THE PRESENT PERFECT AND THE PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS ...

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THE PRESENT PERFECT AND THE PURSUIT OF HAPPINESS:

THE INTEGRATION OF LANGUAGE, CULTURE, AND CONSUMERISM IN

ENGLISH LANGUAGE TRAINING TEXTBOOKS

By

DMITRY LYUBECHANSKY

Integrated Studies Final Project Essay (MAIS 700)

submitted to Dr. Raphael Foshay

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts – Integrated Studies

Athabasca, Alberta

December 2012

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ABSTRACT

The English language is now well-integrated into the global economy. Consequently, a

large industry exists to provide English language training (ELT) materials and instruction

around the world. One of the most popular ELT textbook series, American Headway,

exemplifies the type of publication sought by universities and private academies for their

adult English language courses. The cultural contents of this textbook series are

primarily of an aspirational nature. The images and topics tend to promote a lifestyle of

leisure and pleasurable pursuits. This study calculates the amount of space devoted to

aspirational and commercialized content, and reveals it to be a significant percentage.

Furthermore, product placement of recognized global brands can be found within

learning activities, as well as a substantial emphasis on celebrity culture. In essence,

there is a strong implication that English is a pathway to fame and financial success.

Beyond language instruction, the American Headway books consistently promote a

cosmopolitan consumerist lifestyle. This paper seeks to understand the process by

which such cultural values may be chosen for inclusion by the ELT industry, and

ultimately supports the need for educators to recognize both the overt and covert

ideological messages that may exist in the teaching materials they use in class.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction: English as a Global Language 4

The Global Textbook: Ideology, Culture, and Content 6

Analysis – Methodology 14

Analysis – Quantitative Research 17

Analysis – Qualitative Discussion 26

Conclusion 33

Bibliography 37

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INTRODUCTION: ENGLISH AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE

English language training materials are cultural artefacts, and by their very nature they

both reflect and interpret the cultural values inherent to their creation, purpose and use.

As such, they are ideological vehicles that have the capacity to promote particular

lifestyles and set standards for behavioral norms. For example, it is entirely expected to

find that English language training materials would promote the study of the English

language. However, different texts may promote conflicting reasons for why the study

of the English language might be beneficial, and may do so either overtly or covertly

through a variety of methods. Likewise, images of English speakers and their

surrounding environments would, perhaps unavoidably, reflect the cultural realities of

the individual people and times they depict. Nevertheless, the contents and contexts of

such images are themselves reflections of editorial choice, and may be included for

reasons that are potentially more complex than being merely decorative. Thus, it is

imperative for educators to be aware, if not critical, of the messages permeating the

materials they present to their students. Naturally, this study recognizes that there

exists a delicate line of interpretation between the neutral representation of common

cultural touchstones and the intentional and non-intentional promotion of specific

cultural values.

In this study, an examination of the popular American Headway Second Edition

textbook series reveals an underlying culture of commercialism that revels in celebrity

icons and seamlessly incorporates product placement into language learning activities.

Consequently, it identifies the English language with fame and financial success, and

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casts the student into the role of a cosmopolitan consumer, with a focus on leisure,

comfort, and carefree pursuits. In essence, it promotes the already ubiquitous and

ongoing world-wide process of assimilation into a globalized culture of self-indulgence.

Potentially, these books may contribute to an unbalancing of a student’s self-perception.

Such English language training materials entice learners out of what may be an already

precarious community of shared history and heritage, and into a new sphere of shared

aspirations. Through stories, images and activities focused on material wealth, status,

and the accumulation of accolades, these textbooks lead by example, and offer a

template beyond mere language competency. The American Headway Second Edition

series teaches English skills and shows how to become a better global citizen, ever

eager to purchase and play.

The descriptive term commonly applied to the English language is that of the ‘new

lingua franca’ to indicate its increasingly widespread usage in international affairs.

There are differing opinions on how English achieved this prominent status. Some view

the process as a mere congruence of favorable conditions, of being a language “which

has repeatedly found itself in the right place at the right time” (Crystal, 120). Others see

a more insidious path to prominence: a well-planned and thoughtfully executed coup as

part of a larger strategy at world dominance by the Anglo-American military-industrial-

cultural complex. Phillipson posits that “English is now entrenched worldwide, as a

result of British colonialism, international interdependence, ‘revolutions’ in technology,

transport, communications and commerce, and because English is the language of the

USA, a major economic, political, and military force in the contemporary world” (1992:

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23-24). Significantly, an estimate on the number of English speakers being “maximally

one third” the world population (Phillipson, 2008: 4) still leaves billions speaking some

other tongue, or rather, a lot of potential customers for English textbooks.

An individual adult’s desire to study English can be based on any number of

unpredictable motivations; however, there are those for whom there is no choice,

primarily university or college students for whom English courses are a mandatory

portion of their studies, even if their degree might be in astrophysics or fashion design.

THE GLOBAL TEXTBOOK: IDEOLOGY, CULTURE, AND CONTENT

The publishing industry has long noted this market demand and has sought to profit by

supplying the language teaching industry with resources and support materials, the

central element of which has been the student text book.

Textbooks remain a key component of language programs throughout the world.

Tomlinson notes a British Council survey from 2008 that “revealed that 65% of the

teachers polled always or frequently used a coursebook and only 6% never did. A

similar survey at conferences in Malaysia, the United Kingdom and Vietnam showed

that 92% of the respondents used a coursebook regularly” (158).

Gray observes that English language training (ELT) “publishing is a growing and highly

competitive industry” (2002: 155). Thus, from a strictly business perspective, it makes

sense for publishers to increase their profit margins by lowering the development costs

for books across multiple regions, and create as closely as possible a ‘one-size-fits-all’

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model that can be more easily reproduced to maximize economies of scale. While such

mass printings of undifferentiated grammar and phonics content may be of concern, it is

the embedded cultural content that also encourages closer scrutiny by educators and

academics.

Culture is defined by Cortazzi and Jin as “the framework of assumptions, ideas, and

beliefs that are used to interpret other people’s actions, words, and patterns of thinking”

(in Jeeyong 254). Gray references Du Gay et al. who “argue that culture is an endlessly

recursive process of meaning making and meaning taking” (2010: 715). Wright and

Sandlin state, “Whether intentional or not, adults learn from the practice of cultural

consumption in their everyday lives” (119). Likewise, schools, teachers and textbooks

may promote, present, or reflect particular cultural values with an equal amount of

intention, or lack thereof. It can then be said that the interaction between an adult

student and their English language training materials will involve a cultural conveyance

from the book’s authors and publishers to the reader which may be calculated or

inadvertent. Such conveyances “significantly affects students’ attitudes and dispositions

towards themselves, other people and society” (Ndura in Jeeyoung et al. 253). Thus,

Tomlinson argues, “This is potentially dangerous as the coursebook is revered in many

classrooms as the authority and there is a risk of its users uncritically accepting its

views” (165), which may be unintentionally present, or even misconstrued. Lee and

Collins agree that “Learners, who generally attach great credibility and authority to

educational materials, tend to absorb and assimilate the materials in minute detail

without comment, and to be susceptible to their influence” (in Barton & Sakwa, 175).

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Gray clearly states that “Although coursebooks are designed explicitly for the teaching

of English language they are also highly wrought cultural constructs and carriers of

cultural messages” (2002: 52). Furthermore, “such artefacts can be seen not only as

mediating tools of subject knowledge, but also as organs for ideological reproduction

and legitimation of ‘particular constructions of reality’” (Gray, 2010: 714, Apple and

Christian-Smith 1991: 3). Thus, “it is important to ask what cultural messages are being

communicated, either implicitly or explicitly, during the instructional process. This

begins with an understanding of power relations and seeing the classroom as a kind of

microcosm of broader society, representing both its ideology and its power structure”

(James, 40).

There appears to be a consensus in the literature regarding the “one way” nature of the

ideological transmission that occurs through English language textbooks. Xiong and

Qian provide analysis that “echoes Liu’s finding about the “one-way logic” in textbooks

uncritically promoting one ideological position while silencing others” (85), and Aurbach

and Burgess confirm that “Texts which exclude cultural comparisons and conflicts from

curricula define acculturation as a one-way process rather than an interactive one” (488),

while Gray writes that “In much ELT material, it has been argued, the student is

positioned ‘at the receiving end of a virtually one-way flow of information’” (Gray

2000:280, Alptekin and Alptekin 1984:15). Lahdesmaki writes that “textbooks typically

represent values and worldviews which are highly culture-specific” and without providing

multiple perspectives “may be alien or even offensive to students of different cultural

backgrounds” (376).

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Yet, it appears that offensiveness is exactly what publishers wish to avoid, and

Lahdesmaki follows up her earlier observation by stating that “it has also been pointed

out that recent policies, increasingly adopted by publishers, mandate cultural

appropriateness and inclusivity” (376). Gray is particularly observant regarding this

phenomenon of publishers guiding their content, having interviewed several and visited

their offices where he saw such instructions for the writing staff. He explains:

[There] is a set of topics which coursebook writers are usually advised

to avoid. Some publishers provide lists of proscribed topics, while

others rely informally on the acronym PARSNIP (politics, alcohol,

religion, sex, narcotics, isms, and pork) as a rule of thumb. One

publisher’s list I saw contained some thirty items to be avoided or

handled only with extreme care. These included alcohol, anarchy,

Aids, Israel and six pointed stars, politics, religion, racism, sex,

science when it involves altering nature, e.g. genetic engineering,

terrorism, and violence. (2002: 159)

The result of such prohibitions however is perhaps an unintentional blandness that

permeates the majority of English textbooks. There is no explicit controversy, and thus

little with which to argue, which in turn reinforces the ease with which the content that is

present can be readily accepted. In fact, much of what remains is depicted as positive

reflections of a healthy and happy lifestyle. Gray notes that the publishers he spoke

with use the term “aspirational” to refer to content of this type; meaning, “something

which [students] aspire to and therefore interests them and motivates them” (2002: 161).

Precisely therein exists a further need for close analysis; to quote a piece of famous

dialogue from the film The Usual Suspects, “The greatest trick the Devil pulled was to

convince the world that he didn’t exist.” Even if the content that remains after all the

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PARSNIPs are pulled is deemed by the publishers to be safe and innocuous, inevitably

cultural values remain present, aligned to an ideological current that has placed them

therein. Thus, the elimination of “controversial” subject matter does not lead to a

dilution of culture, but to its distillation. The core intended message remains not only

intact, but further concentrated. The underlying ideology of consumerism is even more

firmly embedded in the “inoffensive” content that remains. The guise of neutrality allows

textbooks to promote particular values while appearing unbiased. True neutrality would

allow for a plethora of competing cultural content, controversial and banal. Gray notes

that inherently “textbooks are products of the cultures which produce them – in this case

the commercial culture of a powerful global industry” (2010: 730). Even if the content

seems benign on the surface, its ideological message may run deeper. As Thompson

and Tambyah explain:

Through constellations of taken-for-granted meanings, beliefs,

normative values, and implicit cultural connotations, ideologies

become naturalized as part of a cultural way of life and situate

individuals' self-directed actions within a sociocultural matrix of power

relations, such as dominant/subordinate, central/marginal, and

included/excluded. (215)

Instructors therefore have a role to play in balancing the relationship between students

and the cultural contents of the learning material. “Cortazzi and Jin view cultural

learning as a dialogue between teachers, students, and textbooks” (Jeeyoung 265).

This is especially relevant when teaching overseas, where a textbook’s cultural

references are less well known. Lazar writes that “Under these conditions the teacher,

the backbone of the teaching system, becomes the mediator between two – or more –

cultures” (7).

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Whether teachers are able or willing to mediate the “commercial culture” that Gray

references is complicated by the recognition that “capitalism exists on almost as big a

paradox as democracy itself – it needs consumers if it is going to survive” (Jarvis 12). It

is at this point important to remember “that TESOL (the Teaching of English to

Speakers of Other Languages) itself is a significant export item – teaching materials,

examinations, know-how, teachers et al. – for the British and Americans, and a vital

dimension of English linguistic neoimperialism” (Phillipson, 2008: 10). Even setting

political objectives aside, there is no profit incentive for corporate publishing houses to

promote a critical or alternative agenda to capitalism or consumption, especially as their

customer base is primarily motivated by the notion that “English serves as a vehicle for

participation in the global economy” (Spring 2007:63). As Jarvis observes, these

considerations merely reflect the notion that “the capitalist system … is infiltrating

every… walk of life, including education” (22). The effect is that it can seem at times “as

though teachers are acting as surrogate telemarketers” (Boyles 263). Naturally, it may

well be in the individual teacher’s interest to also maintain the steady flow of students-

consumers. Teachers are simply members of the larger society, and Hudd notes that

there is an increasing focus on money as a means of happiness with each decade from

the 1970’s onward (31). For the thousands of expatriates who are teaching abroad to

continue to enjoy the benefits of a relatively easy lifestyle that so well rewards their

acquiescence to the “English as gateway” paradigm requires only that they continue to

promote the system from which they profit. Many would do so eagerly, and with a clear

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conscience. After all, as Spring notes, “Most people have never run from consumption”

(2007: 74).

Nevertheless, there are those who view the reality that “the force of English in

globalization is beginning to have a deep impact on English language teaching across

the globe” (Xiaoqiong and Xianxing) with some alarm. While there is a seemingly

natural confluence between “English in globalization” and “English language teaching

across the globe” that makes the relationship practically inseparable, a distinction can

be made on the basis of purpose. English can be taught and can enjoy useful purpose

for its own sake. Likewise, one might study Italian purely to be able to read Dante in the

original. However, the globalization project cannot move forward without an employable

means of cross-cultural communication. For a variety of reasons, English is the

language of globalization. Consequently, to enroll in English study even at random,

now risks exposure to a globalization perspective through the mass-produced materials

that occupy most classrooms, and which inherently promote the globalization agenda.

Boyle warns:

We would do well, then, to uncover the coverings and to focus

teacher and student energy on deconstructing and reconstructing the

economic, corporate, and capitalist assumptions surrounding and

infiltrating schools. The values that are transmitted, or at least

symbolically represented, are too pervasive to let that very

pervasiveness be an excuse not to grapple with and engage things

like newspaper advertisements, magazines, Web sites, television

news programs—and, yes, textbook covers. (265)

One of the most popular series of English language training textbooks is the Headway

program written primarily by Liz and John Soars, and published by Oxford University

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Press. There are several variations including New Headway and American Headway,

and multiple editions have been published over the years. The series incorporate

colorful Student Books, matching Work Books with additional practice activities,

Teachers’ Books, CD-ROM’s, and online resources. In flourishing English language

training markets, such as South Korea, the American Headway series appears in use at

both private language institutes and in university programs, and it sells in significant

volume. Gray refers to the overall Headway course concept as a “spectacular success”

(2010: 719) with regard to its worldwide adoption, and further explains its prominent role

in the field of English language training:

This course has been described by Holliday (2005: 41) as one of the

‘cultural icons’ of ‘Western TESOL’—that is as a revered and

commercially successful artefact which exerts a powerful influence on

textbook design and pedagogic practice globally. Sales figures for the

Headway course are not available, but one editor I spoke to admitted

that sales from the course alone were sufficient to fund an entire

publishing house. (2010: 719)

Consequently, it is important to note the observation by Tomlinson that textbook writers

“rely heavily on retrieval from repertoire, cloning successful publications and

spontaneous ‘inspiration’” (152). Thus, the success of the Headway books has a great

influence beyond its direct readership because its methods may potentially appear in

the ‘inspiration’ of other writers.

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ANALYSIS – METHODOLOGY

The core intent of this paper is to provide some examination of the American Headway

series which consists of six levels labeled Starter, 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. However, this

review will be limited to the Student and Work books at levels 1, 2, and 3 in the series.

The reasons for these limitations are two-fold. All the books follow a consistent pattern;

therefore analysis of those three out of six books provides a clear indication of the type

of contents reflective of the series as a whole. Secondly, the books in levels 4 and 5

are of an advanced level and are aimed at students who have achieved a strong

proficiency in the English language. As such those books are less often encountered,

and the students who would use them would already have a significant past exposure to

English language and associated cultural references. In essence, those students could

be considered to have already achieved a level of cosmopolitan citizenship.

The analysis will consist of two stages. In the first stage, quantitative data will be

collected and reviewed. The data collected will appear in table format and will chronicle

what Gray refers to as “aspirational” content. The first series of tables will focus on

representations of identifiable living celebrities and currently recognizable global brand

name products. The amount of pages devoted to celebrities and brands will be counted

and will include any type of reference such as images, reading material, or language

learning activities (fill in the blank, circle correct answer, etc.). These are what Gray

refers to as “the ‘representational repertoires’… namely the stock of ideas, images and

linguistic choices which are deployed in the creation of meanings, and the identifications

that these seek to create in readers” (2010: 715). These pages will then be tallied and a

percentage of total content calculated.

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Further quantitative analysis will explore evidence of “aspirational” content through a

review of the images in the Student books only. These books have many colorful

photographs and cartoons that are designed to motivate the students and increase

interest. Images will be tallied and sorted according to the following categories and their

descriptions:

1. Shopping for non-essential items such as sports equipment, electronics, etc. but not

including fruits, vegetables, meats, clothes, or basic furnishings.

2. Consumer products such as cameras, sports cars, collectibles, etc. Note: equipment,

electronics, or tools essential for study or work will not be included

3. Corporate logos and brand names such as the Nike swoosh, etc.

4. Dining out images will be tallied if they show fast food outlets, restaurants, cafes, etc.

but not simple street food stalls, school cafeterias, or if the image in context is meant

to focus on the worker.

5. Leisure Travel / Leisure Activity images are those depicting either tourists abroad or

advertisements for travel agencies, people purchasing flights or flying if not in

business clothes, and people engaged in activities such as snorkeling, sports, hiking,

playing video games, etc. Simply standing or talking will not be counted, nor will

images of students, artists or workers engaged in productive activities.

6. Celebrities will be counted if living or only recently deceased but famous persons

who passed away in previous decades or ancient historical figures will not.

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7. Home comforts are photos that depict middle and upper class amenities in the home

such as large, well-appointed apartments for single tenants, or dinner tables with

bountiful foods, or large, comfortable living rooms with consumer goods on display.

Once the images in the above categories have been tallied, they will then be calculated

as a percentage of the total number of images in the book. Then, a total of all

“aspirational” content will be made. In order to provide a better context to these

percentages the books will be reviewed again for the number of images that just show a

cropped head and shoulders or face of some person and do not carry any ideological

content relevant to this study as no action or scenery is depicted. Finally, a percentage

of “aspirational” content in relation to all images (minus the “neutral” face photos) will be

shown. Calculating these figures allows for more objective assessment of the quantity

of content devoted to the promotion of consumerist behaviour. While objectivity is

sought, there is clearly some reliance on the researcher’s discretion in choosing how to

interpret the context of the imagery involved. For example, computers that are shown in

use within business or school settings are not counted as ‘non-essential’ consumer

products. However, computers shown in conjunction with video games or other

entertainment products, or where the focus is on their brand name rather than utility, are

counted as a promotion of consumerist values.

In the second stage of the analysis process, the findings of the quantitative assessment

will be discussed in relation to the ideologies they represent, and will be further explored

with reference to the relevant literature. Sandlin writes that “adult educators should

begin making more connections between the work that they do, and the realm of

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consumption” (2008: 56). She suggests that educators become aware of sites that

convey messages related to consumer practices, both the invidious and the

unavoidable, and that before proceeding with their lessons they should ask the following

questions:

• 'How do these sites construct or instruct learners to be consumers?'

• 'How do learners accommodate, negotiate, or resist (or something

else?) these constructions?' (Sandlin, 2008: 56)

Questions such as these will inform the discussion on the content of the American

Headway books under review.

ANALYSIS – QUANTITATIVE RESULTS

The following six tables indicate the qualitative measurements regarding the page

space devoted to celebrity and brand name content. The three tables that follow after

show the results from the qualitative measurements of the total aspirational content

assessment.

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Table 1A

American Headway Second Edition: Student Book 1 Content Analysis (Quantitative

Assessment): Celebrities and Brand Names

UNIT LIVING CELEBRITY / GLOBAL BRAND PRODUCT

CONTENT + QUANTITY % of Unit

1 Vogue Magazine Image Negligible

2

Iman (super model and entrepreneur)

Very Large Images Personal Profiles Language Activities 1.5 Pages

18.75% Giorgio Locatelli (chef and TV personality)

3 0% 4 0% 5 0%

6 Tiger Woods (athlete) Image

Language Activities

26.25% Nike Logo on Tiger Wood’s Cap Christopher Paolini (author) Large Image

Short Biography Language Activities 2 Pages

Joss Stone (singer)

7

Oprah Winfrey (TV personality and entrepreneur)

Large Images x2 Small Image Long Biography Language Activities 2 Full Pages

26.25%

Madonna (singer) Image Nintendo Gameboy Image

8 Coca-Cola Language Activity Mention

Image Negligible

Wrangler Jeans Language Activity Mention

Image

9 John Grisham(author) Language Activity Mention Negligible

10

Westlife (music group) Image Song Lyrics Language Activities 1 Page

12.5%

11 Nike Logo on profiled runner’s shirt

David Belle (athlete) Small Image Long Biography Language Activities 1 Page

12.5%

12 Airlines (United, American, Northwest, Air Canada, Delta)

Language Activities Negligible

Total Celebrity and Global Brand Product % of Textbook 7.76%

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Table 1B

American Headway Second Edition: Work Book 1 Content Analysis (Quantitative




1 Vogue Magazine Name on “clipart” image of generic magazine

negligible

2 0% 3 0% 4 0% 5 0% 6 0% 7 Lucien Freud (artist)

Note: Deceased but alive at time of publication.

Large Image Long Biography Language Activity 1 Page

20%

8 0% 9 0% 10 0% 11 0% 12 Maria Sharapova (athlete) Image

Short Biography Language Activity ¾ Page

18.75%

Total Celebrity and Global Brand Product % of Work Book 2.5%

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Table 2A

American Headway Second Edition: Student Book 2 Content Analysis (Quantitative Assessment):

Celebrities and Brand Names



1 0% 2 0%

3

James Bond (character) Movie Posters x 4 Comic Strip Image Book Excerpt Language Activities 2 Full Pages

25%

4

EBay (Internet auction site) Large Logo Large associated image (products) Company Profile (glowing review) Profile of founder (rags to riches story) Language Activities 1.25 Pages

17% David Beckham (athlete) Mentioned within EBay text and Language

Activities Learjet (aviation company)

Vogue Magazine Marie Claire Magazine Cosmopolitan Magazine

Image of Vogue Cover Mentioned in Language Activities (all three magazines by name)

5 Fodor’s (travel guide) Image

Christina Aguilera (singer) Image Song Lyrics Language Activities ½ page

6.25%

6 George Clooney (actor) Image Negligible

7

Julian Lennon (singer) Maria Shriver (TV personality) Prince Harry (royal celebrity) Steve Irwin (TV personality -recently deceased)

Images Topic: Fame! Language Activities 2 pages 25%

Various musicians (Neil Young, Bob Dylan, Flaming Lips)

Mentioned in Language Activities

8 0% 9 0%

10

Nokia (cell phones) Mentioned in Language Activities centered on these products (emphasis on cell phones) 1 Page

Rolls Royce (cars) Nikon (cameras) Google (Internet company) Sergey Brin (Google founder) Larry Page (Google founder)

Large logo + Image (on computer screen) Large Image (company founders) Extensive Reading Section Language Activities 1 Page

25%

11 0%

12

YouTube (Internet company) Steve Chen (YouTube co-founder)

Large Logo Large Image of Steve Chen x3 Long biography (appears twice) Language Activities 2.5 pages

25%

Total Celebrity and Global Brand Product % of Textbook 8.84%

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Table 2B

American Headway Second Edition: Work Book 2 Content Analysis (Quantitative


UNIT LIVING CELEBRITY /

GLOBAL BRAND PRODUCT


1

International Herald Tribune

Globish (language product)

Newspaper article clipping

Language Activities

1 Page

16.67%

2 0%

3 0%

4

iPod (MP3 Music Player) Mentioned in Reading Activity on the

materialistic possession in a child’s bedroom.

Interesting iPod is listed separately from MP3

players.

negligible

5 0%

6

London Eye (tourist attraction) Newspaper article that states it is as famous as the

Eiffel Tower, Great Wall

Language Activities

½ page

10%

7

JK Rowling (author)

Jennifer Lopez (singer/actor)

Venus Williams (athlete)

Martina Navratilova (athlete)

Pele (athlete)

Yao Ming (athlete)

Small Images for all, two images for JK Rowling.

Listed on par with dead “celebrities” Henry VIII

and Shakespeare.

Language Activities

2 pages

60% Steven Spielberg (director) Images x2

Biography

Language Activities 1 full page

Jaws, ET, Raiders of the Lost Ark,

Jurassic Park, etc. (Spielberg

movies)

Mentioned in the context of the focus on Steven

Spielberg

James Bond (character) Mentioned in Language Activities

1/6 of a page

8 0%

9 0%

10

Freeplay (radio)

Trevor Bayliss (inventor)

Images (product + inventor)

Biography of inventor

Language Activities

1.5 Pages

37.5%

Apple

Apple iPod

Microsoft

Rolls Royce

Large Image of Ipod

Language Activity (objective: identify product

manufacturer)

¼ page

Coca-Cola Logo (multiple images)

Image of Product/ Advertising Poster/Slogan

Product History

Positive assessment of product’s future

½ page

Google Mentioned in Language Activity

11 0%

12 0%

Total Celebrity and Global Brand Product % of Work Book 9%

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Table 3A

American Headway Second Edition: Student Book 3 Content Analysis (Quantitative




1 0%

2

Prince Charles (royalty) Images x 5 Extensive Reading Text Language Activities 2 Full Pages

25%

3 0%

4

Seiko (watch) Sony Playstation (video game) Sony Walkman (MP3 player) Sony Vaio (laptop) Casio (camera) Philips (TV) Philips (radio) Apple iPod (MP3 player)

Images Brand names clearly visible ½ Page

6.25%

5 0%

6

Sony (laptop) Dell (computer) Canon, Samsung, Olympus (cameras)

Mentioned in Learning Activities ¼ page related material

3%

7

JK Rowling (author) Harry Potter (character)

Very large image of the author Image of Harry Potter book Biography Sales statistics Language Activities 2 Full Pages

40% Calvin Klein (designer) Calvin Klein (fashion brand)

Logo Designer Image Customer shopping for jeans image Biography / Life Timeline Language Activities 1.25 Pages

Nike Logo Image on soccer ball and on soccer shoes.

8 0% 9 0%

10 Google Mentioned in Language Activity

negligible Johnson&Johnson (floss) Image Pritt (glue) Image

11 0%

12

EBay (internet auction site) Image “Newspaper report” Shows eBay is easy even for a child to use Language Activities ¾ page

9%

Total Celebrity and Global Brand Product % of Textbook 7%

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Table 3B

American Headway Second Edition: Work Book 3 Content Analysis (Quantitative Assessment):

Celebrities and Brand Names



1 0% 2 0%

3

Steve Wynn (casino mogul) Image “Newspaper” story text Language Activities 1.5 pages

21.4%

4 0% 5 0% 6 0%

7

JK Rowling (author) Angelina Jolie (actor) Justin Timberlake (singer/actor)

Images Language Activities 1 Page

43%

David Hockney (artist) Images of the artist x2 Image of his artwork Biographical quiz 1 page

Travelodge (hotel chain) “Newspaper” story of a couple who live in a Travelodge for 22 years. Very positive review of the hotel. Language Activities 1 Full Page

8 0% 9 0%

10

One Laptop Per Child (non-profit) Image “Newspaper” story on product Language Activities 1 Page

16%

Various Brands (Blackberry, Apple, IBM, Mini Cooper, etc.)

Mentioned in Learning Activities on Proper Nouns

11 0% 12 0%

Total Celebrity and Global Brand Product % of Work Book 6.62%

24

Table 4


Images of Consumerist Behaviour as Aspirational Content

“Aspirational Content” Categories Number of Images

(Textbook) % of Total Images

SHOPPING (FOR NON-ESSENTIALS) 0 0

CONSUMER PRODUCTS (NON-ESSENTIAL)

9 3%

CORPORATE LOGOS/BRANDS 4 1.3%

DINING OUT 21 7%

LEISURE ACTIVITIES / LEISURE TRAVEL

61 20.3%

HOME COMFORTS 13 4.3%

CELEBRITY 11 3.6%

TOTAL ASPIRATIONAL CONTENT 119 39.7%

JUST FACES (“Neutral” Content) 50 16.7%

TOTAL ASPIRATIONAL (ADJUSTED FOR FACES) 47.6%

Table 5


Images of Consumerist Behaviour as Aspirational Content



SHOPPING (FOR NON-ESSENTIALS) 8 3.6%


15 6.7%

CORPORATE LOGOS/BRANDS 9 4%

DINING OUT 7 3.1%


32 14.3%


CELEBRITY 10 4.5%




25

Table 6

American Headway Second Edition Student Book 3 Content Analysis (Quantitative

Assessment): Images of Consumerist Behaviour as Aspirational Content



SHOPPING (FOR NON-ESSENTIALS) 3 1.5%


24 12%

CORPORATE LOGOS/BRANDS 14 7%

DINING OUT 3 1.5%


38 19%


CELEBRITY 8 4%




26

ANALYSIS – QUALITIATIVE DISCUSSION

Drawing upon his interviews with textbook publishers, Gray explains that “textbook

content in which choice, individualism and spectacular professional success were

central was repeatedly referred to by interviewees as ‘aspirational’” (2010: 730). This

type of emphasis on lifestyle is a way of showcasing “practices of consumption and of

desire” (Sandlin 2008: 54). The aspirational lifestyle content appears to be benign and

thus sidesteps the kind of controversial subject matter that Gray and others have noted

is consciously avoided by publishers. In essence, they evade addressing the important

human struggles that may be most relevant to students. Most daily human interactions

are controversial because they involve making life decisions that often put people at

cross purposes to one another. The artificial presentation of choice as a decision

between which consumer product to purchase is not an example of an authentic

struggle. Hudd argues that “Efforts to nurture true character, which implies inner

strength and the capacity for commitment, are contrary to our culture’s consumer

orientation, where advertising, visible trappings, and popular trends take precedence”

(30). Yet these three elements, “advertising, visible trappings, and popular trends” are

clearly evident in the American Headway texts, as the tables above reveal. If it is

acceptable to include consumerist content because the textbooks are representative of

the consumer oriented culture from which they originate, then at the very least there

should be some consideration of how commercial behaviour and interaction is relevant

to the students. As Sandlin ask, “What kind of consumers are we creating? What kinds

of reactions to consumer culture are we seeking to elicit from our learners?” (2004: 33).

Consumer culture is an almost unavoidable aspect of daily life in the English speaking

27

world. It is not expected for the textbooks to teach a Luddite philosophy or provide

sample dialogues of bartering at local farmers markets. It is wise to acknowledge that

shopping for more than just bare necessities is an integral part of the modern lifestyle,

and is worth including if depicted honestly, and in a way that is authentic and relevant to

the learner.

Jeeyoung et al. reference Boriboon in the examination of the disparity between the

consumer issues that students dealt with in their daily lives versus the consumer

imagery of their textbooks:

He compared examples about shopping and cuisine from a current

popular English textbook, New Headway, with learners’ lives in rural

Thailand. The disparity between Thai culture and the scenarios

presented in the textbook created reading comprehension difficulties

for learners. (256)

Likewise, James notes that in scenarios on housing, an issue that in the Headway

series reviewed falls under the rubric of ‘Home Comforts’ primarily because it

showcases “Westerners,” usually Caucasians, living in sumptuous dwellings, the rooms

spacious and well decorated, there is a gap between the knowledge and practice

students require and that which is provided. He writes:

Curriculum content can also be revealing. For example, in "survival"

English courses, the emphasis is often placed on "the way we do

things here." In such a case the goal is not really survival; it is

assimilation (Auerbach, 1995). A unit on housing, for example, may

include things like students' responsibilities as tenants; absent,

however, may be things like tenants' rights or what to do when a

landlord does not fulfill obligations. This is alarming when one

considers that refugees may be particularly susceptible to living in

28

poor housing conditions with excessive rent and can be the victims of

harassment. (40)

The desire by publishers to avoid controversial content, to only leave the aspirational or

basic utilitarian culture as a model shapes student understanding of what the English

language represents in its association with the examples provided. Leaving out the

PARSNIPs may help publishers expand their sales and allow them the opportunity to

maintain their “one size fits all” model of production, but it does not do the students any

great service. Auerbach et al. argue that editing decisions are extremely important.

They write:

… what is excluded from curricula is as important in shaping students’

perceptions of reality as what is included. Failure to address such

factors as crowded clinics, long waits, unhealthy living or working

conditions, high costs, and communication problems neither prepares

students for what they might encounter nor legitimates these

experiences when students encounter them. Instead, it may promote

the view that these problems are somehow aberrations or, worse, the

result of the students’ own inadequacies. (480)

Students who directly compare themselves to the images presented of happy, healthy,

prosperous individuals and may find themselves wanting in one or more of these

regards may succumb to a “culture of inferiority [that] extends to various dimensions of

the classroom, including syllabuses, textbooks and instructional materials where certain

ideas, behaviors, and products are privileged, while those of the learners themselves

are frowned upon” (Rubdy 159). Lin and Luke connect this display of superiority and

the irrelevance of students’ real life concerns as an effect of the history of Anglo-

Western colonizers. They state, “The trick of colonialism is its durable half-life…

colonization’s legacy has become invisible ideological hegemony – domination with

29

consent; that is, the previously colonized peoples still worship the languages, cultures,

music, arts … or most aspects of Western life as more advanced, progressive and

superior – as lying closer towards the end point of modernity” (69). This is particularly

evidenced in a two page spread in American Headway Second Edition Student Book 3

where women provide testimonials on their kitchens, the “heart of the home” (46-47).

Three examples are given: Italy, California, U.S., and India. It is in essence an adult

version of the story of the Three Little Pigs. One has a kitchen in a mud hut, another

has a windowless kitchen in a tiny farmhouse, and the third, a “lifestyle coach living in a

16-room house on the beach in California” with “six bathrooms, five bedrooms, and a

swimming pool” and a husband who is a “businessman” naturally has the best kitchen of

all (Soars and Soars, 46-47).

In examining the ‘aspirational’ content in the American Headway Second Edition levels

1, 2, and 3, several other observations are worth noting. First, with regard to the use of

celebrities, there appears to be at least one reference per every three units. The only

obstacles that seem to be presented in the lives of celebrities occurred early on, and

thus are only minor setbacks on the road to triumph. Those that have extensive

biographical information in the text are presented as ‘rags to riches’ stories. Gray views

the celebrity content as ideological vehicles for the promotion of the ‘new capitalism’ of

globalization, a ‘neoliberal period … characterized by the proliferation of celebrities’ who

embody a wide range of jobs – “for example, celebrity chefs, celebrity historians,

celebrity doctors, celebrity entrepreneurs, etc.” (2010: 727). Furthermore, Gray

observes:

30

Overall, the way in which celebrity operates in consumer societies is

largely unaddressed in the textbooks analysed—rather celebrity tends

to function as an index of professional success and, especially when

accompanied by high-quality photographic artwork, provides a veneer

of glamour. (2010: 728)

One final note on celebrity is the focus on money. In the section on Steven Spielberg,

the director is exalted for the “billions of dollars” (Soars et al. 39) his films have grossed.

In the portions on J.K. Rowling, who seems to be quite popular with the authors, the

readers are consistently reminded of the sales figures for her books and the “estimated

$1.3 billion” she has earned (37). The implicit suggestion is that success across

disparate endeavours, and oddly, creative ones, should be measured in dollars.

With regard to the placement of global brand name products within the Student Books

and Work Books, there is a clear reflection to the way product placement works in the

more familiar medium of Hollywood movies. Clair et al. note that product placement has

“a longer history than most would imagine” but that “62% of moviegoers find product

placement distracting” (75, 77). A correlating percentage, if not higher because of the

incongruity of medium, would likely object to the appearance of Coca-Cola, YouTube,

and EBay promotional material within their language learning coursebooks, and this

consideration perhaps serves to limit the amount seen per unit and book. It seems

strange that such product placement would necessarily benefit large multinationals in

their strategic marketing goals. The overall advertising expenses recorded by The

Coca-Cola Company just for 2011 were budgeted at $3,256,000,000 (55). Clearly, they

can afford to access media that far exceeds the reach of a quarter of a page in a

grammar workbook. Yet, the inclusion of Coca-Cola, particularly with the line of text

31

that reads, “And it is certain that Coca-Cola ___________ (drink) far into the 21st

century” (Soars et al. 56) implies a favorable reaction and not a critical or objective

stance. Jarvis notes that such phenomena are to be expected when corporations

“control not only the means of production – both economic and technological – but they

also control the means of spreading knowledge about their products as they seek to

convince the public to purchase what they produce” (20). Forsman writes that “as

individuals and in the groups that we affiliate ourselves with, we often take for granted

that our own ways and values are the most commonsense ones. Such assumptions

tend to prevent the development of respect for others” (516). Publishers of the

American Headway series seem to represent the assumption that their corporate

worldview is the common sense perspective, and display a certain lack of esteem for

their audience. This reflects how “power relations of the outside society may also be

reproduced in the classroom when the tone of the materials is patronizing. Despite the

persistent claim that the learner must be treated with respect because “his intellectual

capacity is that of an adult” (Freeman 1982: v), students are often portrayed as

incompetent and addressed like children” (Auerbach et al. 486). The notion that adult

students are carefree individuals who aspire to emulate celebrities and are motivated by

toys, sweets and baubles, to the extent that consistently half of the imagery in American

Headway books is “aspirational,” is an example of a patronizing approach in education.

The cultural content of the American Headway books reviewed here shows that a focus

on consumer products, celebrity, wealth, and leisure pursuits is not accidental. Spring

argues:

32

pedagogical methods are primarily determined by the needs of nation states to prepare workers for the global economy … The educational security state supports a consumer model of industrialism… In the industrial-consumer paradigm, personal fulfilment is achieved through the purchase of products… Brand names are used to create consumer desires for higher status and new personal images. (2006: 105, 108, 118).

The connection between the underlying commercialism of the American Headway

Second Edition and student identity development is most evident in the promotion of a

cosmopolitan consumer lifestyle. A review of Tables 4, 5 and 6, shows that Leisure

Travel and Leisure Activities combine to have an average weight of a fifth of all images

in each of the books reviewed. It seems to be the publisher’s goal to spotlight carefree

travel and the pursuit of happiness as the core aspirational objectives. Cannon et al.

state that the “notion of cosmopolitan consumers is as old as commerce itself. It refers

to a “world citizen” – a consumer whose orientation transcends any particular culture or

setting” (30). A “world citizen” would need a “global language” and English would be it.

Students taught to “eschew the parochial culture of their local surroundings in favor of

new and exciting experiences, such as exotic foods and music” (Cannon et al. 31)

would be more susceptible to accept an ideology of globalization, new capitalism, and

neoliberal thought, with the entire world their market. Teachers need to recognize this

aspect of the textbook, as Thompson et al. caution:

…the exaltation of cosmopolitanism – as a consumer orientation, a business ethos, an intellectual outlook, or an identity position – needs to be tempered by a consideration of its ideological functions within the realpolitik of the global economy. (220)

33

Tempering the exaltation of the aspirational content in American Headway would be

good advice for educators, and the publishers themselves, to follow. Students who

accept the cosmopolitan perspective will quickly learn that it is not an easily affordable

option, and that for many Westerners a short trip to an exotic destination requires long

days spent at work to save for it.

CONCLUSION

The lack of “controversial” content in the American Headway Second Edition series is

worrying when the series is compared against the “major problems with the industrial-

consumer paradigm” (Spring 2007: 74) that are glossed over in the books’ presentation

of aspirational ideology. Spring lists some of the problems as follows:

1. There is no concern with happiness and satisfaction in employment.

The emphasis is on happiness and satisfaction through consumption.

This is a problem because most people spend more time at work than

they do at consuming.

2. The emphasis is on working hard, often meaning longer hours, to

increase consumption activities. Of course, many subsistence farmers

and poor people work long hours just to survive. However, the

industrial-consumer model does not promise fewer working hours,

only more products.

3. The model is premised on a fear that industrialism might provide

more personal freedom by reducing work time. Some people fear that

more leisure time would make the masses uncontrollable.

4. The issue of what makes humans happy has been clouded by the

advertising emphasis on personal satisfaction through consumption.

(2007: 74-75)

34

Publishers may argue that within the narrow band of culture that escapes the

censorship of controversy their reliance on aspirational content is a neutral means of

avoiding a potentially tendentious debate. Spring’s listed objections reflect a partisan

stance against the so-called industrial-consumer model, and publishers may respond

that it is precisely their intention to avoid such value-laden discourse. This argument

would hold merit if the non-controversial content was truly neutral. Yet, it is not.

Spring’s problems with the industrial-consumer paradigm, as listed above, are best

exemplified by a grammar lesson on the topic of the second conditional that takes up an

entire page of the American Headway Second Edition Level 3 Workbook. The focus is

on a man named Alfie. Even in that simple usage there is already room for

interpretation. Alfie is not a name given to leaders or men of distinction because it is not

a serious name like Alfred. Instead, “Alfie works in a factory” (Soars et al, 59). The

image that occupies half the page is a photograph of a hard-pressed man: dirty clothes,

heavy gloves, unfashionable hair hidden beneath a worn baseball cap. Leaning on a

shovel within a claustrophobic, industrial work-space, Alfie looks tired and forlorn. In

large block letters the reader is given his REALITY:

He lives at home with his family.

He gets up at 6:00.

He bikes to work.

He works long hours, from 7:00 to 6:00.

He never goes on vacation.

He saves his money. (ibid) Woe to Alfie. His reality appears quite negative, especially when compared to his

“Dream,” which is pictured in computer-drawn imagery, and described in fragile,

italicized script. “If Alfie was the boss of the factory, …”

35

1. he would/’d live in a beautiful house. 2. he ___________ at noon. 3. he ___________ to work in a sports car. 4. he ___________ only when he wanted to. 5. he ___________ on vacation in the Caribbean. 6. he ___________ all the factory workers a pay raise! (ibid)

Hail, King Alfie! If only his dreams could come true, he would have such a wonderful life.

Given this example, it is near impossible for the publishers to claim that this textbook is

not value-critical. They are merely choosing to criticize the values that do not adhere to

their own view of the industrial-consumer paradigm. The most telling is the lesson’s

final bullet and dream #6. Maintaining a healthy savings is considered a negative part

of Alfie’s reality, and any chance of all the workers getting a raise falls to the boss’s

prerogative, and that seems to be a decision that can only occur in a fantasy world.

There is a great responsibility then on the teacher and the student to be able to

recognize and navigate the classroom materials that are often imposed upon them. In

language learning there will inherently be an inter-cultural experience, and an

ideological struggle between integration and assimilation. The goal of the aspirational

content is to entice by example and to potentially coerce through implied peer-pressure.

When students are, both literally and figuratively, on the same page, they will more

easily adapt to a given message. The American Headway texts promote an unfettered,

cosmopolitan lifestyle of pleasurable pursuits and consumption as the path to personal

fulfillment. It is the student’s imperative to resist assimilation and to integrate new

knowledge without compromising self-identity. As Friere explains:

36

Integration results from the capacity to adapt oneself to reality plus

the critical capacity to make choices and transform that reality. To the

extent that man loses his ability to make choices and is subjected to

the choices of others, to the extent that his decisions are no longer his

own because they result from external prescriptions, he is no longer

integrated. Rather, he is adapted. (in Auerbach et al. 488)

The critical capacity to make choices is a life lesson worth learning. It should be the

goal of every adult educator to ensure their students have the ability to do so.

37

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