The Plant Kingdom. All living things are placed into one of 6 large groups called KINGDOMS:...
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Transcript of The Plant Kingdom. All living things are placed into one of 6 large groups called KINGDOMS:...
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The Plant Kingdom
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All living things are placed into one of 6 large groups called KINGDOMS:
•Archaebacteria (extremophiles)•Eubacteria (true bacteria)•Protista•Fungi•Plantae•Animalia
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Classification of Organisms
•The most basic category of organisms
is called a kingdom.
•Most scientists divide organisms into five
major kingdoms.
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Kingdoms
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Systematics (1)•1 .Species: Organisms sharing a set of
biological traits and reproducing only their exact kind. (Species is the fundamental unit
in taxonomy) a. strain: organisms within the species varying in
a given quality b. types: organisms within the species varying
immunologically .2 .Genus: closely related species3 .Family : closely related genera
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Systematics (2)
•4 .Order: closely related families•5 .Class : closely related order•6 .Phylum: related classes
Use nutritional patterns, as well as structure ones and biochemical properties, provide guidelines
for classification of microorganisms. E.g.. Autotrophy, heterotopy, oxygen requirement etc .
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Survey of Microorganisms
.1Viruses.2Bacteria
.3Cyanobacteria.4Algae.5Fungi
.6protozoa
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VIRUSES–Obligated intracellular parasite.–host specific :
·bacteriophage·animal virus·plant virus
–according to its genetic material ·DNA virus·RNA virus
–Shape: Most common shape is icosahedral , some are helical
shape–Structure :
Protein capsid and genetic material some animal virus have envelope with glycoprotein spikes
–Life cycle: lytic infection lysogenic infection–Some animal virus are closely associated with certain
cancers
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Viruses (contd.)Biological Characteristics
•Viral replication strategies•Viral replication cycles
–Binding/entry–Uncoating–Genome replication (w/wo integration)–Protein production–Assembly –Budding
•Host cell tropism (receptors)•Lytic vs. non-lytic infection
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Comparison of naked and enveloped viruses
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The replication cycle of a bacterial virus(1)
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The replication cycle of a bacterial virus(2)
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BACTERIA
Typical prokaryotes .
–Three shapes: cocci, bacilli and spiral
–Can be autotroph or heterotroph
–Autotroph: photoautotroph or chemoautotroph
Heterotroph: parasite or saprophyte
–Type of reproduction: binary fission
–Some genetic material transfer :
– transformation, transduction and conjugation
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Bacterial morphology
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Cyanobacteria–Blue green algae, in both fresh and marine water .–A typical procayrotic living organism–Autotroph, photosynthesis machinery is very similar
to higher plants .–No chloroplast, have chlorophyll and other pigments
such as phycocyanin, phycoerythrin, carotene etc.–Three forms: unicellular, colonial and filaments.–Some filament cyanobacteria have heterocyst that can
fix N2 to ammonia.–e.g. Nostoc , Oscillatoria
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Algae.1Euglenoids
eg. Euglenafood storage is a lipoid polysaccharide - paramylum
.2Green algaeeg. Chlamydomonasfood storage - starch
.3Golden Brown algaeeg. Diatoms
food storage – oil and leucosin (a polysaccharide)have fucoxanthin, a brownish pigment
.4Brown AlgaeMainly marine water algae
food storage – laminarin, a polysaccharide and mannitol, a sugar alcohol.5Fire Algae
Dinoflagellate eg. Peridinium food storage – starch, fat, oils
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Algae- an overview–Eucaryotic living organisms–Autotroph :
Carry out a green plant type of photosynthesis resulting in the photolysis of water and the
evolution of O2.–Mainly aquatic in nature.–Some of the primitive ones are classified in protista;
complex multicellular types are placed in plant kingdom.
–Three forms: unicellular, filaments and colonial.–7 classes on the basis of their cellular structure,
pigment composition. Only five will be discussed in here and differentiate them using food storage
particles.–e.g. euglena, spirogyra and cladophora.
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Protozoa–Unicellular, heterotroph–Animal like, move, they are either free
living or parasites.–A wide variety of shapes and sizes
some elongated, some are oval.–Sizes: from 5-10 um to 1-2 mm.–Sexual or asexual reproduction–e.g. amoebas, paramecium
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Protists- lineages
•Six identified lineages:–Euglenozoa–Alveolata–Stramenopila –Rhodophyta–Chlorophyta–Choanoflagellida
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Euglenoids
•Euglenoids–most are freshwater–about one-third are autotrophic, rest
heterotrophic–pellicle (interlocking proteinaceous
strips in helical pattern (flexibility) lies within plasma membrane
•stigma - light sensitive organ that aids in orienting toward light
–Euglena•flagella attached to reservoir•contain numerous chloroplasts
Paramecium
Euglena
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Stramenopila and Rhodophyta
•Stramenopila–includes brown algae,
diatoms, and oomycetes•brown algae - conspicuous
seaweeds–alternation of generations
•diatoms (phylum Chrysophyta) - photosynthetic, unicellular organisms with double shells
of opaline silica
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Stramenopila and Rhodophyta
•Rhodophyta–Red algae range in size from
microscopic to very large.•origin a source of controversy
–tentatively treated as a sister clade of green algae (Chlorophyta)
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Chlorophyta
•Green algae are the ancestors of the plant kingdom.
–extensive fossil record dating back 900 million years
–mostly aquatic–Chlamydomonas well-known genus
•probably represents primitive state–Chlorophyta did not give rise to land plants.
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Chlamydomonas
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Slim Mold (lower fungi)
–This is a lower fungi, in Protista and protomycota.
–It is similar to fungi, but distinct .–Heterotroph.–They live in cool, shady moist places in nature
- on decaying wood, dead leaves or other damp organic matter.
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FungiThe fungi are not plants …!! you see they do not contain chlorophyll! Indeed many scientists today place fungi as more closely related to animals than plants (chitin – which also forms the arthropod exoskeleton - is the main
component of fungal cell wall).Fungi and animals are descended from a
common ancestor: A unicellular eukaryote with a flagellum.
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Phylogeny of the Fungi
Fungi have been around since the Ordovician period some 450 million years ago.
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Classification of the Fungi
Classification of the Fungi
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UnicellularYeasts: Unicellular members of the zygomycetes,
ascomycetes, and basidiomycetes.
Budding: mitosis followed by
asymmetrical cell division.
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Multicellular
Multicellular fungi:•Body is a mycelium—composed of tubular
filaments called hyphae. (singular hypha)•Hyphae cell walls have chitin.•Some hyphae have incomplete cross walls or
septa, and are called septate.•Hyphae without septa are called coenocytic.
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Most Hyphae Are Incompletely Divided into Separate Cells
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Fungal Form and Function
AnatomyHyphae and mycelium
Mycelium – interwoven mass of hyphae
Hyphae- thread-likefilaments, one cell thick
Reproductive structure or
fruiting body See Fig. 31.2
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Lichens: Nature’s perfect marriage
Lichens: fungus + photosynthetic organism•Fungi—mostly ascomycetes•Photosynthetic partner—cyanobacterium or
alga, or both.•Species are named for fungal component.
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Lichens are great ecological markers
Lichens :•Can survive harshest environments on Earth.•Very sensitive to toxic compounds—good
indicators of air pollution.•Early medicinal remedy
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Asexual and Sexual Reproduction in a Fungal Life Cycle
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Asexual reproduction
Asexual Reproduction in Fungi:•Production of haploid spore in sporangia.•Production of naked spores called conidia.•Cell division by unicellular fungi—fission or
budding.•Breakage of the mycelium.
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Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction:
Mating types are genetically different, but not physically different. Individuals of the same type cannot mate.
In a haplontic life cycle, the zygote is the only diploid stage.
Some groups have a unique n + n stage called a dikaryon.
Some groups have alternation of generations.NOTE: Chytrids have Alternation of Generations and the
Gametes and spores are flagellate
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Molds Many rapidly growing, asexually reproducing fungi (mostly ascomycetes and basidiomycetes)
Ecosystems on Earth would collapse without the molds and mildews (plus many bacteria) that break down organic matter into inorganic nutrients
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Yeasts Many unicellular fungi that inhabit liquid or moist surfaces
and reproduce asexually
Functional Biology of Fungi
Occur in the Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes & Zygomycetes
Free-living, parasitic, and mutualistic symbiotic forms exist
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Mycorrhizae Symbiotic associations with plants (representatives known
from all fungal phyla, not just Glomeromycetes)
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Lichens Obligate symbiotic associations with algae or cyanobacteria
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Parasites
Ringworm
Chestnut blight
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Toxin producers
Aflatoxin
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Biotic control agents
The first antibiotic used by humans
Staphylococcus
Penicillium
Zone of inhibited
growth
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Biotic control agents
Used against termites, rice weevils, etc.
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Interesting example …of agriculture in insects
Leaf-cutter ants cut and carry leaf fragments to their nests where the
fragments are used to farm fungi
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Interesting example… of fungal cowboys
Some soil fungisnare nematodeworms in hyphalnooses and then
digest them
unlucky nematode
fungal hypha
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Functional Biology of Fungi
Interesting example… of fungi & conservation
The golden toad became extinct within the past 20
years, owing to anthropogenicenvironmental deterioration,
which also facilitated pathogenic chytrid fungi
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Flowering Plants
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WHAT'S THE FLOWERING PLANT?
•Plants are members of the kingdom plantae. Plants are photosynthetic multicellular eukaryotes - or
PHOTOAUTOTROPHS.
•Cell walls are made of CELLULOSE - the material that bacteria and protists in our small intestine digest for us. Cellulose is a
kind of complex sugar or polysaccharide.
•Although cellulose plays an important role in structural support in the cell walls of plants, cellulose is found in other
forms - such as cotton.
•The green of plants comes from their photosynthetic pigments (chlorophyll a & b)
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What are characteristics of plants ?
•Sessile•Multicellular & cell specialization•Eukaryotic•cellulose cell walls•autotrophic (photosynthetic) •Chlorophylls a and b in thylakoid
membranes•Store reserve food as amylose
(starch)•Alternation of Generations
–Sporophyte–gametophyte
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What do plants need to survive ?
•Sunlight - energy of sun captured by chlorophyll and used to join CO2 and H2O to form glucose (C6H12O6); plants need broad leaves to maximize
light absorption•Water and minerals - roots to absorb these•Gas Exchange – stomata in leaves•Protective structures - were required to protect
the developing embryos.•Movement of water and nutrients
–Most plants have tubes – phloem (nutrients down) and xylem (water up)
–Some small plants use diffusion
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Plant Adaptations to Land
Problems:•Need
minerals•Gravity•Increase in
Height for Light
•Adaptations for Drier
environment•Reproduction
Solutions:•Roots absorb H2O
& minerals•Lignin & cellulose
in cell walls•Vascular Transport
System•Waxy cuticle &
stomata with guard cells
•Pollen containing sperm
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GENERAL LIFE CYCLE OF PLANTS •The life cycle of plants has two different phases. This is
called; ALTERATION OF GENERATIONS. In this alteration of generations, the plant takes turns undergoing mitosis and meiosis to produce haploid (n) and diploid (2n) gametes.
•The diploid (2n) phase is called the sporophyte - or spore producing plant. The haploid (n) phase is called the
gametophyte - or gamete producing plant. •The spores are haploid (n) and produced through meiosis in
the sporophyte plant - each spore can grow into a new plant; the gametophyte!
•A gamete is a reproductive cell produced by mitosis and fuses during fertilization with another gamete to produce a
new individual - the diploid sporophyte .
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Alternation of Generations
2n Sporophyte 2n gametophyte 1n pollen
Ovary with 1n ovules (eggs)
2n seed with plant embryo
Sporophyte
Gametophyte
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•Alternation of generations:
–Sporophyte – 2n – Diploid – produce haploid spores by meiosis
–Gametophyte - (1n) – haploid undergoes mitosis to produce eggs and sperm – the eggs and sperm
(gametes)
–Zygote - merge to grow into a 2n sporophyte (cycle continues)
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How have modern plants evolved ?
•Had to develop adaptations for life on land
•Evolved from plantlike protists – green algae
•First plants were similar to today’s mosses – dependent on water
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What are the four main groups of plants ?
•Mosses (nonvascular plants)– Bryophytes (15,600 species)
•Ferns (vascular & seedless plants)– Pterophytes (11,000 species)
•Gymnosperms (vascular & naked seeds)- Cone-bearing Plants (760 species)
•Angiosperms (vascular & covered seeds)- Flowering Plants (245,000 species)
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Plant CladogramRelationships among the various groups of plants
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Diversity of plants today
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Nonvascular Plants•Do not have
vascular tissue for support or conduction of
materials•Require a
constantly moist environment
•Plants can’t grow as tall
(Contd). Moss Gametophytes & Sporophytes
Sporophyte stage
Gametophyte Stage
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Nonvascular Plants (contd.)
•Cells must be in direct contact with moisture
•Materials move by diffusion cell-to-cell
•Sperm must swim to egg through water droplets
•Called Bryophytes, Hepatophytes &
Anthocerophytes
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Vascular Plants
Vascular System:
•Xylem tissue carries water and minerals upward from the roots
•Phloem tissue carries sugars made by photosynthesis from
the leaves to where they will be stored or used
•Sap is the fluid carried inside the xylem or phloem
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Seedless Vascular Plants(reproduce via spores)
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Seed producing plants
•Major adaptations–Pollen (male gametophyte)–Seeds (embryonic plant)(male and female gametophyte are greatly reduced
in size)•Two types
–Gymnosperms (lack flowers, naked seeds)–Angiosperms (flowering plants, seeds enclosed in
fruits)
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Types of Nonvascular Plants(1) BRYOPHYTA
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(2 )Hepatophyta (liverwort)
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(3 )Anthocerophyta (Hornworts)
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Simplified Lifecycle of a Bryophyte
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Bryophyte lifecycle: moss•Haploid dominant•No vascular tissues•Filamentous
protonema stage•Swimming sperm•Disperse by spores•Dependent
sporophyte•Dioecious
gametophytes•No true leaves•Rhizoids, not roots
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Types of Seedless Vascular Plants(1) PSILOPHYTA (whisk ferns)
•Epiphytes•Rootless
and leafless
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(2 )LYCOPHYTA (club mosses)
•Produces a sporangia
bearing strobilus.
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(3 )SPHENOPHYTA (Horsetails)•Genus: Equisetum•Large deposits of
silica in their leaves.•Jointed stems with
whorled leaf arrangement.
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(4 )PTEROPHYTA(True ferns)
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PTEROPHYTA (True ferns)
•Broad leaves called fronds•Leaflets called pinnae•Sporangium (sorus pl sori) are formed on the
underside of the fronds.•Unfolding fronds are called fiddleheads.•Spores are dispersed by the wind.
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Reproductive life cycle of ferns
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Types of Gymnosperms
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(1 )CYCADOPHYTA (Cycads)
• Large fernlike leaves
• Plants are either males or females
• Plants produce gametes in large strobilus
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(2 )GINKGOPHYTA (Ginkgo biloba)
• Only one species in present day• Bear male and female cones on separate plants.• Male produces pollen in strobilus-like cones.• Female bears seed which develop a fleshy outer
covering• Plants are resistant to air pollution
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(3 )CONIFEROPHYTA(Cone-bearing trees)
• Cone bearing• needles with thick waxy covering • Stomata in cavities below surface• Seeds are carried on the surfaces of cones• Evergreen and adapted to cold and dry
habitat s
Male & female cones
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What is alternation of generations in gymnosperms?
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Welwitschia
Ephedra
(4 )GNETOPHYTA
There are three genera:1. Gnetum : A tropical climbing plant2. Ephedra (Shrub-like plants) 3. Welwitschia (Desert dweller with
large tuberous root). Has only two leaves and may live 100 yr.
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Angiospermae(Anthophyta – flowering plants)
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What are the ANTHOPHYTA ?•Flowering•Seeds are within a layer of protective tissue•Flowers, ovaries, pollinators (insects, etc.)
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What is alternation of generations in angiosperms?
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Male reproduction
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Female reproduction
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Double fertilization
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DIVERSITY: MONOCOTS & DICOTS(number of seed leaves - cotyledons - in plant embryo)
•A cotyledon is the first leaf or the first pair of leaves produced by the embryo of a seed
plant .•There are other differences. What are they?
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What are monocots ?•Single cotyledon – number of seed leaves•parallel veins (venation), floral parts in
multiples of 3, fibrous roots, scattered vascular bundles
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What are dicots? •Two cotyledons, branched veins (net
venation), floral parts in multiples of 4-5, taproot, ring of vascular bundles.
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Dicotyledons Monocotyledons
Vascular tissue in a ring round the stem
Vascular tissue scattered throughout stem
Flowers with multiples of 4 or 5 organs
Flowers with multiples of 3 organs
Dicots v Monocots – other differences
Vascular tissue
Pith
Epidermis
CortexVascular
tissue
©2008 Paul Billiet ODWS
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Switch to Sporophyte Dominance