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Chapter7
TheRoadtoRevolution1763–1775
I.TheDeepRootsofRevolution
• AmericawasarevolutionaryforcefromthedayofitsdiscoverybyEuropeans:– TheNewWorldnurturednewideasaboutthenatureofsociety,citizens,andgovernment.
– Republicanism—definedajustsocietyasoneinwhichallcitizenswillinglysubordinatedtheirprivate,selfishintereststothecommongood.
– Stabilityandgovernmentdependedonthevirtueofthecitizenry.
I.TheDeepRootsofRevolution (cont.)
• Virtueofthecitizenry—itscapacityfor:– Selflessness– Self-sufficiency– Courage– Appetiteforcivicinvolvement
• Republicanismwasopposedtohierarchicalandauthoritarianinstitutionssuchasaristocracyandmonarchy.
I.TheDeepRootsofRevolution (cont.)
• RadicalWhigs:BritishpoliticalcommentatorswhoseideasfundamentallyshapedAmericanpoliticalthought:– Theyfearedthethreattolibertyposedbythe
arbitrarypowerofthemonarchandhisministersrelativetoelectedrepresentativesinParliament.
– Theywarnedcitizenstoguardagainst“corruption”andconspiraciestotakeawaytheirliberties.
I.TheDeepRootsofRevolution (cont.)
• Americanshadgrownaccustomedtorunningtheirownaffairs.
• ThegreatdistancefromBritainweakenedroyalauthority.
II.MercantilismandColonialGrievances
• Mercantilism:– Restedonthebeliefthatwealthwaspower.– Acountry’seconomicwealth(anditsmilitaryandpoliticalpower)couldbemeasuredbytheamountofgoldorsilverinitstreasury.
– Toamassgoldorsilver,acountryneededtoexportmorethanitimported.
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II.MercantilismandColonialGrievances(cont.)
• Coloniesconferreddistinctadvantages:– Couldsupplyrawmaterialstomothercountry,reducingneedforforeignimports.
– Couldprovideguaranteedmarketforexports.– LondongovernmentviewedAmericancoloniesastenants.
II.MercantilismandColonialGrievances(cont.)
• FromtimetotimeParliamentpassedlawstoregulatethemercantilistsystem:– NavigationLaw(1650)—aimedatDutchshippers
—saidthatallcommerceflowingtoandfromcoloniescouldbetransportedonlyinBritish(includingcolonial)vessels.
– EuropeangoodsdestinedforAmericafirsthadtolandinBritain,wheretariffdutiescouldbecollectedandBritishmiddlemengotprofits.
II.MercantilismandColonialGrievances(cont.)
• OtherlawsstipulatedthatAmericanmerchantsmustship“enumerated”products,notablytobacco,exclusivelytoBritain,eventhoughpricesmightbebetterelsewhere.
• Britishpolicyinflictedacurrencyshortageonthecolonies.
• Thissituationforcedthecoloniestoissuepapermoney.
II.MercantilismandColonialGrievances(cont.)
• ButParliamentprohibitedcoloniallegislaturesfromprintingpapercurrency.
• TheBritishcrownreservedtherighttonullifyanylegislationpassedbycolonialassembliesifitwouldharmthemercantilistsystem.
• Royalvetowasrarelyused,butjusttheideaofavetoincitedcolonialanger.
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III.TheMeritsandMenaceofMercantilism
• TheBritishmercantilesystemseemedoppressive,butitslawswerelooselyenforced.
• Americansalsoreapeddirectbenefits:– Londonpaidliberalbountiestocolonialproducers.– Colonieshadprotectionoftheworld’smostpowerfulnavyandastrong,seasonedarmy.
III.TheMeritsandMenaceofMercantilism(cont.)
• Themercantilesystemburdenedcolonistswithannoyingliabilities:– ItstifledeconomicinitiativeandimposedaranklingdependencyonBritishagentsandcreditors.
• Colonistsfoundittobedebasing:– Theyfeltusedandkeptinastateofperpetualeconomicadolescence.
IV.TheStampTaxUproar
• AftertheSevenYears’War,Britainheldoneofworld’slargestempiresandthebiggestdebt.
• Itmovedtoredefineitsrelationshipwiththecolonies.
• 1763:PrimeMinisterGeorgeGrenvilleorderedthenavytostrictlyenforcetheNavigationLaws.
IV.TheStampTaxUproar(cont.)
• 1764:HesecuredfromParliamenttheSugarAct,thefirstlawpassedbyParliamenttoraiserevenueforthecrownfromcolonies:– IncreaseddutyonsugarfromtheWestIndies.– Afterbitterprotests,dutieswereloweredsubstantially,andagitationdieddown.
• ResentmentrenewedwhentheQuarteringAct(1765)requiredcoloniestoprovidefoodandquartersforBritishtroops.
IV.TheStampTaxUproar(cont.)
• 1765:Stamptaxwasimposed:– Itaimedtoraiserevenuetosupportthenewmilitaryforce.
– Itmandatedtheuseofstampedpaperoraffixingofstamps,certifyingtaxpayment.
– Stampswererequiredonbillsofsaleforabout50tradeitems.
– Grenvilleregardedthesemeasuresasreasonable.– PeopleinEnglandpaidahigherstamptax.
IV.TheStampTaxUproar(cont.)
• ButAmericanswereangry:– Thenewlawpinchedpocketbooksandseemedto
strikeatlocalliberties.– Somecoloniesrefusedtocomplywiththe
QuarteringAct;somevotedonlytosupplyafractionofthesuppliesrequested.
– TheactsalsoseemedtojeopardizethebasicrightsofcolonistsasEnglishmen.
– Offendersweretriedinadmiraltycourtswithoutjuriesand“innocentuntilprovenguilty”concept.
IV.TheStampTaxUproar(cont.)
• WithFrenchandIndiansdefeated,whatneedwasthereforamilitaryforceinthecolonies?– Colonistsfearedaconspiracytostripthemoftheirhistoricliberties.
– TheStampActbecamethechieftargetoftheiranger.
IV.TheStampTaxUproar(cont.)
• Americansmadeadistinctionbetween“legislation”and“taxation”:– TheyconcededtherightofParliamenttolegislate
mattersrelatedtotheentireempire.– TheydeniedtherightofParliament,inwhichno
Americanswereseated,toimposetaxesonAmericans.
– Suchtaxeswereseenasrobbery.– Onlycolonialassembliescouldtaxcolonists.
IV.TheStampTaxUproar(cont.)
• Grenvilleusedthetheoryof“virtualrepresentation”:– AllcitizenswererepresentedbyParliament.
• ThedisputeeventuallycausedAmericansto:– DenytheauthorityofParliament– Considertheirownpoliticalindependence
V.ForcedRepealoftheStampAct
• Colonialprotestagainstthehatedstamptaxtookvariousforms:
• StampActCongressof1765:– Statedtherightsandgrievancesofcolonists– BeseechedthekingandParliamenttorepealtherepugnantlegislation
–WasignoredinEngland–Wasasignificantsteptowardintercolonialunity
V.ForcedRepealoftheStampAct(cont.)
• Nonimportationagreements:– AgreementsagainstimportingBritishgoods–Wereapromisingstridetowardunion– HelpedunitetheAmericanpeopleforthefirsttimeincommonaction
– GaveAmericansnewopportunitiestoparticipateincolonialprotests
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V.ForcedRepealoftheStampAct(cont.)
• SonsofLibertyandDaughtersofLiberty:– Tooklawintotheirownhands– Cried,“Liberty,Property,andNoStamps”
• Shakenbycolonialcommotion,themachineryforcollectingthetaxbrokedown.– Bythetimetheactwastogointoeffect(1765),allstampagentshadbeenforcedtoresign.
• TheboycottalsohurttheEnglisheconomy.• ParliamentrepealedtheStampActin1766.
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V.ForcedRepealoftheStampAct(cont.)
• ParliamentthenpassedtheDeclaratoryActreaffirmingitsright“tobind”colonies“inallcaseswhatsoever.”
• TheBritishgovernmentdefineditsconstitutionalprinciple:absoluteandunqualifiedsovereigntyoverthecolonies.
• Thestagewassetforcontinuingconfrontationascolonieswantedameasureoftheirownsovereignty.
VI.TheTownshendTeaTaxandtheBoston“Massacre”
• 1767:TownshendActs:– Imposedalightimportdutyonglass,whitelead,paper,paint,andtea
–WasanindirectcustomsdutypayableatAmericanports
• Colonistsrefusedanytaxeswithoutrepresentation.
• Theywereespeciallyconcernedbecausethesetaxeswouldpaysalariesofroyalgovernors.
VI.TheTownshendTeaTaxandtheBoston“Massacre”(cont.)
• NonimportationagreementswererenewedagainstTownshendActs,but– Coloniststookthelightnewtaxlessseriously.– Theyfoundtheycouldgetcheapteaviasmuggling.
• Toenforceorder,BritishthenlandedtworegimentsoftroopsinBostonin1768.
• March5,1770:AclasheruptedthatbecameknownastheBostonMassacre.
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VI.TheTownshendTeaTaxandtheBoston“Massacre”(cont.)
• CrispusAttucks,a“mulatto”andaleaderofthemob,wasoneofthefirsttodie.
• Bothsidessharedblamefortheincident,butonlytworedcoatswerefoundguilty.
• Thesoldierswerethenreleasedafterbeingbrandedonthehand.
VII.TheSeditiousCommitteesofCorrespondence
• By1770,youngKingGeorgeIIIwasattemptingtoassertthepowerofmonarchy.
• Hesurroundedhimselfwith“yesmen,”notablyhisprimeminister,LordNorth.
• TownshendActs:– Theyfailedtogeneraterevenue.– Buttheydidproducenear-rebellion.– NonimportationactionshurtEnglisheconomy.
VII.TheSeditiousCommitteesofCorrespondence(cont.)
• ParliamenteventuallyrepealedmostTownshenddutiesbutkeptthetaxontea.
• Butflamesofdiscontentcontinuedbecause:– BritishofficialsincreasedeffortstoenforcetheNavigationLaws.
– ZealousSamuelAdamscontinuedtoincitewhatwascalledhis“trainedmob.”
• AdamsorganizedfirstcommitteesofcorrespondenceinMassachusetts.
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VII.TheSeditiousCommitteesofCorrespondence(cont.)
• Committeesofcorrespondence:– AfteronewasorganizedinBoston(1772),some80townssetupsimilarorganizations.
– TheyexchangedlettersthatkeptaliveoppositiontoBritishpolicy.
– Intercolonialcorrespondencecommitteeswerethenextlogicalstep.
– Virginialedthewayin1773.– Twelveothercoloniessoonjoinedtheeffort.
VII.TheSeditiousCommitteesofCorrespondence(cont.)
• Theyplayedakeyroleinstimulatinganddisseminatingsentimentinfavorofunitedaction.
• TheyevolveddirectlyintothefirstAmericancongresses.
VIII.TeaBrewinginBoston
• By1773,thepowerfulBritishEastIndiaCompanywasfacingbankruptcy:– Ithad17millionpoundsofunsoldtea.– BritishministryawardeditacompletemonopolyoftheAmericanteabusiness.
– Itcouldsellitsteaataverylowprice.– Butcolonistssawthisasanattempttotrickthemintoacceptingtaxes.
VIII.TeaBrewinginBoston (cont.)
• Britishauthoritiesdecidedtoenforcethelaw:– Colonistsroseupinanger.–Massdemonstrationsforcedtea-bearingshipstoreturntoEnglandwiththeircargo.
– OnlyinBostondidaBritishofficialrefusetobecowed.
– GovernorThomasHutchinsonrefusedtobudge.
VIII.TeaBrewinginBoston (cont.)
• HutchinsoninfuriatedBoston’sradicalswhenheorderedteashipsnottoleaveBostonuntiltheyhadunloadedtheircargoes:– December16,1773:About100Bostonians,looselydisguisedasIndians,boardedtheships.
– Theysmashedopen342chestsofteaanddumpedthecontentsintotheharbor.
– ThisactionbecameknownastheBostonTeaParty.
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VIII.TeaBrewinginBoston (cont.)
• Reactionvaried:– Sympatheticcolonistsapplauded.– Referringtoteaas“abadgeofslavery,”theyburnedthehatedleavesinsolidaritywithBoston.
– Hutchinson,chastenedanddisgusted,retreatedtoBritain,nevertoreturn.
– TheBritishchoseaperilouspaththatledonlytoreprisals,bitterness,andescalatingconflict.
IX.ParliamentPassesthe“IntolerableActs”
• Parliamentrespondedwithmeasuresin1774thatbrewedarevolution:– Itpassedaseriesofactstochastisecolonists,especiallyinBoston.
– Theactswerebrandedincoloniesas“themassacreofAmericanLiberty.”
• MostdrasticwastheBostonPortAct:– Itclosedtheportuntildamageswerepaid.
IX.ParliamentPassesthe“IntolerableActs”(cont.)
• OtherIntolerableActslimitedrightstraditionallypracticedinMassachusetts:– Restrictionswereplacedontownmeetings.– Unlikebefore,officialswhokilledcolonistsinlineofdutycouldnowbesenttoBritainfortrial.
– NewQuarteringActgavelocalauthoritiespowertolodgesoldiersanywhere,evenprivatehomes.
IX.ParliamentPassesthe“IntolerableActs”(cont.)
• QuebecAct(1774)coveredFrenchsubjectsinCanada:– ItguaranteedtheirCatholicreligion.– Theycouldmaintaininstitutions(whichdidnotincluderepresentativeassemblyortrialbyjury).
– Québec’sboundariesextendedtotheOhioRiver.• FromFrenchviewpoint,theQuebecActwasashrewdandconciliatorymeasure.
IX.ParliamentPassesthe“IntolerableActs”(cont.)
• FromAmericanviewpoint,theactwasnoxious:– Ithadamuchwiderrange.– Itsetadangerousprecedentbydenyingjurytrialsandbyallowingunrepresentativeassemblies.
– Italarmedlandspeculatorsbysnatchingahugetrans-Alleghenyareafromtheirgrasp(Map7.1).
– Itangeredanti-CatholicsbyextendingCatholicjurisdictionsouthintoaregionaboutthesizeofthe13colonies.
X.Bloodshed
• AmericandissentersrespondedtotheplightofMassachusetts:– ColoniessentfoodtothestrickencityofBoston.– RicewasshippedfromfarawaySouthCarolina.
• MostmemorablewassummoningoftheFirstContinentalCongressin1774:– ItmetinPhiladelphiatoredressgrievances.– 12of13colonies(exceptGeorgia)sent55men:S.Adams,J.Adams,G.Washington,P.Henry.
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X.Bloodshed(cont.)
• FirstContinentalCongress(cont.):– Deliberatedfor7weeksinfall1774.– Notalegislativebutaconsultativebody.– Aconventionratherthanacongress.– JohnAdamsplayedakeyrole.– ItdrewupaDeclarationofRightsaswellasasolemnappealtootherBritishcolonies,totheking,andtotheBritishpeople.
X.Bloodshed(cont.)
• MostsignificantactionwascreationofTheAssociation:– CalledforcompleteboycottofBritishgoods:nonimportation,nonexportation,nonconsumption
• Delegateswerenotcallingforindependence.• Theysoughtmerelytorepealoffensivelegislation.
X.Bloodshed(cont.)
• Butfataldrifttowardwarcontinued:– ParliamentrejectedCongress’spetitions.– ViolatorsofAssociationweretarredandfeathered.–Musketsweregatheredandmenbegantodrillopenly.
– April1775:BritishcommanderinBostonsenttroopstoLexingtonandConcordtoseizestoresofgunpowder.
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X.Bloodshed(cont.)
– TroopswerealsosupposedtoarrestringleadersSamuelAdamsandJohnHancock.
– AtLexington,“MinuteMen”refusedtodisperse.– Shotswerefired,killing8Americansandwoundingseveralmore.
– RedcoatsthenpushedontoConcord,wheretheysufferedheavylosses.
– Britainnowhadawaronitshands.
XI.ImperialStrengthandWeakness
• Americansbrashlyrebelledagainstamightyempire:– Population:7.5millionBritonsto2.5millioncolonists
–MonetarywealthandnavalpoweroverwhelminglyfavoredEngland.
– Britain’sprofessionalarmyequaledsome50,000menascomparedtonumerousbutpoorlytrainedAmericanmilitia.
XI.ImperialStrengthandWeakness(cont.)
• Mightyempire(cont.):– GeorgeIIIcouldalsohireforeignsoldiers,includingsome30,000Germans(theHessians).
– Britishenrolledabout50,000AmericanLoyalistsandenlistedsomeIndians.
• YetBritainwasweakerthanitseemed:– OppressedIrelandrequiredtroopstomaintainBritishcontrol.
– FrancewaswaitingtogetevenwithBritain.
XI.ImperialStrengthandWeakness(cont.)
• Britain’sweakness(cont.):– TheLondongovernmentwasweakandinept.– TherewasnoWilliamPitt,onlystubbornGeorgeandhispliantprimeminister,LordNorth.
–ManyBritonshadnodesiretokillAmericans.– EnglishWhigsopposedLordNorth’sTories.–WhigsbelievedabattleforBritishfreedomwasbeingfoughtinAmerica.
XI.ImperialStrengthandWeakness(cont.)
• Britain’sarmyinAmericaoperatedundernumerousdifficulties:– Generalsweresecond-rate.– Soldierswerebrutallytreated.– Provisionswereoftenscarce,rancid,andwormy.– Britainhadtooperate3,000milesfromhome.– Distancegreatlyincreaseddelaysanduncertaintiesfromstormsandmishaps.
XI.ImperialStrengthandWeakness(cont.)
• DifficultiesofBritisharmy(cont.):–MilitaryordersissuedinLondonbutreceivedmonthslaterdidnotfitachangingsituation.
– America’sgeographicalexpansewasenormous:roughly1,000by600miles.
– Colonieshadnourbannervecenters.– Britisharmiestookeverycityofanysize.
• Americanswiselytradedspacefortime.
XII.AmericanPlusesandMinuses
• Americanadvantages:– Theyhadoutstandingleaders:GeorgeWashington,BenjaminFranklin.
– EventuallytheyhadforeignaidfromFrance.– Europeanofficersvolunteeredtofightforpay.–MarquisdeLafayetteprovedinvaluableinsecuringfurtheraidfromFrance.
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XII.AmericanPlusesandMinuses(cont.)
• OtherconditionsaidedAmericans:– Theywerefightingdefensively,withoddsfavoringthedefender.
– Colonieswereself-sufficientinfood.– Americansenjoyedamoraladvantagefrombeliefinajustcause.
• ButAmericanrebelswerepoorlyorganized:– ContinentalCongresswasmostlyadebatingsociety.
XII.AmericanPlusesandMinuses(cont.)
• Americanspoorlyorganized(cont.):– Disorganizedcolonistsfoughtalmosttheentirewarbeforeadoptingaconstitution—theArticlesofConfederation—in1781.
– Jealousyhinderedthewareffort:• Individualstates,regardingthemselvesassovereign,resistedattemptsbyCongresstoexerciseitspowers.• Sectionaljealousyboiledovertheappointmentofmilitaryleaders.
XII.AmericanPlusesandMinuses(cont.)
• Economicdifficulties:–Metalmoneyhadbeendrainedaway.– TheContinentalCongress,unwillingtoraisetaxes,massivelyprinted“Continental”papermoney.
– Confusionproliferatedwhenindividualstatesissueddepreciatedpapermoney.
– Inflationskyrocketedprices.
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XIII.AThinLineofHeroes
• Militarysuppliesincolonieswerescanty:– Inearlierwars,Englandprovidedfundsandweapons.
– Rebelswerecaught:thecostofhomedefensemountedjustasthesupplyofBritishfundsandwarmaterialevaporated.
– Sufficientstoresofgunpowder,cannon,andotherarmamentscouldnotbefoundinagriculturalcolonies.
XIII.AThinLineofHeroes(cont.)
• Lackofmilitarysupplies(cont.):– AmongthereasonsforalliancewithFrancewasneedforareliablesourceofmilitarysupplies.
– AtValleyForge,Pa.,soldierswentwithoutbreadfor3daysinthecruelwinterof1777–1778.
– Inonecampaign,somemenfaintedforlackoffood.
–Manufacturedgoodswereinshortsupply.– Clothingandshoeswereappallinglyscarce.
XIII.AThinLineofHeroes(cont.)
• Militiamenwerenumerousbutunreliable:– Theyreceivedonlyrudimentarytraining.– Besidesdesertion,troopswerehitbysmallpox.
• WomenplayedasignificantpartintheRevolution:– Theymaintainedfarmsandbusinesseswhilefathersandhusbandsfought.
XIII.AThinLineofHeroes(cont.)
• Thepartofwomen(cont.):–Manyfemalecampfollowersaccompaniedarmy:• TheyCookedandsewedinreturnformoneyandrations.• OneMassachusettswomandressedinmen’sclothingandservedinthearmyfor17months.
• Seventoeightthousandregularswerefinallywhippedintoshapebysterndrillmasters:– GermanBaronvonSteubenwasanorganizationalgenius.
XIII.AThinLineofHeroes(cont.)
• BlacksfoughtanddiedfortheAmericancause:–Manystatesinitiallybarredthemfromthemilitary.
– Buteventuallymorethan5,000blacksenlisted.– Thelargestcontingentscamefromnorthernstateswithsubstantialnumbersoffreeblacks.
– BlacksfoughtatTrenton,Brandywine,Saratoga,andotherimportantbattles.
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XIII.AThinLineofHeroes(cont.)
• AfricanAmericansalsoservedontheBritishside:– InNovember1775thegovernorofVirginiapromisedfreedomforanyslavewhojoinedtheBritisharmy.
– EventuallythousandsofslavesfledtotheBritish.– Attheendofthewar,theBritishevacuated14,000“BlackLoyalists.”
XIII.AThinLineofHeroes(cont.)
• MoraleintheRevolutionaryarmywasunderminedbyAmericanprofiteers:– TheysoldtotheBritishbecauseBritishcouldpayingold.
– Speculatorsforcedpricessky-high.– SomeBostoniansmadeprofitsof50%to200%.
XIII.AThinLineofHeroes(cont.)
• Brutaltruth:Onlyaminorityofcolonistsselflesslydevotedthemselvestothecauseofindependence.
• Seldomhavesofewdonesomuchforsomany.
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