenasahighofficerofadistrict,orevenaduke,orleaderofthearmy,intimeofwar.Paymentforsuchserviceswasunknown.Moneywasscarce,andindeeditsusewasmainlytaughtthembytheRomans.Notonlydidflocksandherdsformtheirchiefwealth,butwerethestandardofvalue,eacharticlebeingestimatedasworthsomuchincattle.

Societywasfromtheveryfirstsharplyandclearlydividedintotwogreatclasses--thelandownersandthebondsmen--the"freeandtheunfree."Theformerclasswasagainsplitinto"lessermen,""middlemen,"and"firstmen,"orAthelinge(Adelige),theselastnamedbeingof

nobleblood,andownersofmostlandandthegreatestnumberofslavesandcattle.The"unfree"wereeitherHoerigethatbelongedtotheestatetheytilled,andmightbesoldwithit,orslaveswhocouldcallnothingtheirown,forwhatevertheysavedfelltotheirlordattheirdeath,ifhesowilled.Ashireorlargedistrictwassubdividedintohundreds.Thewholeofthefreemenmetonsomehallowedspot,undersomesacredtree,withtheirpriestsandleaders.Here,besidesperformingreligiousexercises,theydiscussedwarandpeace,dispensedjustice,chosetheirofficersofstate,andtheirleaderifwarwasimminent.Warandjurisdictionwerethewhole,orwell-nighthewhole,


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ofpubliclifeatthatearlystage.Thepopularassemblies,doneawaywithbythefeudalsystem,revivedlateronintheformofthefamous"Landsgemeinde"oftheforestdistrict,whicharestillinuseinsomeofthecantons.Bloodmoney,orwergild,wasexactedfromwrong-doersasinSaxontimesinEngland.Thetariffdrawnupforbodilyinjuriesrevealsthemercenaryandbrawlingtemperofasemi-civilizedpeople.

AtthetimetheysettledinSwitzerlandtheAlamanniwereheathens,andworshippednature-deities--ingroves,nearsprings,ormountains--thenamesofsomeofwhichwestilltraceinthenamesofthedaysoftheweek.Theirreligion,whichwasthatcommontoallGermany,revealstheGermanmind--fullofreverie,deepthoughtfulness,andwildromanticfancythatleadstoatragicalissue.LikemostheathenpeopletheAlamanniclothedtheirgodsintheirownfleshandblood.Wodenandhisattendantdeities,shield-maidens--FreyrandFreya,thekingandqueenoftheelves--dwarfs,giants,spirits--allthesearewellknowntous,andareindeedthecharmofthefairytalesofouryouth.Thebrightspirits,theAsen,waragainstthespiritofdarkness,thegiants,andloseground,fortheyhavebrokenthetreatiesmadewiththem.TheAsenarethebenevolentpowersofnature,springsunshine,andfertilizingrain,andliveinbrightpalaces,inWalhalla,andreceivethedead;theevilspiritsarethesterilerock,theicywinter,theragingsea,thedestructivefire.ThordestroystherockswithhisHammer,poundingthemtoearththatmanmaygrowcorn.Thegiantsscaletheskytodefythe

godsforassistingmankind,butHeimdallrstandswatchingontherainbow-bridgethatleadstoAsgard--thegardenoftheAsen--andpreventstheirentrance.Butthegodsthemselvesarestainedwithguilt,andinafightwiththeGiantsbeforethegatesofWalhalla,theyutterlydestroyeachother.Thecolumnsofheavenandtherainbow-bridgebreakdown,theuniverseisdestroyedandthedownfallofthegodsiscomplete.ButtheheathenGermanscouldnotbearthenotionofentireannihilation,soinasortofepiloguethegreattragedyisfollowedbythedawnofbrighterandbettertimes,thegodsrecovertheirformerinnocence,whentheyusedtoplaywithgoldendicewithoutknowingthevalueofgold.[13]TheGtterdmmerung,theDivineDawn,hasbroken,andanewepochhassetinforgodsandmen.OneofWagner'smusicaldramasis,asiswellknown,foundedonthesemyths..Toturntothe

Burgundians.TheybecametheneighboursoftheAlamanniinHelvetiaabout443A.D.,afteraseveredefeatbytheHuns.Thisgreatbattleispicturedwithgreatpowerinthe"Nibelungenlied."TheBurgundiansplayaconspicuouspartinthatgrandoldepic.Awonderfulblendingitisofheroicmyth,beautifulromance,andhistoricsagasattachingtothegreatheroesoftheearlyMiddleAges--TheodorictheGreat,GuntherofBurgundy,Attila,KingoftheHuns.Ifspacepermitted,thewholestorymightwellbetold,butinthisplaceletonefeatbecitedasanexample.Siegfried,theDragon-slayer,ademigod,invulnerable,likeAchilles,exceptinoneplace,andwhocouldmakehimselfinvisible,woosthesweetandlovelymaidofWorms.As"invisiblechampion,"heassistsherbrotherGuntherinhiscombatwiththewarlikeBrunhilde,QueenoftheNorth,whomGuntherwishestoobtaintowife.Afteryears

ofhappymarriedlifetheQueenofWormsfelltoaquarrelwiththeQueenofXantenonaquestionofprecedence,andthegallantSiegfriedfallsavictimtoBrunhilde'shatred,andherintriguewithHagen.Toavengehisdeath,thedisconsolatewidowmarriesthepowerfulAttila,andengagesinaterriblebattlewiththeBurgundians.Inthisbattlesheandherownkindredwereslain.AttilaandDietrichofVerona(TheodorictheGreat)aresaved,however.

AtiusgavetotheBurgundiansasasettlementSabaudia(Savoy),onconditionthattheyshouldprotectGaulandItalyfromtheincursionsof


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theAlamanni.One-thirdofthelandsandhomesteadsweremadeovertothembytheRomans,andlatertwo-thirdswereyielded.GraduallytheBurgundiansadvancedintheinteriorofHelvetia,Vaud,Valais,andFribourg,andintoSouthernGaul.TheyoccupiedindeedalltheterritoryfromtheVosgestotheAlpsandtheMediterranean.Theylivedonfriendlytermswiththeprevioussettlers,differingconsiderablyincharacterfromtheAlamanni.Lessnumerous,lessvigorous,andmorepliant,theywereunabletoGermanizetheWest,astheAlamannididtheEast,yetwerestrongenoughtoinfusenewvitalforceintotheenervatedRomanpopulations.AreadilycultivableracetheBurgundiansavailedthemselvesoftheRomancivilizationandadvancement,andgraduallyblendedwiththeprevioussettlers--chieflyofLatinorigin--toformanewpeople.ThusthroughRomaninfluenceandGermangrafting--withtwodistinctGermangrafts--twonationalitiessprangupinSwitzerland,andwefind,asinourownday,theGermansinthenorth-east,andtheFrenchinthesouth-west.

[Illustration:EIGERINTHEBERNESEOBERLAND.]

TheRomaninfluenceovertheBurgundianswasgreatlyincreasedbythepolicyofKingGundobad(A.D.500).HehadvisitedItaly,andhadbeengreatlytakenwithRomaninstitutions.ThereisstillextantaletterofhisinwhichhebegsofTheodorictheGreatasun-orwater-dialwhichhehadseenathisCourt.Gundobad'scodeoflawswasablendingof

RomanlegislationwithGermanjurisdiction.HeintroducedtheLatinspeechandchronologyofficially,andgavetheRomansequalrightsandanequalstandingwiththeGermanpopulation.Religiousdifferencesarising--theBurgundianswereArians--andconflictsensuingbetweenkingandpeople,theFrankstookadvantageoftheturmoilstobringthesubjectsofGundobadundertheirsway.

TherewasnolovelostbetweentheAlamanniandtheirneighbours,theBurgundians;indeedthenationalantipathyforeachotherwasgreat,buttheFrankishdominationdidmorethananythingelsetowardsbringingaboutaunionbetweenthehostilepeoples.ThereportstheyhaveleftastothecharacteroftheFranksarenotflattering.TheysaidthattheFrankswerecapableofbreakinganoathwithasmilingface,anda

sayingran,"TakeaFrankforafriend,butneverforaneighbour."Clovis,theFrankishking,hadwadedtothethronethroughthebloodofhisownkin.Hewas,however,thefirsttotakemoreextendedviewsinpolitics,andplannedaunitedGermankingdomafterthetypeoftheRomanEmpire.TohisvastschemetheAlamannifellthefirstvictims.Agreatbattlewasfoughtinwhichtheysuffereddefeat.ClovishadvowedthathewouldembraceChristianityifheshouldprevailagainsttheAlamannicOdin.Victoryfallingtohisside,Clovisandhisnobleswerebaptized.HisconversionwasagreattriumphfortheChurch,andfurnishedtheMerovingiankingswithapretextfortheconquestoftheArianGermans,whohadbeenledastrayfromtheorthodoxfaith.TocrowntheworkandenhancehisgreatnessintheeyesofhisRomanandGermansubjects,theimperialpurple,andthetitleofRomanPatriciuswas

bestowedonClovisbytheGreekemperor.

ThesubjectionofBurgundywasbroughtaboutinthefollowingreign,underSigismund,whohadbeenguiltyofthemurderofhissonbythedesireofthestepmother.HefledtoSt.Maurice,whichheendowedsorichlythatitgavesheltertoupwardsoffivehundredmonks.However,hispietydidnotbringhimvictory,fortheBurgundiansweredefeatedbytheFranksatAutunin532,andSigismundandhisfamilywerehurleddownawell.


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InthesameyearChur-RhtiawasyieldedtotheFranksbytheGoths,whorequiredtheirhelpagainsttheEast.Rhtia,whichhadescapedtheGermaninvasion,hadfallentotheshareoftheGothsofItaly,andhadenjoyedtheprotectionandmunificenceoftheirgloriousking,TheodorictheGreat.HedefendedheragainstherneighboursasaforepostofItaly,butleftintacttheRomaninstitutions.

ThushadHelvetiabeenformedintoaFrankishdependency;notavestigewasleftoftheverynameHelvetia.YettheFrankishrulewasmorenominalthanreal.Countswereappointedtogovernshiresandhundreds,and,beingroyalgovernors,wereelectedby,anddependenton,theFrankishkings.Jurisdiction,militarycommand,summoningtowar,raisingoftaxes--fishing,hunting,coinage,hadbecomeroyalprerogatives--andthefarmerskickedagainsttheimpositions--thesewerethefunctionsofthegoverningcounts.NonethelesstheBurgundiansretainedtheirkingorpatricius,andtheAlamanniremainedundertheswayoftheirownduke,towhomalonetheygaveallegiance.Chur-Rhtiawasparticularlyprivileged.Itwasruledbyaroyalgovernor,whowassupremejudge,count,andprses,andthedignityremainedforonehundredandfiftyyearsinonepowerfulandwealthynativefamilycalledtheVictoriden,whoheldlikewisetheecclesiasticallivings.Onitsextinctionin766,BishopTello,thelastofthefamily,bestowedtheimmensewealthonthereligious-housesofDisentisandChur.

ThepromotionofChristianity,andthestaunchsupportgivenbytheMerovingiankingstotheChurch,wereperhapsthegreatestbenefitsresultingfromtheFrankishrule.KnowingtheChurchtobethesolemeansbywhichinthatbenightedageculturecouldbespreadandcivilizationextended,thosemonarchsavailedthemselvesofherservices,andbestoweduponherinreturngreatwealthandhighprerogatives.Churchesandreligious-housesspranguponecouldhardlytellhow.InFrenchSwitzerlandtherewerefoundedthebishopricsofGeneva,Lausanne,andSion;andintheeasternhalfofthecountrythoseofBasel,Vindonissa(removedtoConstanceinthesixthcentury),andChur.St.Maurice,benefited,aswehaveseen,bySigismund,wasaflourishingabbeytown.YetmanyoftheAlamanniheldtenaciouslytotheiroldgods,andtheirholyshrinesandidolsstoodsidebysidewith

theCross;evenChristiansinvokedWoden,forfearheshouldbeoffendedbytheirneglect.

ThefurtheramalgamationofheathenismandChristianitywasmosteffectuallystoppedby--curioustosay--acaravanofIrishmonks.Infact,latertraditionattributedtothesemonksthefoundationofreligious-houses,toanumberwhichmoderninvestigationhasshowntohavebeengreatlyexaggerated.Ireland,whichhadsofarescapedthestrugglewiththegreatTeutonicrace,hadgivenallherenergiestothepromotionofthenewfaith,andeversincethefourthcenturyChristianityhadwonderfullyflourishedintheisland.Filledwithmissionaryardour,theIrishColumbanconceivedanintensedesiretoconquerGaulandGermany,andin610setoutonhiswanderingswitha

staffoftwelvecompanions.Equippedwith"knottysticks,"aleathervial,atravellingpouch,areliccase,andwithasparepairofbootshungroundtheneck,"tatooed,"wearinglongwavinghair,[14]theadventurousbandarrivedinGaul,andfoundedmonasteriesintheVosgesdistrict.However,theyoffendedQueenBrunhildebytheirfrankness,andhadtodepart.ProceedingtoEasternHelvetia,theyarrivedatZurich,butatlengthfindingnothingmoretodothere,aswemaysuppose,theyproceededtoTuggen,ontheUpperZurichlake.Heretheysawpeopleengagedinanoblationofbeertothenationalgods.Movedwithholyanger,themonksupsetthevessel,andflungtheidolsintothelake,


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andwonmanytoChristianity.Wecannotherefollowthemintheirdevotedlabours.ColumbanpassedonintoItaly,butlefthisdiscipleGallusintheneighbourhoodofLakeConstance.Hencesprangupthefamousmonasterybearinghisname.

FOOTNOTES:

[11]Green's"SmallerHistoryofEngland,"p.42.

[12]Dahn,"UrgeschichtederRmanish-germanischenVlker."

[13]Dahn

[14]ProfessorRahn.

V.

THECAROLINGIANS--CHARLEMAGNE.

UnderthelastMerovingiankings,whosecharacterissufficiently

attestedbythenameofFainants--sluggards--AlamanniaandBurgundystruggledtoshakeofftheFrankishyoke.Nowthewealthandpowerofthoseweakkingswerepassingfromthemtotheir"MayorsofthePalace."CharlesMartel,oneofthese"Mayors,"defeatedtheAlamanniinagreatbattle(A.D.730),andCarlomann,Charlemagne'sbrother,hadanumberofAlamannicgrandeesputtothesword,andtheirlandsconfiscated(A.D.746).

CharlesMartelremainedsimple"MayorofthePalace,"butPepinleBrefhadhimselfcrownedking,atSt.Denis,byStephenII.,in751,rewardingthePopeforthisgreatservicebythegiftofatractoflandaroundtheHolyCity.Bythiscoupd'tatwereestablishedboththeCarolingiandynastyandthetemporalpowerofthePope--well-nigh

convertibleterms.Thenewdynastygreatlyfosteredreligion,andfurtheredtheworkbegunbytheIrishandAnglo-Saxonmonks.St.Gall'scellbecameanabbeychurchandmonasticschool;St.Leodegar'satLucernewasincorporatedwiththeabbeyofMurbachinAlsatia;andonthebankoftheLimmatatZuricharoseacollegeofprebends.

PepinleBrefwassucceededbyhisson,CharlestheGreat,orCharlemagne,asheisusuallycalled(768-814).Fornearlyhalfacenturythistalented,powerful,andlofty-mindedsovereignswayedthedestiniesofEuropewithunflaggingzeal,everbearinginmindtheresponsibilitiesofhisexaltedposition.Heruledoveravastdomain,stretchingfromtheEbroinSpaintotheTheissinHungary,andfromDenmarktotheTiber.Saxons,Sclavonians,Avars,Lombards,andArabs,

weresubjecttohisrule.HisCourtwasagreatintellectualcentre,whenceenlightenmentspreadtoeverypartofhisdominions.Charlemagnewasgreatasageneral,asastatesman,asapolitician;hewasapainstakingeconomist,andhishumanity,andhisothervirtuessecuredforhimthenobletitleof"FatherofEurope."Abrilliantfigureinabenightedage,whichsheditslightonaftertimes.Nowondermedivalfancylingeredfondlyonhismemory;andaroundhisnamegatheredsongandsagaandlegend.CharlemagneisaspecialfavouritewiththeSwiss;indeed,ofalltheGermanrulerswhohaveheldswayoverthem,heistheonewhosememoryismostdear;andSwitzerlandhasdoneatleasther


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shareinhelpingtoswellthemassoflegendandfictionrespectinghim.TheimpulsehegavetoeducationinthiscountrywasalonesufficienttoendearhismemorytotheSwiss.Basel,Geneva,Chur,andSion,benefitedbyhiswiseadministration,andZurichquiteparticularlyexaltshim,callinghimthe"Fountainofherintellectuallife,"duringtheMiddleAges.Itisimpossibleasitisunnecessarytogiveatlengthinthisvolume,thehistoryofthislongandbrilliantreign.AfewpointsmaysufficetoindicatethecharacterofCharlemagne,andtothrowsomelightonthetimes,andtheconditionofthecountry.

TheambitionoftheFrankstofoundanempireafterthefashionofRomewaspracticallyrealizedwhenCharlemagnewascrownedEmperoroftheWestbyHadrianinA.D.800.YetCharlesaimedlessatmereoutwardgrandeurthanattheestablishmentofaspiritualkingdomonearth,andakingdomthatshouldembraceallhispeopleinoneChristianChurch,upheldbyastrongandwell-organizedstate-commonwealth.TheunionofChurchandState,yetgivingthepreponderancetothelatter,wasCharlemagne'sleadingidea,andwell-nighsummeduphisreligiousandpoliticalcreed.Thestrongreligiousbentofthis"priestlyking"wasrevealedattheverybeginningofhisreign,whenhetookuponhimselfthemissionof"DefenderoftheHolyChurch,andCoadjutoroftheApostolicSee"[15]thusclaiming,withtheconcurrenceofthePrimate,thespiritualguidanceofhisrealm.Hadrian'scongenialnatureandtendencieshelpedtobringaboutthisunion.YetinthismatterCharles

butconformedtothepolicyofhisancestors,andtothespiritoftheage,anageremarkableforactsofpietyanddevotion.AndthehistoryofSwitzerlandisforthatperiodratherahistoryofthereligiousmovementsofthetimethanapoliticalchronicle.ForinthoseearlystagestheChurchwasproportionallyfarmoreimportantthaninourowntimes.Thenshewasthesole,oralmostthesole,centreofintellect,ofart,ofletters,andrepresentedtheidealsideoflifeinanilliterateage.DespiteherdefectstheChurchwasablessingtomankind.

Helvetianlandshadentirelylosttheirpoliticalindependence.Duringthisreign,thevigorousgovernmentofthemonarchfrustratedeveryattemptatinsurrection,andintheendbothAlamanniandBurgundians

begantofeelthebenefitsarisingfromtheexistenceofawiseandfirmadministration.Tocurbtheirpowerthesovereignabolishedthedignitiesofthemightydukes,andparcelledoutthelandintosmallershires(thantheoldcountydivisions),andplacedoverthesecountsasroyalgovernorswithjudicialpower.Thepeoplenolongerappearedincorporeattheshire-motes,butwererepresentedatthelessercourtbySchoeffen,orreeves.Thesereeveshadtobringintheverdict;iftheycouldnotagree,trial-by-ordealwasresortedto.TwiceayearCharlesassembledhisnoblesandbishopstoreceivetheirreports,andtoframelaws,whichwere,however,submittedtothepeople,thatis,the"freeholders"atthe"realthing,"whentheymetinMay.Forthecontroloftheshireadministration,andtogivethepeopleameansofappealingmoredirectlytotheking'sjustice,heappointedaspecial

commissionofspiritualandtemporalofficers(missidominici).

Charlemagne'slegislation,ithardlyneedstobesaid,washighlyfavourabletotheChurch,andtendedtoincreaseherwealthlargely.Heallottedtohertithesoftheproduceofthesoil,andthepeopleoftheirownfreewilloverwhelmedtheecclesiasticalandmonasticinstitutionswithofferingsoflandsandmoney.IntheeighthcenturythemonasteryofSt.Gallalreadypossessed160,000acresofland,whichhadbeenbestowedbypiousdonors,whilstthetwelvehundreddeeds-of-giftfoundamongsttheoldabbeydocumentstestifytothezeal


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ofthegivers.Religiousestablishmentsbecamethelargestlandownersinthecountry,andvassalageandthefeudalsystemsprangup.

UndertheterritorialsubdivisionSwitzerlandfellintotheshiresofThurgau,Aargau,Genevagau,Waldgau(Vaud),&c.,farlargerthanatpresent,whencearederivedthenamesofvariouscantonsaswehavethemnow.SomeoftheSwisswouldseemtohavesharedinCharlemagne'smilitaryglory.The"MonkofSt.Gall,"[16]recentlyidentifiedwithNotkerBalbulus(theStammerer),thepopularbiographerofCharlemagne,tellsinbombasticstylethefeatsofanAlamannicherofromThurgau.ThismedivalHercules--EisheretheGiantbyname--hadaccompaniedtheemperoragainsttheAvars,andafterhisreturn,reportedthattheyhad"moweddowntheenemylikegrass,"andthathehimselfhad"strungonhislancesomesixoreightpigmytoadsofBohemiansasiftheywerelarks,thencarriedthemhitherandthither,notknowingwhattheyweregrumblingout"!Notker,thechronicler,hadinhisyouthheardthestoryofthemilitaryexploitsofCharlemagne,fromanoldThurgausoldierwhohadfollowedtheemperorinhiswars.AndwhenCharlesIII.wasonavisittoSt.Gallin883,hewassodelightedwiththemonk'slivelychataboutthematchlessemperor,thatherequestedhimtowritedownhisrecollectionsofhisillustriousancestor.TothismonkishchroniclerweowesomanyofthepleasantstoriesofCharlemagnecurrentamongus.[17]

InterestingandtouchingarethetraitsweconstantlymeetwithintheglimpseswegetoftheCourtandprivatelifeoftheemperor.Hisdaughterswerenotallowedtomarrybecausehecouldnotbearseparationfromthem.HattoofBasel,themostillustriousofhiselderbishops,ofteninveighedagainstthemonarch'sweaknesses,yetCharlemagnenotonlyborethebishop'scensures,butsenthimonahighlyhonourablemissiontotheCourtofConstantinople,andchosehimasoneofthewitnessestohislastwill.Theemperor'sfriendshipwithPopeHadrianwasquiteremarkable,and,inspiteofmanydifferences,wasdeepandlasting.OnhearingthenewsofHadrian'sdeath,Charlemagneburstintotears,andeulogizedhiminthemostflatteringterms.Theemperor'smanagementofhisroyalestateswasinthehighestdegreeprudent,skilful,energetic,andineverywayadmirable.Tohispropertyhegave

theclosestandmostconstantinspection,downtotheveryeggsproducedonhisfarms.

Hegatheredroundhimscholars,artists,andteachers,fromItalyandGreece,andaCourtschoolwasopenedbyAlcuin,theAnglo-Saxonscholar--theEnglishwerethenthemostculturedoftheGermanpeoples--andabodyofEnglishpupilsfollowe

THE STORY OF SWITZERLAND BY LINA HUG AND RICHARD STEAD

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