The Stormy Sixties, 1963–1973 - Mr....
Transcript of The Stormy Sixties, 1963–1973 - Mr....
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Chapter37TheStormySixties,
1963–1973
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I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency
• LyndonBainesJohnson(LBJ):– BecamepresidentuponJFK'sassassination– SenttoCongressin1937atage29– FDRwashispolitical“Daddy,”Johnsonclaimed• LBJstronglysupportedNewDealmeasures• WhenhelostabidforSenate(1941),LBJlearnedthatliberalpoliticsdidnotwinelectionsinTexas• WonaSenateseatin1948byshiftinghispoliciestorightandbyaquestionable87-votemargin—hencenickname“LandsideLyndon”
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I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency(cont.)
• InSenate,Johnsondevelopedintomasterwheeler-dealer:– BecameDemocraticmajorityleaderin1954• Usedwhatwascalledthe“Johnsontreatment”—intimidatingdisplayofbackslapping,flesh-pressing,andarm-twistingthatoverborefriendsandfoesalike• Hisegoandvanitywerelegendary• Aspresident,heshreddedconservativecolorationofhisSenateyearstoreveallatentliberalunderneath
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I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency(cont.)
• CongresspassedCivilRightsActof1964:– Bannedracialdiscriminationinmostprivatefacilitiesopentopublic• Includingtheaters,hospitals,restaurants
– Strengthenedfederalgovernment'spowertoendsegregationinschoolsandpublicplaces
– TitleVIIbarredemployersfromdiscriminatingonraceornationalorigininhiring
– EmpoweredEqualEmploymentOpportunityCommission(EEOC)toenforcelaw
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I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency(cont.)
– TitleVIIpassedwithgenderclauseintact• Provedtobepowerfulinstrumentoffederally-enforcedgenderequality
– Johnson(1965)issuedexecutiveorderrequiringallfederalcontractorstotakeaffirmativeactionagainstdiscrimination
• JohnsonalsopushedthroughCongress:– Kennedy'sstalledtaxbill– Proposalsforbillion-dollar“WaronPoverty”
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I.TheLBJBrandonthePresidency(cont.)
• ConcernsaboutpovertyraisedbyMichaelHarrington'sTheOtherAmerica(1962):– Revealedthat20%ofpopulation,andover40%ofblackpopulation,sufferedpoverty
• WaronPovertypartofLBJ'sGreatSociety:– SweepingNewDeal-styledomesticreforms• Targetedremainingpocketsofpoverty• Majornewinvestmentsineducationandarts
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II.JohnsonBattlesGoldwaterin1964
• Electionof1964:– Johnson'snominationaforegoneconclusion• ChosenbyacclamationinAtlanticCity• DemocratsstoodfoursquareonmostliberalplatformsinceTruman'sFairDealdays
– Republicans• MetinSanFrancisco,nominatedSenatorBarryGoldwater,arock-ribbedconservative• Stagesetforhistoricclashofpoliticalprinciples
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II.JohnsonBattlesGoldwaterin1964(cont.)
• Goldwater'sforcestrouncedmoderate“easternestablishment”• Goldwaterattacked:
– Federalincometax,socialsecuritysystem,TVA– Civilrightslegislation,nucleartest-bantreaty– Mostloudly,theGreatSociety
• Hisnominationreflectedgrowingconservativemovement– Gatheredstrengthinmushroomingmiddle-classsuburbsofSunbelt– LedbyWilliamF.BuckleyandYoungAmericansforFreedom– Well-receivedbywhitesouthernersangryatCivilRightsActof1964
• Democrats'attackonGoldwater:– ExploitedimageofGoldwaterastrigger-happycowboy
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II.JohnsonBattlesGoldwaterin1964(cont.)
– Johnson'simageasresolutestatesman• SeizeduponTonkinGulfepisodeinAugust1964:
– CovertU.S.helptoSouthVietnameseraidsonN.Vietnam– LBJpublicallycalledallegedattacks“unprovoked”– Ordered“limited”retaliatoryairraid– Claimedhesought“nowiderwar”– GotCongresstopassall-purposeTonkinGulfResolution:
» Congressabdicatedwar-declaringpowers» HandedpresidentablankchecktousefurtherforceinSoutheastAsia
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II.JohnsonBattlesGoldwaterin1964(cont.)
• Electionresults:– VotersflockedtoJohnsonbecause:• FondnessforKennedylegacy• FaithinGreatSocietypromises• FearofGoldwater
– Count:• Popularvote:
– Johnson—43,129,566;Goldwater—27,178,188• Electoralcount:
– Johnson's486to52forGoldwater(seeMap37.1)
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Map 37-1 p886
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II.JohnsonBattlesGoldwaterin1964(cont.)
• Goldwater:• CarriedonlyhisnativeArizonaandfivestatesinSouth• SouthtraditionallyDemocraticbutnowraciallyrestless
• Johnson:• Recordbreaking61%ofpopularvotesweptlopsidedDemocraticmajoritiesintobothhousesofCongress
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III.TheGreatSocietyCongress– Johnson'swintemporarilysmashedconservativecongressionalcoalitionofsouthernDemocratsandnorthernRepublicans
– RoadopenforGreatSocietyreforms:• LBJhelpedbygrowingeconomy• WaronPoverty:
– DoubledappropriationofOfficeofEconomicOpportunityto$2billion
– Grantedmorethan$1billiontoredevelopAppalachia• Createdtwonewdepartments:
» DepartmentofTransportation» DepartmentofHousingandUrbanDevelopment(HUD)
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III.TheGreatSocietyCongress(cont.)
– Namedfirstblackcabinetsecretaryinnation'shistory—respectedeconomistRobertC.Weaver—toHUD
• EstablishedNationalEndowmentsfortheArtsandfortheHumanities:– DesignedtoliftlevelofAmericanculturallife
– BigFourlegislativeachievementscrownedLBJ'sGreatSocietyprograms:• Aidtoeducation
– Toavoidseparationofchurchandstateissue,LBJawardedaiddirectlytostudents» Signedbillinhumbleone-roomTexasschool-househeattendedasachild
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III.TheGreatSocietyCongress(cont.)
• MedicareforelderlyandMedicaidforpoor:– Created“entitlements”
» RightsforcertaincategoriesofAmericansinperpetuity» Withoutneedforrepeatedcongressionalapproval
– Partofspreading“rightsrevolution”thathelpedmillions,butalsocreatedlong-termfinancialproblemsforfederalgovernment
• Immigrationreform:– ImmigrationandNationalityActof1965abolished“national-origins”quotasysteminplacesince1921(seeChap.30)
– Doublednumberofimmigrantsallowedtoenterannuallyto290,000– Forfirsttime,setlimitsonimmigrantsfromWesternHemisphere(120,000)
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III.TheGreatSocietyCongress(cont.)
– ProvidedforadmissionofcloserelativesofU.S.citizens,outsidenumericallimits» 100,000peopleperyeartookadvantageof“familyunification”provisionindecadesafter1965
– SourceofimmigrationshiftedfromEuropetoLatinAmericaandAsia
– GreatSocietyprogramscameinforpoliticalattacksinlateryears:• Conservativeschargedbillionsspentfor“socialengineering”wasted• Yetpovertyleveldeclinedinensuringdecade(seeFigure37.1)
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III.TheGreatSocietyCongress(cont.)
• Medicaredramaticallyreducedpovertyamongelderly• ProjectHeadStart—sharplyimprovededucationalperformanceofunderprivilegedyouth• GreatSocietyprogramsreducedinfantmortalityratesinminoritycommunities
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Figure 37-1 p888
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IV.BattlingforBlackRights
• VotingRightsActof1965:– OneofAmerica'smostpersistentevils—racialdiscrimination• CivilRightsActof1964:
– Gavefederalgovernmentmoremuscletoenforceschool-desegregationorders
– Andtoprohibitracialdiscriminationinpublicaccommodationsandemployment
• Problemofvotingremained:– Mississippi:only5%ofeligibleblacksregisteredtovote– SimilarthroughoutSouth
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IV.BattlingforBlackRights(cont.)
– Ballot-denyingdevices:polltax,literacytests,barefacedintimidation
– Mississippirequirednamesofprospectiveblackregistrantsbepublishedfortwoweeksinlocalnewspapers—virtuallyguaranteedeconomicreprisals,orworse
• 1964:votingbecomechiefgoalofblackmovement– Twenty-fourthAmendment,ratifiedJanuary1964,abolishedpolltaxinfederalelections(seeAppendix)
– FreedomSummer1964:blacksjoinedwithwhitesinmassivevoter-registrationdriveinMississippi» InJune,oneblackandtwowhitecivilrightsworkersmurdered» Mississippiofficialsrefusedtoprosecutethoseresponsible
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IV.BattlingforBlackRights(cont.)
• August:integratedMississippiFreedomDemocraticpartydelegationdeniedseatsatDemocraticconvention• Early1965,MartinLutherKing,Jr.,resumedvoter-registrationcampaigninSelma,Alabama:– 50%ofcity'spopulationblack,butonly1%ofitsvoters– AUnitarianministerkilled– Fewdayslater,awhiteDetroitwomanmurderedbyKlansmen
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IV.BattlingforBlackRights(cont.)
– JohnsonshepherdedthroughCongresslandmarkVotingRightsActof1965;signedintolawAugust6• Outlawedliteracytests• Sentfederalvoterregistrarsintoseveralsouthernstates• Overtimebroughtdramaticchangetosouthernpoliticsandbusinesses• SoonblacksbegantomigrateintoSouthforfirsttimesinceemancipation
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V.BlackPower
• VotingRightsActof1965:– Lastmajorlegislativevictoryofsouthern-focused,integrationist,nonviolentcivilrightsmovement
– IncreasedfocusonstrugglesinurbanNorthagainstdiscriminationandpolicebrutality• FivedaysafterLBJsignedVotingRightsAct,bloodyrioteruptedinWatts,ablackghettoinLosAngeles– 31blacksand3whiteskilled;morethanathousandpeopleinjured;hundredsofbuildingscharredandgutted
• Heraldedshifttomilitancy,radicalism,andseparatism
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V.BlackPower(cont.)
• LeadershipofMalcolmX:– BornMalcolmLittle,hewasinspiredbymilitantblacknationalistsinNationofIslam• LikeNation'sfounder—ElijahMuhammed(bornElijahPoole),MalcolmchangedhissurnametoadvertiselostAfricanidentityinwhiteAmerica• MalcolmXtrumpetedblackseparatism• LaterbrokewithElijahMuhammed'sseparatism;movedtowardmainstreamIslam• Early1965,killedbyNationofIslamgunmen
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V.BlackPower(cont.)• SocialistBlackPantherpartyused“citizens'patrols”toresistpolicebrutality
• In1966,StokelyCarmichael,SNCCleader:• BegantopreachdoctrineofBlackPower• LikeGarveyof1920s(seeChap.30),CarmichaelbreathedseparatistmeaningintoconceptofBlackPower– EmphasizedAfricanAmericandistinctiveness– Promoted“Afro”hairstylesanddress– Shed“white”namesfornewAfricanidentities– Demandedblackstudiesprogramsineducation
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V.BlackPower(cont.)• 1967:moreriotsinblackurbanghettos– Newark,NewJersey(killed25people)– Detroit,Michigan(killed43people)• AsinWatts(1965),rioterstorchedneighborhoods• Attackedpoliceofficersandevenfirefighters
– RiotsangeredmanywhiteAmericans,whothreatenedtoretaliate
– Riotsbafflednorthernerswhoconsideredracialproblemsa“southern”question
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V.BlackPower(cont.)
– Blacksmovednorthover1900s– Facedresidentialdiscrimination,whiteoutmigrationtosuburbs,anddeindustrialization• Blackunemploymentnearlydoublethatofwhites
– DespairdeepenedwhenMartinLutherKing,Jr.,murderedonApril4,1968• Triggeredmoreriots
– Riotersmadenews,butthousandsofotherblacksquietlymadehistory• BlackvoterregistrationinSouthshotupward
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V.BlackPower(cont.)
• Bylate1960s,severalhundredblacksheldelectedofficeinOldSouth• Cleveland,OhioandGary,Indianaelectedblackmayors• By1972,nearlyhalfofsouthernblackchildreninintegratedschools– MoreschoolsintegratedinSouththanNorth
• Aboutathirdofblackshadrisenintomiddleclass• Kingleftshininglegacyofracialprogress,buthewascutdownwhenjobfarfromdone
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VI.VietnamVexations
– VietCong(guerillasloyaltoNorthVietnamesecommunists)attackedU.S.airbaseatPleiku,SouthVietnam,February1965
– JohnsonorderedretaliatorybombingraidsagainstmilitaryinstallationsinNorthVietnam
– Forfirsttime,orderedU.S.combattroopstoSouthVietnam• Bymid-March,“OperationRollingThunder”infullswing—regularbombingagainstNorthVietnam• Before1965ended,184,000Americantroopsinvolved
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)• Johnsonhadtakenslipperypathtoward“escalation”ofU.S.troopstodriveenemytodefeat• GuerrillaenemymatchedeveryAmericanincrease• SouthVietnamesebecamespectatorsaswarbecameAmericanized• CorruptandcollapsiblegovernmentsinSaigonsucceededeachother• YetU.S.A.claimedtobedefendingademocratically• “Hawks”defendedwarasnecessarytoshowU.S.“commitment”tofulfillnumeroustreatypledgestoresistcommunistencroachment
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• JohnsonsteadilyraisedmilitarystakesinVietnam– By1968,ahalfmilliontroopsthereandannualbillforwarexceeded$30billion
– Stillendnowhereinsight
• U.S.A.couldnotdefeatenemyinVietnam,butitseemedtobebringingdefeatuponitself–Worldreactions:• SeveralnationsexpelledPeaceCorpsvolunteers• deGaullewithdrewFrancefromNATOin1966
– OrderedallAmericantroopsoutofFrance
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
– OvercommitmenttiedAmerica'shandselsewhere– InSix-DayWar(1967),Israel:• DefeatedEgypt,Jordan,andSyria• GainedterritoriesinSinaiPeninsula,GolanHeights,GazaStrip,andWestBankofJordanRiver,includingJerusalem(seeMap39.2)
– VictorybroughtonemillionresentfulPalestinianArabsunderdirectIsraelicontrol
– Another350,000PalestinianrefugeesfledtoneighboringJordan
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• IsraellateragreedtowithdrawfromSinaiaftersigningapeacetreatywithEgypt• Israelrefusedtorelinquishotherareaswithoutatreaty• BeganmovingJewishsettlersintoheavilyArabdistrictofWestBank
– Six-DayWarintensifiedproblemsofvolatileMiddleEast• IntractablestandoffbetweenIsraelisandPalestinians
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
– DomesticdiscontentfesteredoverVietnam:• Campus“teach-ins”in1965• Graduallyprotestsgrewtotidal-waveproportions• Draftclaimedmoreandmoreyoungmen• ThousandsofdraftregistrantsfledtoCanada• Otherspubliclyburneddraftcards• Hundredsofthousandsmarchedinprotest• ManyAmericansfeltpangsofconscienceatburningpeasanthutsandusingdestructiveweapons
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
– Congress'soppositiontoVietnam:• CenteredinSenateCommitteeonForeignRelations,headedbySenatorWilliamFulbright– Heldseriesoftelevisedhearingsin1966and1967– Publiccametofeeltheyhadbeendeceivedaboutcausesand“winnability”ofwar
• “Credibilitygap”openedbetweengovernmentandpublic
–Withinadministrationitself:• DoubtsdeepenedaboutwisdomofwarinVietnam
– WhenDefenseSecretaryMcNamaraexpressedmisgivingsaboutwar,hewaseasedoutofoffice
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• By1968,brutalandfutilestrugglehadbecomelongestandmostunpopularforeignwartodateforU.S.A.• Casualties(killedandwounded)alreadyexceeded100,000• MorebombsdroppedonVietnam,thanonallenemyterritoryinWWII• GovernmentutterlyfailedtoexplaintothepeoplewhatwassupposedtobeatstakeinVietnam
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• Johnson:• OrderedCIA,inclearviolationofitscharter,tospyondomesticantiwaractivists• EncouragedFBItoturnitscounterintelligenceprogram,“Cointelpro,”againstpeacemovement– “Cointelpro”falselylabeledleading“doves”ascommunistsympathizers
– TacticsmadeFBIlookliketotalitarianstate'ssecretpoliceratherthanguardianofAmericandemocracy
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VI.VietnamVexations(cont.)
• EvidencemountedthatUSAtrappedinacivilwar(motivatedrebelsvs.brutalgovernment)– YetLBJclungtostrategyofratchetinguppressurebitbybit
– StubbornlyassuredAmericansthathecouldsee“thelightattheendofthetunnel”
– TogrowingnumbersofAmericans,itseemedLBJbenton“saving”Vietnambydestroyingit
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p892
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VII.VietnamTopplesJohnson
• January1968,communistoffensivelaunchedonTet,VietnameseNewYear
• VietCongattacked27SouthVietnamesecities,includingcapitalSaigon• ShowedJohnson'sstrategyofcontinualescalationnotworking• TetoffensiveendedinmilitarydefeatbutpoliticalvictoryforVietCong– U.S.publicopinionincreasinglydemandedendtowar
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VII.VietnamTopplesJohnson (cont.)
– AmericanmilitaryleadersrespondedtoTetwithrequestfor200,000moretroops• Requeststaggeredmanypolicymakers
– LBJchallengedwithinhisownparty:• EugeneMcCarthyreceived41.4%ofvoteinNewHampshireprimaryonMarch12,1968• Johnson'sstarfellfurtherfourdayslaterwhenRobertF.Kennedyenteredracefornomination– Kennedystirredpassionateresponseamongworkers,AfricanAmericans,Latinos,andyoungpeople
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VII.VietnamTopplesJohnson (cont.)
– Mar.31:Johnsonannouncedhewouldfreezetroopslevelsandscalebackbombing• Declaredhewouldnotbeacandidatein1968election
– Johnson's“abdication”hadeffectofpreservingmilitarystatusquo• Heheld“hawks”incheck,whileofferinghimselfasasacrificetomilitant“doves”• U.S.A.couldmaintainmaximumacceptablelevelofmilitaryactivityinVietnam,whiletryingtonegotiateasettlement
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p893
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968
– 1968oneofhottestpoliticalseasonsinU.S.history• VicepresidentHubertH.HumphreywasLBJ'sheirapparentforDemocraticnomination• MeanwhileMcCarthyandKennedydueledinprimaries
– OnJune5,1968,KennedykilledbyArabimmigrantresentfulofRFK'spro-Israelviews
• AntiwargroupsconvergedonDemocraticconventioninChicago,August1968• Exasperatedbysomemilitantdemonstrators,policebrokeintoa“policeriot”onguiltyandinnocentalike• Humphreygainednominationonfirstballotbecauseprocessprivilegedpartyofficialsoverprimaryresults
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p894
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
– Republicanconvention,MiamiBeach• RichardM.NixonbecamecandidateacceptabletoGoldwaterconservativesaswellaspartymoderates• TappedMaryland'sGovernorSpiroT.Agnewasrunningmatetoappealtowhitesoutherners– Agnewtoughondissidentsandblackmilitants
• PlatformcalledforvictoryinVietnamandstronganticrimepolicy• “Spoiler”thirdpartyticket—AmericanIndependentparty—headedbyGeorgeC.Wallace– GainedfamewithhisoppositiontoCivilRightsMovement
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
– BetweenpositionsofRepublicansandDemocratsonVietnam,therewaslittlechoice:• Bothcandidatescommittedtocontinuewaruntilenemysettledfor“honorablepeace”(i.e.,U.S.win)• Millionsof“doves”hadnoplacetoroost
– Manyrefusedtovoteatall• Humphrey,scorchedbyLBJbrand,wentdowntodefeatasloyalprisonerofhischief'spolicies
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
– Nixonwon:• 301electoralvotes,43.4%ofpopulartally(31,785,480)• Humphrey:191electoralvotes,42.7ofpopularvotes(31,275,166)(seeMap37.2)• HoweverNixon
– FacedDemocraticmajoritiesinbothhousesofCongress– Carriednotasinglemajorcity– Receivednoclearmandatetodoanything– Aminoritypresidentwhoowedhiselectiontodivisionsoverwarandprotestagainstunfairdraft,crime,andrioting
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Map 37-2 p895
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
–Wallace:• Wonimpressive9,906,473popularvotes• 46electoralvotes,allfromfivestatesofDeepSouth
– fourofwhichGoldwaterhadcarriedin1964• Wallaceamassedlargestthird-partypopularvoteinU.S.historytothatpoint• Lastthird-partycandidatetowinanyelectoralvotes
– RossPerotin1992enjoyedagreaterpopularvotemarginbutwonnostates(seeMap40.1)
• Wallacedemonstratedcontinuingpowerof“populist”politics—appealtovoters'fearsandresentments
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
– JohnsonreturnedtoTexasinJanuary1969,onlytodiefouryearslater:• Hadsignificantachievementsincivilrightsandhelptopoor• By1966LBJsinkingintoVietnamquicksand• Soaringwarcostsconsumedtaxdollars• WaronPovertymetresistanceandwouldeventuallygodownindefeat
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VIII.ThePresidentialSweepstakesof1968(cont.)
• JohnsoncrucifiedhimselfoncrossofVietnam• ChosetodefendU.S.footholdandenlargeconflictratherthanwithdraw• Decisionnottoescalatefightingfurtherin1968offended“hawks,”andhisrefusaltobackoffaltogetherantagonized“doves”
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IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s
– Strugglesof1960sagainstracism,poverty,andwarinVietnamhadmomentousculturalconsequences:
– Negativeattitudestowardallkindsofauthoritytookhold– Manyyoungpeoplelosttraditionalmoralrudders– Conventionalwisdomandinheritedideascameunderfire
–MainlineProtestantdenominationsweakened• Weeklychurchgoingdeclinedfrom48%inlate1950sto41%in1970s• LiberalProtestantchurchessufferedmost
– Increasinglycededreligiousauthoritytoconservativeevangelicals– Whilesurrenderingculturalauthoritytosecularprofessionalsandacademicsocialscientists
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IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)
• AseducatedAmericansbecameincreasinglysecular,lesseducatedbecamemorereligious• Religiousupheavaloccurredintradition-boundRomanCatholicChurchaftersecondVaticanCouncil• SkepticismaboutauthorityhaddeephistoricalrootsinAmericanculture,includingin1950s:– “Beat”movementrejectedcultureandpoliticsofdecade– MovieslikeRebelWithoutaCause(1955)withyoungactorJamesDeanexpressedrestlessfrustrationofmanyyoungpeople
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IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)
– Disaffectionofyoungcrescendoedin1960sasBabyBoomreachedcollegeage:• 1offirstprotestsagainstauthoritybrokeoutatUniversityofCaliforniaatBerkeleyin1964– FreeSpeechMovement—studentsobjectedtoadministrativebanonuseofcampusspaceforpoliticaldebate
• ProtestsblossomedoverVietnamandsoonsawriseofself-conscious“counterculture”opposedtotraditionalways• SocialupheavalfarfromAmerican-onlyphenomenon
– Acrossglobe,youth-drivenpoliticalandsocialconflictroiled– Helpedbyglobalreachofyouthpopculture,especiallymusic
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IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)
• 1960switnessed“sexualrevolution”:– Introductionofbirthcontrolpill(1960)madepregnancieseasiertoavoidandsexualappetiteseasiertosatisfy
– MattachineSociety,foundedinLosAngelesin1951,apioneeringsocietyadvocatinggayrights
– StonewallRebellionatNewYorkCity'sStonewallInn(1969)provedturningpointasvictimsofpolicebrutalityfoughtback
– In1980s,worriesaboutsexuallytransmitteddiseaseslikegenitalherpesandAIDS(acquiredimmunodeficiencysyndrome)slowed,butdidnotreverse,sexualrevolution
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p899
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IX.TheCulturalUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)
• Launchedinyouthfulidealism,manyofdecade's“revolutions”sputteredoutinviolenceandcynicism• StudentsforaDemocraticSociety(SDS):
– Onceatforefrontofantipovertyandantiwarcampaigns– SpawnedundergroundterroristgroupcalledWeathermen
• Peacefulcivilrightsdemonstrationsgavewaytourbanriots• ExperimentswithmarijuanaandLSDspawnedunderworldofdruglordsandaddicts• Criticsdenouncedself-indulgentromanticismof“flowerchildren”
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IX.TheCultureUpheavalofthe1960s(cont.)
– Supportershailed“greening”ofAmerica• Materialismandimperialismreplacedbynewconsciousnessofhumanvalues
– Upheavalsof1960scanbeattributedtothreeP's:• Youthfulpopulationbulge• ProtestsagainstracismandVietnamWar• Prosperitythatseemedpermanentfixtureofpostwarera
– “Counterculture”maynothavereplacedoldervalues,butitweakenedtheirgrip,perhapspermanently
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X.Nixon“Vietnamizes”theWar– InauguratedonJan.20,1969,Nixonwas:• AnunlikelyconciliatorofclashingforcesrippingAmericansocietyapart– Solitaryandsuspicious– Brittleandtestyinfaceofopposition– Bitterlyresented“liberalestablishment”
• Yet,hebroughtonehugevaluableassettoWhiteHouse:– Broadknowledgeandthoughtfulexpertiseinforeignaffairs– AppliedhimselftoputAmerica'sforeign-policyinorder
• Firstgoal:quietuproaroverVietnam
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X.Nixon“Vietnamizes”theWar(cont.)
• Vietnamizationpolicy:• Withdrawthe540,000troopsinSouthVietnamoveranextendedperiod• SouthernVietnamese—withU.S.money,weapons,training,andadvice—wouldgraduallytakeoverwar
• NixonDoctrinethusevolved:• ProclaimedU.S.A.wouldhonoritsexistingdefensecommitments• Infuture,allieswouldhavetofighttheirownwarswithoutsupportoflargebodiesofU.S.troops
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X.Nixon“Vietnamizes”theWar(cont.)
• NixonsoughttowinVietnamwarbyothermeans– WithoutfurtherspillingAmericanblood
• Advocatingimmediatewithdrawal,antiwarprotestersstagedbignationalVietnammoratoriuminOct.1969• Nixonlaunchedcounteroffensivebyappealingtosilentmajoritywhopresumablysupportedwar– Hisappealdeeplydivisive– VPAgnewattacked“natteringnabobsofnegativism”whodemandedquickendtowar
– In1970,Nixonsneeredatstudentprotestersas“bums”
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X.Nixon“Vietnamizes”theWar(cont.)
– ByJan.1970,Vietnamhadbecameveryunpopular,evenamongU.S.troopsinfield
– ArmedforcesinVietnamlargelycomposedofleastprivilegedyoungAmericans
– Earlyinwar,AfricanAmericans:• Disproportionatelyrepresentedinarmy• Accountedforhighestshareofcombatfatalities
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X.Nixon“Vietnamizes”theWar(cont.)
– U.S.soldiers:• FoughtVietnameseaswellasbooby-trappedswampsandsteamingjungles• Unabletotellfriendfromfoeamongpeasants• Drugabuse,mutiny,andsabotagedulledfightingedge• Moraleplummetedfurtherwithrumorsthatsoldiers“fragged”theirofficers—murderedthemwithfragmentationgrenades• Revelationsin1970about1968slaughterinMyLaideepeneddomesticdisgustwithwar
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p900
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XI.CambodianizingtheVietnamWar
– OnApr.29,1970Nixon,withoutconsultingCongress,orderedU.S.troopstocleanoutenemysanctuariesinofficiallyneutralCambodia
– Massivecampusriotsoverthisnewestescalation:• AtKentStateUniversityinOhio,jumpyNationalGuardfiredintonoisycrowd,killingfourandwoundingmanymore• AthistoricallyblackJacksonStateCollege,Mississippi,highwaypatroldischargedvolleys,killingtwostudents
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XI.CambodianizingtheVietnamWar(cont.)
– NixonwithdrewtroopsfromCambodiaonJune29,1970,afteronlytwomonths
– ResultsofCambodianinvasion:• Amplifiedbitternessbetween“hawks”and“doves”• Disillusionmentwith“whitey'swar”increasedamongAfricanAmericansinarmedforces• Senate(butnotHouse)repealedGulfofTonkinblankcheckthatCongressgaveJohnsonin1964• Youthonlyslightlymollifiedwhengovernmentreduceddraftcallsandshortenedperiodofdraftability– Onalotterybasis,fromeightyearstooneyear
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XI.CambodianizingtheVietnam(cont.)
• Youthpleased,thoughnotpacified,in1971when26thAmendmentloweredvotingageto18(seeAppendix)• NewcombustiblesfueledfiresofantiwardiscontentinJune1971:– FormerPentagonofficialleakedtoNewYorkTimesthePentagonPapers,atop-secretPentagonstudy
– Documentedwar'sblundersanddeceptions,especiallyprovokingof1964NorthVietnameseattackinGulfofTonkin
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XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow
• DramaticinitiativesinBeijingandMoscow:• TwomajorCommunistpowersclashedoverinterpretationofMarxismaswellasborderbetweenthem• NixonrealizedChinese-SoviettensionaffordedU.S.A.opportunitytoplayoneantagonistagainsttheother• AndenlistaidofbothinpressuringNorthVietnamintopeace• HenryKissingerhadbeenmeetingsecretlywithNorthVietnameseofficialsinParistonegotiateendtowar• Hewasmeanwhilepreparingpresident'spathtoBeijingandMoscow
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XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow(cont.)
– July1971:NixonannouncedhehadacceptedinvitationtovisitCommunistChinathefollowingyear
– MadehishistoricjourneyinFebruary1972– CappedvisitwithShanghaiCommuniqué:
» Inwhichtwonationsagreedto“normalize”relationship» ImportantpartofaccordwasAmerica'sacceptanceof“one-China”policy
» ImpliedlessenedAmericancommitmenttoindependenceofTaiwan
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XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow(cont.)
– NixonnexttraveledtoMoscowinMay1972:» Toplay“Chinacard”ingameofhigh-stakesdiplomacywithKremlin
» SovietsreadytodealwithUnitedStates• Nixon'svisitusheredineraofdétente:
– Relaxedtension—withmajorcommunistpowers• Andproducedseveralsignificantagreementsin1972
– Mostimportant,USAandUSSRagreedtoanti-ballisticmissile(ABM)treatyandtoseriesofarms-reductionnegotiationsknownasSALT(StrategicArmsLimitationTalks)» Aimedatfreezingnumbersoflong-rangemissilesforfiveyears
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XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow(cont.)
– ABMandSALTaccordsafirststeptowardslowingarmsrace– Yetbothforgedaheadwithdevelopmentof“MIRVs”(multipleindependentlytargetedreentryvehicles)» Putanumberofwarheadsonasinglemissile
• Nixon'sdétentediplomacydid,tosomeextent,de-iceColdWar
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XII.Nixon'sDétentewithBeijing(Peking)andMoscow(cont.)
• Nixonremainedstaunchlyanticommunist• OpposedelectionofMarxistSalvadorAllendetopresidencyofChilein1970
• Allendediedduringanarmyattackonhisheadquartersin1973
• NixonwarmlyembracedAllende'ssuccessor,militarydictatorGeneralAugustoPinochet
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XIII.ANewTeamontheSupremeBench
• NixonandSupremeCourt• In1968,Nixonlashedoutagainst“permissiveness”and“judicialactivism”ofWarrenCourt• WarrenCourtaffectedsexualfreedom,criminalrights,practiceofreligion,civilrights,andrepresentation• Griswoldv.Connecticut(1965):Courtvoidedstatelawthatbanneduseofcontraceptives,evenamongmarriedcouples,becauseof“rightofprivacy”• Gideonv.Wainwright(1963):Courtheldthatallcriminaldefendantsentitledtolegalcounsel,eveniftoopoortoaffordit
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XIII.ANewTermontheSupremeBench(cont.)
• Escobedo(1964)andMiranda(1966)ensuredrightofaccusedtoremainsilentandenjoyprotections• Mirandawarning–policemustreadtosuspects
– Rulingssoughttopreventabusivepolicetactics• Toconservativesseemedtocoddlecriminalsandsubvertlawandorder
– ConservativesalsoobjectedtoCourt'sviewsonreligion:
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XIII.ANewTermontheSupremeBench(cont.)
– InEngelv.Vitale(1962)andSchoolDistrictofAbingdonTownshipv.Schempp(1963):• JusticesarguedFirstAmendment'sseparationofchurchandstatemeantpublicschoolscouldnotrequireprayerorBiblereading• Socialconservativesraisedanewbattlecry“ImpeachEarlWarren”(seeChap.36)
– From1954,Courtcameunderrelentlesscriticism,bitterestsinceNewDealdays• Grappledwithproblemslegislaturesfailedtoaddress
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XIII.ANewTermontheSupremeBench(cont.)
• Fulfillingcampaignpromise,NixontriedtochangeCourt'sphilosophicalcomplexion:
• Soughtappointeeswhowould:– StrictlyinterpretConstitution– Cease“meddling”insocialandpoliticalquestions– Notcoddleradicalsorcriminals
• AppointedWarrenE.BurgertosucceedEarlWarren• Beforeendof1971,NixonhadappointedfourconservativestoCourt
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XIII.ANewTermontheSupremeBench(cont.)
• Nixonlearnedthatonceseated,justicesdecideaccordingtoconscience,notaccordingtopresident'sexpectations
• BurgerCourtprovedreluctanttodismantle“liberal”rulingsofWarrenCourt– ControversialandmomentousRoev.Wade(1973)whichlegalizedabortion(seeChap.38)
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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront
• OversawbigexpansionofwelfareprogramsthatconservativeRepublicansdenounced:
• IncreasedappropriationsforFoodStamps,Medicaid,andAidtoFamilieswithDependentChildren(AFDC)• Addednewprogram:SupplementalSecurityIncome(SSI)toassistindigent,aged,blind,anddisabled• AutomaticSocialSecuritycost-of-livingincreases• Implementedso-calledPhiladelphiaPlan(1969):
– Requiredtradeunionstoestablish“goalsandtime-tables”forhiringblackapprentices
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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront (cont.)
• PhiladelphiaPlan:• Required1,000sofemployerstomeethiringquotasorestablish“set-asides”forminoritysubcontractors• Alteredmeaningof“affirmativeaction”
– Fromprotectindividualsagainstdiscrimination– Toprogramthatconferredprivilegesoncertaingroups
• SupremeCourtwentalongwithNixon'sapproach– Griggsv.DukePowerCo.(1971):Courtbannedintelligencetestsorotherdevicesthathadeffectofexcludingminoritiesorwomenfromcertainjobs
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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront (cont.)
• Onlysureprotectionagainstchargeofdiscriminationwastohireminoritiesoradmitminoritystudents– Inproportiontotheirpresenceinpopulation
• NixonandCourtopenednewemploymentandeducationalopportunitiesforminoritiesandwomen• Criticsprotestedchangesas“reversediscrimination”
– AnotherNixonlegacy:• 1970creationofEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)• RachelCarson'sSilentSpring(1962)exposedpoisonouseffectsofpesticides
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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront (cont.)
• April22,1970,millionsaroundworldcelebratedfirstEarthDay:– Toraiseawarenessandtoencourageleaderstoact– CongresspassedCleanAirAct(1970)andEndangeredSpeciesAct(1973)
– EPAmadeprogressinreducingautomobileemissionsandcleaningupbefouledwaterwaysandtoxicwastesites
• Federalgovernmentexpandedregulatoryreachonbehalfofworkersandconsumers– 1970NixonsignedOccupationalSafetyandHealthAdministration(OSHA)intolaw
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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront (cont.)
– Createdagencydedicatedtoimprovingworkingconditions» Preventwork-relatedaccidentsanddeath» Issuesafetystandards
• ConsumerProductSafetyCommission(CPSC):– Heldcompaniesaccountableforsellingdangerousproducts
• Businesscriticsdecried“nannystate”• 1971:Nixonimposed90-daywageandpricefreeze• HethentookU.S.A.offgoldstandardanddevalueddollar
– Twoactionsended“BrettonWoods”systemofinternationalcurrencystabilizationthathadfunctionedsinceendofWWII(seeChap.35)
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XIV.NixonontheHomeFront (cont.)
– Devisedplan—calledsouthernstrategy—togainreelectionin1972
– AppointedconservativeSupremeCourtjustices– Soft-pedaledcivilrights– Opposedschoolbusingtoachieveracialbalance
– Goal:convertdisillusionedwhitesouthernDemocratstoRepublicans
– Setinmotionsweepingpoliticalrealignmentthateventuallytransformedpartysystem
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XV.TheNixonLandslideof1972
• FouryearssinceNixonpromisedtoendVietnamwarand“win”peace
• 1972:whenNorthVietnamburstthroughdemilitarizedzoneseparatingtwoVietnams,Nixonlaunchedmassivebombingattacks• ContinuingVietnamconflictspurredriseofSouthDakotasenatorGeorgeMcGovernto1972Democraticnomination• Helpedbychangesinnominationsystemthatincreasedimportanceofprimaryelections– Newsystememphasizedmediapolitickingandactivistbase
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XV.TheNixonLandslideof1972(cont.)
• McGovernusednewpopulistprocess– PromisedtopullremainingtroopsoutofVietnaminninetydays:• Earnedhimbackingoflargeantiwarelementinparty• Hisappealtoracialminorities,feminists,leftists,andyouthalienatedtraditionalworking-classDemocrats
• Nixonemphasizedhehadwounddown“Democraticwar”inVietnam– From540,000toabout30,000troops
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XV.TheNixonLandslideof1972(cont.)
• HiscandidacyreceivedaddedboosttwelvedaysbeforeelectionwhenKissingerannounced– “Peaceisathand”andanagreementwouldbereachedinafewdays
• Nixonwonlandslide:– WoneverystateexceptMassachusettsandnonstateDistrictofColumbia(seeAppendix)
– Received520electoralvotesto17forMcGovern– Popularmajorityof47,169,911to29,170,383votes
• McGoverncountedonyoungvote,butlessthanhalf18-20agegroupevenbotheredtoregistertovote
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XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct
– Doveofpeace“athand”justbeforeballoting,tookflightafterelection:• Nixonlaunchedfurioustwo-weekbombing• NorthVietnamagreedtocease-fireinTreatyofParis(Jan.23,1973)nearlythreemonthsafterpeaceprematurelyproclaimed• Nixonhailedcease-fireas“peacewithhonor,”butboastranghallowas“peace”littlemorethanU.S.retreat– UnitedStateswouldwithdrawitsremaining27,000troopsandreclaim560Americanprisonersofwar
– NorthVietnamallowedtokeep145,000troopsinSouthVietnam
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XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct(cont.)
• ConstitutionalityofU.S.warinCambodia:– July1973:publiclearnedAirForcehadsecretlybombedCambodia3,500timessinceMar.1969• Whileforaysgoingon,U.S.officials,includingNixon,hadswornCambodianneutralitybeingrespected• Defiancefollowedsecretiveness:
– NixoncontinuedbombingCambodiaevenafterVietnamcease-fire
– Repeatedlyvetoedcongressionaleffortstostopbombing
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XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct(cont.)
– YearsofbombingwoundedCambodia:• Blasteditspeople• Shreddeditseconomy• Revolutionizeditspolitics
– CambodianssufferedsadisticheelofPolPot:• Twomilliondied• Potforcedfromofficeby1978Vietnameseinvasion
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XVI.TheSecretBombingofCambodiaandtheWarPowersAct(cont.)
• 1973WarPowersActoverNixon'sveto:• RequiredpresidentreporttoCongresswithin48hoursaftercommittingtroopstoforeignconflictor“substantially”enlargingcombatunitsabroad• Suchalimitedauthorizationwouldendwithin60daysunlessextendedbyCongressfor30days• Actmanifestationof“NewIsolationism,”moodofcautionandrestraintabroad• DraftendedinJanuary1973
– Futuremembersofarmedforceswouldbevolunteers
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XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis
• YomKippurWareruptedOctober1973• SyriaandEgyptattackedIsraeltoregainlandlostduringSix-DayWar(1967)• KissingerflewtoMoscowtorestrainSoviets,whowerearmingattackers• Nixonplacednuclearforcesonalertandorderedairliftof$2billioninwarmaterialstoIsrael• IsraelisturnedtideandthreatenedCairobeforeU.S.A.brokereduneasycease-fire
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XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis(cont.)
– U.S.policyofbackingIsraelagainstitsoil-richneighborsexactedheavypenalty:• Oct.1973,OPECannouncedoilembargotoU.S.A.andthoseEuropeanalliessupportingIsrael• Oil-richArabstatesalsocutoilproduction• Oilshortagetriggeredmajoreconomicrecession,notonlyinUnitedStates,butalsoFranceandBritain• Inincreasinglyglobalized,interconnectedworld,allnationsfeltcrunchof“energycrisis”
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XVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis(cont.)
– Fivemonthsofembargoendederaofcheapandabundantenergy
– Since1948,U.S.A.hadbeennetoilimporter• U.S.oilproductionpeakedin1970,thandeclined• YetAmericanstripledtheiroilusagesinceWWII• Automobilesincreased250%between1949and1972• By1974,Americaoil-addictedandvulnerabletoanyinterruptioninsupplies• MiddleEastattainednewimportancetoU.S.interests
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IVII.TheArabOilEmbargoandtheEnergyCrisis(cont.)
• OPECquadrupledpriceforcrudeoilafterliftingembargoin1974– Results:• HugeoilbillsdisruptedU.S.balanceofinternationaltradeandfurtherfueledragingfireofinflation• U.S.tookleadtoformInternationalEnergyAgencyin1974ascounterweighttoOPEC• VarioussectorsofU.S.economy,includingautos,begantoadjusttodawningageofenergydependency• E.g.,nationalspeedlimit(55)toconservefuel
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