The Music of J. B. Besard's "Novus Partus", 1617

The Music of J. B. Besard's "Novus Partus", 1617Author(s): Julia SuttonSource: Journal of the American Musicological Society, Vol. 19, No. 2 (Summer, 1966), pp.182-204Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the American Musicological SocietyStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/830581 .

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The Music of J. B. Besard's Novus Partus, 1617

BY JULIA SUTTON

JEAN-BAPTISTE BESARD (ca. I567-ca. i625),1 a Burgundian lawyer, physi- cian, and lutenist, was educated in France and Italy and worked in

Germany. He published two collections of lute music, in French tabla-

ture, of considerable importance: the Thesaurus harmonicus (Cologne,

I603), a major work containing 403 compositions by a large number of

composers;2 and the Novus partus (Augsburg, I6I7), a much smaller

collections of 59 compositions.3 Besard also was the editor, here by virtue

of his law degree, of a collection of historical documents entitled Mer-

curii Gallobelgici (Cologne, I6O4),4 which was the fifth of a series on

current relationships among European countries. In I617, the same year as the Novus partus, our Renaissance gentleman also published a large medical book, Antrum philosophicum (Augsburg, i6I7);5 this is an al-

1 The German and English form of the last name, Besard, rather than the French Besard or the Latin Besardus, is adopted throughout this article, not only because the French spelling does not appear in any of Besard's publications, but because it is a useful compromise between the French and Latin spellings. The Latin was the most frequently-employed form of the name. It should be noted that the single French poem to Besard in the Novus partus (fol. C4r) is entitled "A Monsieur Besard," without the accent. Besard himself, when writing in Latin, normally signed his name "Ioannes Baptista Besardus Vesontinus I. V. Doctor" (Jean-Baptiste Besard of Besan- von, Doctor of Laws"), and even in his Isagoge, which was in German, only the qualification of the name was translated: "Ioh. Bapt. Besardum von Bisantz auss Bur- gund I. V. D." Furthermore, the French spelling of the name was not consistent: in the Acte justificative of 1613 (Besancon) it is given as "Bezard," according to A. Castan (see footnote iI); in the marriage contract of I602 it is "Besard."

2 See Joseph Garton, "J. B. Besard's Thesaurus harmonicus" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Indiana, 1952), for a study of the Thesaurus and transcrip- tions of some of the compositions.

3 Julia Sutton, "Jean-Baptiste Besard's Novus partus of I617" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Rochester, i962), is a broad study of the collection; it includes a translation of the instructions and an edition of a representative portion of the music.

4 Full title: Mercurii Gallobelgici, sive rerum in Gallia et Belgio potissimum Hun- garia quoque: Germania, Polonia, Hispania, Italia, Anglia, alisq; Christiani orbis Regnis, & Provincijs ab Anno 1598 usq; ad Annum gestarum. Grevenbruch, the printer, also printed Besard's Thesaurus, and it is possible that Besard may have served in an editorial capacity for the Mercurii in order to pay for the publication of his own work.

5 Full title: Antrum philosophicum, in quo pleraque arcana physica, quae ad vul- gatiores humani corporis affectus curandos attinent, sine multo verborum apparatu, ad experimenti legem breuiter, & sincere reuelantur. Quibus ordine alphabetico annotatis, diuersa medicamenta tam e' mineralibus, quam vegetabilibus conficiendi modusim. metiate' subiicitur. Atq; huic, Tractatus de rebus quae humano corpori eximiam, & venustam formam inducunt. De variis Mineralium, & Metallorum prae- parat Deq; plurimis experimentis, quorum speculatio cddidioris est ingenii, breues, sed fideles annectuntur. Per 1. B. Besardum Vesontinum. Cum Priuilegio Caesareo.



THE MUSIC OF J. B. BESARD'S NOVUS PARTUS, 1617

phabetical compendium of known diseases with the appropriate medi- cations.

The Thesaurus harmonicus consists of ten books, nine of them made

up of homogeneous groupings of pieces according to type, and the tenth a miscellaneous collection. The music is for solo lute, or lute and voice (there are three lute duets), and represents 2i different composers. In- cluded also is a set of Latin instructions on how to play the lute, entitled De modo in testudine libellus. The Novus partus, while not nearly so extensive a collection as the Thesaurus, is of interest on several counts: (i) its 59 compositions, divided into three sections, represent a wide variety of forms and styles typical of the early Baroque;6 (2) its 24

works for lute ensemble, making up Parts I and II of the work, con- stitute a major contribution to this medium; and (3) it also contains a set of instructions on how to play the lute, a new edition of the set in the Thesaurus, revised and emended by its author in response to the great popularity of that earlier set.7

The musical contents of the Novus partus are set forth in Table I.

TABLE I Music of the Novus partus8

PART I i. Passe'mezo I. B. B. 2. Vne Jeune fillette I. B. B. 3. Lachrimae J. Dooland a I. B. B. ad vsum huius concert. accommodatae 4. en Revenant de Saint Nicolas I. B. B. 5. Ballo del gran Duca I. B. B. 6. La follie saltus Hispanicus I. B. B.

The promise of a description of experiments apparently led some scholars, such as A. Castan, to assume that the book deals with medicine and alchemy. In fact, however, the experimental section is concerned entirely with chemical and physical experiments that were sources of wonder at the time, and has nothing whatsoever to do with alchemy.

6 In both the Thesaurus and the Novus partus Besard reveals a wide knowledge of the current lute world; in the conclusion to the instructions of the Novus partus, he refers to the printed collections of Francisque (Le Tresor d'Orphee, i6oo), Reymann (Cythara sacra, I613), Denss (Florilegium, 1594), van den Hove (Florida, i6o0; Delitiae musicae, i612), Fuhrmann (Testudo Gallo-Germanica, I615), Mertel (Hor- tus musicalis novus, i615), Hadrianus (Pratum musicum, 1584, 1592, 600oo), and to various works by Dowland. Besard is generally assumed to have been the student of Laurencinus Romanus (fl. 1570), although Garton (op. cit., p. 23) was unable to verify this. Nevertheless, compositions ascribed to Laurencinus in the Thesaurus out- number those of other composers.

The term "early Baroque" is employed here to indicate the first third of the i7th century; that many of the formal and stylistic devices in lute music of this period derive from the i6th century is taken as a matter of course.

7 J. Sutton, "The lute instructions of J. B. Besard's Novus partus, I617," The Musical Quarterly LI (I965), pp. 345-362. The Isagoge in artem testudinariam (Augsburg, I617), often listed as a separate work of Besard's, is a German translation of the lute instructions in the Novus partus.

8 Orthography follows the original. The I. B. B. in the tides refers to Jean- Baptiste Besard.

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184 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY

7. Saltus German I. B. B. 8. Miserere mei Deus. Psalm. I. B. B. 9. In exitu Israel. psalm. I. B. B.

I0. Laudate' Dominum omnes gentes. psalm. I. B. B. ii. Simphonia I. B. B. 12. Alia Simphonia eiusdem per triplum

PART II

I3. Courante. I. B. B. 14. Courante I. B. B. 15. Courante I. B. B. I6. Courante Philis I. B. B. 17. Courante I. B. B. I8. Volte du tambour I. B. B. 19. Canaries 20. Ballet in forma echo, qui primo totus ad finem usque ordinario modo debet

ludi, dein in repetitione partes quas distinctas vides post altiorem vocem summisse admodum

21. Branles de village I. B. B. 22. *Branles de village I. B. B.

24. J

PART III

25. Praeambulum. I. B. B. 26. Aliud Praeam. 27. Toccata del Signor Michel Angelo Galilei fiorentino 28. Toccata dellistesso 29. Toccata Cromatica del Signor Vicenzo Bernia Bollognese 30. Ricercar dell'istesso sopra ut re mi fa sol la 31. Ricercar del Signor Stefano da Pesaro gia Musico del Serenissimo Duca di

Vrbino 32. Gagliarda del Signor Pietro Paulo Meli musico Cesareo 33. Gagliarda del Signor Jacob gia chiamato il Polloneze 34. Gagliarda eiusdem authoris 35. Courante'-du Sieur de la Barre 36. Courante mise' par I. B. B. 37. Courante' appellee' CLORIS 38. Volte appellee' La Samaritainne 39. Courante' du Sieur de la Grotte' 40. Courante du Sieur Samand 41. aultre Courante' 42. Courante' de' I. B. B. pour le nouveau lhut 43. Courante du Sieur Mesangeau 44. Ballet 45. Volte de J. B. B. 46. Ballet de I. B. B. 47.1 48. Branles nouueaux de I. B. B. 49. 50. 51. Canzonetta del. Sig: Marco Antonio Balletz fatta sopra il balo concertato a

3 liuti fol. 12




52. Gallus et Gallina D. Vicent. Bernia 53. Campanae Parisienses Jncerti authoris 54. Branle quondam Laurencini nuncupatim, nunc vero a I. B. B. ad vsum nouae

suae Testudinis accommodatu 55. Bergamasco I. B. B. ad vsum nouae Testudinis 56. Canaria 57. Simphonia I. B. B. 58. Volte de guerre. I. B. B. 59. Passemezo. in C sol faut luro [duro]. Pro noua testudine. I. B. B.

Besard's i6th-century Latin is responsible for ambiguities in the title which some scholars have failed to recognize.

Ioan. Bapt. Besardi Vesontini Novvs partvs, siue Concertationes mvsicae, dvo- dena trivm, ac totidem binarum Testudinum (quibus & notae Musicae addun- tur) singulari ordine modulamina continentes. His addita [a]vthor, lectissimi stili partes aliquot seorsim, tam proprias, quam alienas; atque in gratiam Philomusi, e tenebris in meliorem lucem liberaliter eduxit: necnon ad artem Testudinis breui, citraque magnum fastidium capescendam, facilem & methodi- cam institutionem hisce subiecit. Vt emendatissimvm prodiret opus, Stephanus Michelspacherus Tirolensis, ex authoris manuscripto, suis sumptibus totum curauit incidi & excudi. Avgvstae Vindelicorvm per Dauidem Francum, Anno Salutis Humanae M. DCXVII. Cum gratia, & priuilegio Caes. Maiestatis.

The word partes caused the trouble. If translated as "parts," the title would contain no reference whatsoever to Part III, the solo section of the collection; an alternative translation, however, reading partes as "compositions," gives us a reasonably accurate description of Part III:

. . . New Volume, or, Musical Concerts, containing in excellent arrangement twelve compositions for three lutes, with an equal number for two (to which the musical notes have been added).9 To these the author has added some compositions, by himself as well as by others, in excellent style, and has freely brought them from obscurity into the light of day in order to please the music lover....

Fetis apparently was the first who did not check his translation against the actual contents. According to him the volume contains "vingt- quatre morceaux, dont douze pour un luth seul et douze pour deux instruments de cette espece."10 Castan quotes Fetis directly on this,11 as does the Wolffheim catalog.12 La Laurencie, in an article in which he describes the volume, also says at one point that there are 24 compositions; later, however, he says (again incorrectly) that there are more than 50 com-

9 The parenthetical phrase is out of place. Besard is referring to the white mensural notation included in Part I.

10F.-J. Fetis, Biographie universelle des musiciens, 2d ed., I (Paris, 1864), p. 395. In his reference to Vicenzo Bernia, however (op. cit., p. 376), Fetis states correctly that Besard included three of Bernia's compositions in Part III.

11 Auguste Castan, "Note sur Jean-Baptiste Besard de Besangon celebre luthiste," Memoires de la societe d'e6mulation du Doubs, Series 5, I (1876), pp. 25-32.

12 Versteigerung der Musikbibliothek des Herrn Dr. Werner Wolffheim, I (Berlin, 1929), p. 207.

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JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY

positions in Part III alone.13 Eitner is more accurate in his description of all three parts of the collection, although he does say, incorrectly, that Part II contains only five compositions.14 Even in the most recent refer- ences fairly extensive errors may be found: Wolfgang Boetticher is inaccurate with regard to the composers in the collection and the contents of the instructions,15 and similar errors may be found in the first volume of Recueils imprimes (Munich, i960), of RISM.16 On the other hand, Chilesotti, who transcribed a number of the pieces from the collection, was of course familiar with its true contents.17

Part I contains in fact twelve compositions for three lutes, eleven of these including two or three additional parts in white mensural notation; Part II consists of twelve compositions for lute duet; Part III has

35 compositions for solo lute.'8 Each part of the collection seems to have been considered an independent entity, and to have been organized in a reasonably logical progression according to the custom of the period; the compositions are grouped according to type and in a certain order. Part I consists of seven secular and five sacred compositions (see Table I for exact titles). In the secular group, the first work, a Passe'mezo, is so entirely instrumental that parts in white notation are not included.19 Three compositions based on popular songs of the time are followed by three sets of dance variations. The five sacred compositions are of two types: three psalm settings and two simphonias. Part II consists entirely of dances, the first five courantes, the last seven miscellaneous. Part III is like many solo collections of the time. It begins with abstract instrumental compositions, then goes on to dances, and concludes with a miscellaneous group; the closing piece, a passemezo, balances the opening composition.20

13 L. de la Laurencie, "Les luthistes Charles Bocquet, Antoine Francisque et Jean- Baptiste Besard," Revue de Musicologie X (1926), pp. I27f., 132.

14 Robert Eitner, Biographisch-bibliographisches Quellen-Lexikon, II (Leipzig, I900oo), p. 15.

15 Wolfgang Boetticher, "Besardus," MGG, vol. I, cols. I815-19. See footnotes 23 and 25 for details.

16 The listing of composers on p. 462 contains several errors. See footnote 25. 17 Oscar Chilesotti, "Musiciens fran9ais: Jean-Baptiste Besard et les luthistes du xvie siecle," Congres international d'bistoire de la musique. Documents, memoires et voeux, ed. J. Combarieu (Solesmes, I90o), pp. 179-190. See also Sutton, "J. B. Besard's Novus Partus," p. I I2, for a list of the thirteen compositions transcribed by others and available in print.

18 The total figure of 59 includes two groups of branles. Although each group is given one title, each contains four individually-numbered branles, and they have been counted altogether as eight compositions.

19 Besard states with respect to this work, a set of ornate variations on the Romanesca melody and the Passamezzo antico bass, "Musicam uocalem haud hic apposuit author: quia in hoc genera trivialis, et multis passim diuersimode nota" ("The composer has not included vocal music here: because in this style many dif- fering and small note values are used throughout").

20 The last three compositions may, however, have been added to the original collection, since they were given no pagination.

186




As implied in the title, Parts I and II are entirely by Besard, with the possible exception of two compositions which have no given composer.2' Part III contains fifteen compositions by other composers, one marked "Jncerti authoris," six without a composer's name (considered anonymous here), and thirteen by Besard. Of the 59 compositions in the collection, then, there are 35 to which Besard specifically lays claim, a fair majority.22 Aside from Besard, eleven other composers are named in this collection: Marco Antonio Balletz (i),23 Vicenzo Bernia (3), Michel Angelo Galilei (2),24 La Barre (i), La Grotte (i), Laurencinus (i),25 Pietro Paulo Meli (i), Mesangeau (i), Stefano da Pesaro (i),

21 Because of similar omissions in one part or another of the ensemble music, this would seem merely an oversight.

22 If we assume that all of the undesignated compositions in the collection are also by Besard, then his works would total 45. Such an assumption may not be entirely safe, however. In Part III, for instance, several composers are specifically represented by pairs of compositions. If this pairing were applied in some other cases, an "anonymous" composition could also be interpreted as one of a pair by a given composer; thus number 40, Courante du Sieur Samand, is followed by a piece simply called aultre Courante. Stylistically and formally these two courantes are very similar, and have almost identical openings. In each of these cases only one "anonymous" composition follows after one with a given composer.

23 Boetticher, "Besardus," MGG, vol. I, col. i8i6, gives the name incorrectly as Mario Antonio Ballek. In col. i818 he completely misreads the title of the Canzonetta Marco Antonio Balletz fatta sopra il ballo concertato a 3 liuti fol. 12 by saying that in the Novus partus Besard extended the concerting lute ensemble piece further in "Ballets ('fatto [sic] sopra il ballo concertato a 3 liuti')." Boetticher apparently did not see that the Canzonetta is a solo work based on a concerted composition for three lutes in Part I, the Saltus German, which is, as Besard says, on folio 12 (his number- ing). The word "ballet" does not appear in the title; "Balletz" is the composer's name, and "ballo" simply means dance.

24 Son of Vincenzo Galilei. 25 Laurencinus's composition (fol. M4r), is, according to its title, arranged by

Besard for the new lute. Note that Boetticher, op. cit., col. i816, lists all of these composers, except Samand and Galilei, as having been included in the Thesaurus as well as in the Novus partus. Actually only Lorenzinus (Laurencinus in the Novus partus) appears in both collections. The identity of "Jacobi Reys Augustanus" (Thesaurus) with "Jacob il Polloneze" (Novus partus), which Boetticher assumes, is questionable (see fn. 26). The Lachrimae J. Dooland in Part I of the Novus partus has not been ascribed to Dowland here, because his Lachrimae had become common property by the early i7th century, and Besard used only its bass line for his composition.

Even the recent reference to the Novus partus in RISM, Recueils imprimes I (Munich, i960), p. 462, is inaccurate. It reads, "i vol. in-4?, 50 + 12 p. M. A. Ballek, V. Bernia (3), J. B. Besard (25), J. Dowland, M. A. Galilei (2), La Barre, N. de La Grotte, Laurencinus, P. P. Meli, R. Mesangeau, Stefano da Pesaro, J. Reys (2), Samand, Anon." The volume is in folio; the first composer should be Balletz; Besard is responsible for at least 35 works; Dowland can hardly be considered the composer of the Lacbrimae ]. Dooland, as explained above, and especially since Besard indicates that he himself has arranged it for ensemble (see Table i); the compilers of the Inventory have added the "N." to La Grotte and the "R." to Mesangeau (these initials are correct, but do not appear in the Novus partus); and they have sub- stituted "J. Reys" for the "Jacob il Polloneze" of the Novus partus, a matter which has not been established (see below).

187




Samand (i), and Jacob il Polloneze (2).26 We may note in passing that the composers are chiefly Italian and French, reflecting Besard's training; although the collection appeared in Germany, no German composers are represented.

The music is written in standard early-17th-century French lute tablature, and is for a ten-course lute (six fretted courses and four bass courses). The letters extend from "a" (open string) to "n" (twelfth fret, an octave above the open string); the letter "j" is omitted, since "i" and "j" were not differentiated at that time. The bass courses are indicated beneath the staff by modifications of the letter "a" (see Fig. i). Frequent instructions for varying the tuning of the bass courses, e.g., "accordetur x chorus in B fa b mi" ("tune the tenth course [fourth bass course] to BBb") make it clear that Besard was thinking in terms of the standard G tuning, except that his eighth course was normally an Eb instead of Et.

The tablature for all three lutes is the same despite the fact that they are not identical instruments. Besard's "Testudo minor" is the standard lute, but his "Testudo maior" is described as "a palm larger [than the small lute] and lengthened in the neck like the theorbo";27 it is to be tuned a perfect fourth lower than the standard lute, and is therefore a true transposing instrument. Besard's "Nova testudo," which he claims to have invented, is described as a "fairly small size,"28 and is identical with the standard lute in tuning, except that courses III-X are to be tuned one octave above the norm (see Fig. i). This produces a rather peculiar instrument in which the first and second courses are lower than the third and fourth. The three lutes play together in Part I, the small (standard) lute and large lute are paired in Part II, and Part III is for the small lute alone, with the exception of four compositions for the new lute.

Rhythmic signs in the tablature are conventional, except that note- heads are included with the stems; these coincide in value with the white notation in Part I. We may be grateful for an easy solution here, for in

26 "Signor Jacob gia chiamato il Polloneze," as his name reads in the Novus partus, was identified by Eitner with Jacob Reys of Augsburg, in accordance with a statement by Printz (Eitner, Quellen-Lexikon, VIII, 203), but there is no real evidence for this. Opienski states that the question is still open (H. Opienski, La Musique polonaise [Paris, 1918], pp. 48f.), and Zofia Lissa's discussion of Jakub Polak makes no mention of Jacob Reys (Z. Lissa, "La Formation du style national dans la musique instrumentale polonaise de la Renaissance," La Musique instrumentale de la Renais- sance [Paris, 1955], pp. I49-I6I). Nanie Bridgman and Boetticher still identify Jacob Reys with Jacob Polak; they furnish no proof, however (Bridgman and Boetticher, "Jacob Polak," MGG VI, cols. I607-i608). It might be worth pointing out that it would be strange for Besard to have called the same man "Jacobi Reys Augustanus" in the Thesaurus, and "Jacob gia chiamato il Polloneze" in the Novus partus, printed in Augsburg, in which one might certainly have expected him to be identified as "Augustanus" if indeed he was.

27 Novus partus, fol. Cir. The foliation adopted here is based on the printer's folio letters.

28 Loc. cit.

I88



THE MUSIC OF J. B. BESARD'S NOVUS PARTUS, 61I7

Fig. I

a a a a a a a / u // a fl

t ? a

4 ? . CI

:91 ILS

9%~

other respects the compositions in Part I are both the most ambitious and the most problematic, with respect to transcription and performance, of the entire collection. While the three parts in tablature are compara- tively simple to transcribe, and the additional parts in white notation pose no special transcription problems in themselves, the relationships between the two notational systems are somewhat more mysterious. Problems of text-underlay in the psalms, and extreme or unusual dissonances among the parts, contribute to our difficulties with this music.

For purposes of reference in the ensuing discussion, Table 2 lists each composition in Part I, showing for each (i) the number of parts in white notation; (2) the clefs employed; (3) the time signatures; (4) the key signatures; (5) the final chord of the lute parts; (6) the final notes in white notation; and (7) the mode of the composition.

The clefs in the white notation provide one of the more interesting facets of this music, for it is apparent that Besard applied here (and expected others to know and use without explanation from him), the concepts of the chiavi naturali and the chiavette.30 Four clefs appear in Part I: Treble, Soprano, Tenor, and Bass (see Fig. 2).

Fig. 2

30 With reference to the chiavette and to the ensuing discussion of "church" and "chamber" pitches, I have accepted the definitions in Arthur Mendel's excellent series of articles, "Pitch in the i6th and Early i7th Centuries," The Musical Quarterly XXXIV (1948), pp. z28ff., i99ff., 336ff., 575ff.

New Lute

Small Lute

Large Lute

I89



O 0

TABLE I I29

The Compositions in Part I of the Novus partus

Parts In White Time Key Lute White

Title Notation Clefs Sig. Sig. Final Finals Mode

2. Vne Jeune fillette 3. Lachrimae J. Dooland 4. en Revenant de St. Nicolas 5. Ballo del gran Duca 6. La follie saltus Hispanicus

7. Saltus German 8. Miserere mei Deus 9. In exitu Israel

10. Laudate Dominum omnes gentes i i. Simphonia 12. Alia Simphonia eiusdem per triplum

2 S, B 2 Tr, B 2 Tr, Ten 2 Tr, Ten 2 S, B

2 Tr, Ten 2 S, B 3 S, S, B 3 Tr, Tr, B 2 S, B 2 S, B

? (all parts) ?

? 3 (also in

lute part) ?

? t

4 3

bb G g', G [bb] G a', G

F c", c' F c", c'

bb F g', G

F c", c E e", e'

bb C d", d", d F g", g', G C d', d C d", d

29The first composition, the Passemezo (time signature C), has been omitted from the chart since it lacks parts in white notation.

0

t'q

0

z

Dorian Aeolian Ionian Ionian Dorian

Ionian Phrygian Aeolian Mixolydian Dorian Dorian




From the chart we can see that six of the eleven compositions (nos. 2, 6, 8, 9, i , 12) are in the chiavi naturali, or the Soprano and Bass clefs, which were normal for the time; two (nos. 3, io) are in the Treble and Bass clefs, for reasons as yet unclear, this combination not yet having become popular; and three (nos. 4, 5, 7) are in the chiavette, or Treble and Tenor clefs. Coincidence in written pitch with the lute parts occurs in two compositions only (nos. 2,8). The other nine compositions do not coincide in written pitch with the lute music, but fall into two distinct groups in this respect. Five (nos. 6, 9, 10, I, 12) have voice parts written one whole step above the lute parts, while the three compositions in the chiavette (nos. 4, 5, 7) are a perfect fifth higher than the lute parts; the remaining composition (no. 3) poses a unique problem, since the bass part agrees with the lute music, while the soprano is a whole step higher.

Just why the white notation should coincide in written pitch with the lute parts in two compositions but not in the others, is not yet clear.31 There is, however, an excellent explanation for the seemingly mysterious non-coincidence of the five compositions written a whole step higher in the white notation than in the lute parts. This is to be found in the dual concepts of "choir" and "chamber" pitch, as set forth by that famous contemporary of Besard's, Michael Praetorius.32 Praetorius states that, in Catholic cities especially, choir pitch (for voices and organ) sounded a tone lower than chamber pitch (for other instruments), so that a in choir pitch would sound the same as g in chamber pitch. Thus Besard, whose collection was published in Augsburg, a South German city which allowed both Protestant and Catholic faiths full equality from ca. I575-i630, could have been writing for identical pitches in the white notation (choir pitch) and the tablature (chamber pitch) in these five compositions.

The three compositions in the chiavette, all secular, seem to agree completely with Praetorius's explanation for the meaning of the "high" clefs in juxtaposition:

Now although every piece that is written in high clefs, i.e., in which the bass is written in the C clef on the second or third line (counting from the top), or the 9: on the third line . . ., must be transposed when it is put into

31 One of these compositions is secular, the other sacred; one is the only work in the Phrygian mode in Part I, the other, in the Dorian mode on G, is one of two such compositions, of which the other does not coincide in pitch with the tablature (there are two other Dorian compositions on D which also do not coincide with the tablature).

32 Mendel, op. cit., pp. 202-204, gives the original and a translation of the passage from Praetorius's Syntagma Musicum, Tomus Secundus, De Organographia (Wolfen- biittel, 1619), pp. 14-I7. Praetorius's definitions show disagreement with some of his contemporaries, but he is quite clear with regard to the differentiation of pitch according to the purpose or medium of performance. Besard himself says nothing whatever about this matter, which may be taken as further evidence of its general use.

I9I




tablature or score for players of the organ, the lute, and any other founda- tion instruments, as follows: if it has a flat in the signature, down a fourth, cancelling the flat; if it has no flat in the signature, down a fifth, adding a flat, yet in some modes, e.g., Mixolydian, Aeolian, and Hypoionian, when they are transposed down a fifth, the sound produced by the resulting low pitches is dull and poor. Hence it is much better, and the singing becomes much fresher and more spirited to listen to, when these modes are transposed down a fourth, ex duro in durum.33 If we transpose the white notation of these three compositions (see Ex. I

for one of them), none of which have a flat in the signature, and all of which are in the Ionian mode, down a fifth, they will coincide with the lute parts. This would seem to solve the problem of Besard's use of the chiavette (it is also worth noting that these are the only compositions in

Ex. i

en Revenant de Saint Nicolas 1. B. B.

Superius

Bassus

br F r r r r TT p

Nf FrJ r rT fI r r F

-kI. I r r r mr r r

i r A r r r r r

P T

r- :5rf G p '

p r C (Lute finals are on f)

r Mendel r it, 347 83 Mendel, op. cit., p. 347.

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this section that are in the Ionian mode). If we check the clearly recognizable melodies of these three compositions further, however, we find that they actually employ the Hypoionian range. Using Praetorius's suggestion for the Hypoionian mode here, then (transposing down a fourth rather than a fifth), would give us three more compositions in choir pitch to add to the five clearly notated in that manner; thus we would have a total of eight out of eleven compositions with the white notation in choir pitch and the tablature in chamber pitch. Whichever interval of transposition we choose in this case, however, whether the fourth or the fifth, the end result is the same, and it is quite clear that Besard expected those who used his book to recognize and employ correctly the chiavette.

The unique problem of the Lachrimae J. Dooland (no. 3) still remains. Its Superius, in the Aeolian mode on a, is in complete disagreement with its Bassus, in the Aeolian mode on g (which coincides with the tablature):

Ex.2

Lachrimae 1. Dooland I1. B. B.... accommodatae.

Superius '

r' J

Bassus 7 ^ r r r r ? 0

There are several possible explanations for this peculiarity: one might suppose that Besard copied, or had someone copy, the Superius and Bassus from different sources; or that he or his printer somehow transposed one part and not the other; or that the source from which both parts were copied used choir pitch for a solo voice and chamber pitch for an accompanying bass instrument; or that Besard himself intended the Superius to be sung, and therefore deliberately wrote it in choir pitch, but wanted the Bassus played, thus writing it in chamber pitch. None of these explanations seems more reasonable than the others, nor do they coincide with Besard's own statement that the white notation was for instruments or voices, ad libitum. We are left, regretfully, with an unsolved albeit unimportant mystery.35

The exact concert pitch for which these compositions were written

84 Novus partus, fol. C'. 35 It should be pointed out that a signature of one flat is missing in the Bassus.

Without it we would have the Bassus in the Mixolydian instead of the Aeolian mode; but since otherwise Besard's bass bears close resemblance to the original in Dow- land's Second Book of Songs or Airs (London, i6oo), we are justified in assuming that the flat should be supplied.

I93




cannot be given precisely. It is quite clear that Besard must have had some sort of absolute pitch in mind; otherwise he would not have felt it necessary to use the chiavette, or choir and chamber pitches. According to Professor Mendel, "From the compasses he [Praetorius] gives for the voices and his remarks about the modes we conclude that his chamber pitch was . . . about a minor third higher than a1 =- 440."36 Our chief authority on this matter must be Besard himself, however, and he is no help. In his instructions for tuning the new lute he uses the words "re- quired pitch," but does not offer any definition of the term.37 In transcrib- ing this music, it seems advisable, then, simply to follow a tuning based on the modern concert G.

The only compositions in the entire volume for which texts are pro- vided are the three psalms in Part I. Here the Latin incipits are given for every other line of the psalms Miserere mei Deus and In Exitu Israel,38 and for each line of the brief psalm Laudate Dominum.39 The words do not appear consistently in all parts, however; they are omitted from the large lute and from the voice parts of In Exitu and Laudate Dominum because these parts give short cantus firmi which are intended to be repeated as often as necessary to different texts.40 The new and small lutes, on the other hand, are given new music with every change of text, and thus require the incipits. The incipits appear at the beginning of every other phrase in the music (the phrases being marked by double bars in the tablature and by fermatas over the cadence points in both tablature and white notation). It is possible that the Miserere and In Exitu represent the alternatim style of performance,41 but the short Laudate Dominum may have been performed in a straightforward manner. On the other hand, since in all three psalms there are two phrases

36 Mendel, op. cit., p. 220. 37 Novus partus, fol. Ci r. 38 A comparison of the texts with those in the Liber Usualis reveals that the texts

begin with the second lines of the psalms. The alternation of verses is regular in Miserere, irregular in In Exitu, perhaps indicating some difference in recitation practice.

39 The Laudate Dominum is a series of variations on the Passamezzo moderno bass. No further sources for the mensurally notated parts of the psalm settings have been found; there is no doubt, however, that the lute music is based upon these parts as cantus firmi in exactly the same manner as the settings of Vne Jeune fillette or en Revenant de Saint Nicolas.

40 The instructions for the large lute part in the first section of In exitu Israel, for example, state, "Haec pars maioris Testudinis inseruiat vnicuique superiorum ver- siculorum: et sic subsequenter" ("This large lute part will serve each of the above verses, and so on," i.e., the same instructions apply in the following sections).

41 Cf. M. Bukofzer, Music in the Baroque Era (New York, 1947), p. 48: "Through- out the baroque period the organ alternated with the choir in the so-called alternatim practice which assigned to the organ an important liturgical function."

Although instrumental ensemble pieces entitled Miserere were common at this time, especially in England, where they were similar to the In Nomines (Reese, Music in the Renaissance [New York, 1954], p. 869), the treatment here shows that this Miserere is in the same category as the other two psalms.

194




of music for each text incipit, we may speculate that the two phrases represent the two halves of a single psalm line.

The 59 compositions in the Novus partus fall into characteristic groupings for this period: dances (either simple or elaborately stylized), other instrumental types such as toccatas, and compositions based directly on vocal cantus firmi. Forty of the 59 compositions are dances: thirteen courantes, nine branles, four voltas, three ballets, three gagliardas, two passemezos, two canarias, one Bergamasco, and the Ballo del gran Duca, La follie saltus Hispanicus, and Saltus German. All but the last three are for solo lute or lute duet. Among the dances in triple meter, which predominate in the collection, the courantes are of the Italian corrente type, despite their French titles-cheerful in mood, in simple triple meter with little or no hemiola, and written basically in two-voiced texture; the voltas and canarias, in which dotted rhythmic motives are common, are similar to the courantes, but even simpler harmonically; the gagliardas, deriving from an older dance idiom, are more elaborate, are in 6/4 rather than 3/4 meter, and contain frequent hemiola passages. Of the dances in duple meter, the branles are the simplest, and are usually made up of a melody of small range over a broken drone bass; the ballets are of the balletto type.42 The canarias, the passemezos, the Bergamasco, and La follie saltus Hispanicus are all variations on standard cantus firmi long in use, and of these the passemezos are the most highly stylized. The high proportion of dances in the collection is of course to be expected in an instrumental volume of this period; there is however no grouping of dances either by key or by pairing (i.e., slow-fast) that might suggest the suite.

Thirteen instrumental compositions have no dance affinities. There are three simphonias, three toccatas, two praeambulums, two ricercars, a canzonetta, and two programmatic works-Gallus et Gallina (The Cock and the Hen) and Campanae Parisiensis (Bells of Paris). This again is typical of the early i7th century. The solo simphonia (no. 57) and two toccatas (nos. 27 and 28) illustrate an idiomatic instrumental style, while the other compositions are representative of a contrapuntal and imitative strain, inherited from the Renaissance, that ran throughout the i7th century and was to reach another peak in the high Baroque. The ensemble simphonias (nos. i i and 12) do not differ in style from the other ensemble pieces.

The remaining six compositions are all based on double or triple cantus firmi. They include the three secular songs and three psalm settings for Besard's large ensemble, and are similar to the other composi-

42 See the brief description of the balletto in W. Apel, Harvard Dictionary of Music (Cambridge, Mass., 1944), p. 72

195



196 JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MUSICOLOGICAL SOCIETY

tions in Part I. With their continual exchange of ornate diminutions between the two upper lutes, their slower-moving basses, and their cantus

firmi, they represent the German (and English) concerted style as con- ceived by Besard. Two of the secular songs, en Revenant de Saint Nicolas and Vne Jeune fillette, had long histories prior to the I7th century; the third (Lachrimae J. Dooland) had become international property within a few years of its composition. As mentioned above (fn. 39), the sources for the vocal parts of the psalms have not been traced, except for the bass of Laudate Dominum.

The collection as a whole shows a number of stylistic characteristics which mark it as a product of the early 17th century. We may mention here the highly ornamental melodic lines and the obviously idiomatic instrumental techniques, including style brise and freedom in the number of voices (two-voiced writing is standard, whether for solo lute or for each lute in the ensembles, but inner voices enter and leave freely). Free use of parallel octaves and fifths, and octave displacement in voice leading are also quite common. Except for avowedly imitative pieces such as the ricercari there is an absence of true counterpoint or of imitative techniques, and an emphasis instead on the two outer voices. What often looks like counterpoint is really free ornamentation (diminutions) around a melody or over a bass steady in its rhythmic patterns and clear in its harmonic implications.

This ornamental style permits Besard considerable freedom in the treatment of dissonances, especially in the large ensemble pieces (see Ex. 3). In fact, the increase of dissonance seems to be directly propor- tional to a large increase of instrumental resources, for the twelve dances for lute duet do not demonstrate the dissonant style to any ap- preciable degree, and there is little to differentiate them from the simpler dance music for solo lute.43 We know that the adaptation of vocal gorgia and free experimentation with dissonance were common in early concerted music, especially for lutes,44 yet the nature of Besard's dissonances is such that some scholars cannot justify them even in the light of this knowledge.45 Andre Souris has for example recently suggested that the

43 This discussion is concerned with exceptional dissonances, such as parallel sevenths or polychords, which cannot be explained either by the application of musica ficta to the white notation or as standard dissonance patterns.

44 Cf. the discussion on dissonances in lute ensemble music in "Lute Music," International Musicological Society: Report of the Eighth Congress, New York, 1961, ed. J. LaRue, vol. II (Kassel, I962), pp. 73-75. This author agrees with the panel members that many dissonances can be "explained melodically or as orna- ments," but feels also that Professor Goldschmidt was right in warning that, "although mistakes are more difficult to recognize in this style of writing, they of course occur."

45 Oscar Chilesotti, ed., Lautenspieler des XVI. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig, I891), p. xii, believes they are due to printer's errors. On the other hand, Robert Eitner, "Anzeigen musikhistorischer Werke," Monatshefte fur Musikgeschichte XXIV (I892), p. 30, is highly critical of Besard as a composer for ensemble.




presence of real polychords, or unequal numbers of measures in the parts, requires serious consideration of a method of performance which would alternate the instruments to avoid cacophony.46

Such a suggestion, however, directly violates the intention of both Besard and his publisher, who specify simultaneous performance.47 Fur- thermore, one composition for two lutes in the Novus partus, the Ballet in forma echo, is very specifically marked to be played in alternation;48 such instructions would have been unnecessary if alternation were a normal practice. Finally, the structure of the compositions denies Souris's suggestion: the large lute could not possibly be considered a solo instrument, for it simply strums chords and provides the bass line; and for the two melody instruments-the small lute and the new lute-Besard has actually written in some alternation,49 so that any further alternation of the parts would be redundant.

In searching for a solution to the problem posed by these sharp dissonances, the possibility of serious typographical errors must not be dis- counted.50 Obvious errors are to be found in the solo music,51 and these would naturally be compounded in the ensemble music. Nor is the qual- ity of Besard's own writing for solo lute of such a high standard of ex- cellence as to preclude the possibility of poor compositional technique in

46 Precis of a meeting of the Societe Belge de Musicologie, Revue Beige de Musicologie XIII (1959), p. 151. 47 Besard, Novus partus, title page. On fol. A3r Besard says, "These concerted pieces . . . are given this title because, just as other composers often add new courses or voices to the lute, so I introduce here not just a solo instrument, but several lutes playing together, tuned in a new way. The voices of each composition are so elaborately and skillfully arranged, one entering first, then two coming together and then separating, and then all sounding at once, as if contesting in a palestra, mean- while joined in such wonderful union, that they produce a harmony beautiful to ears and mind" (italics mine).

Besard's publisher, Stephan Michelspacher, also refers to the concerted style (ibid., fol. B4v): "You will find that the work is so conveniently and neatly arranged that three men (playing on three differently-tuned lutes), and in addition two or occasionally three singers, may all perform from the same book at once."

48 The full title may be translated as follows: "Ballet in echo form, which should be played entirely through to the end in the ordinary way the first time, and then in the repetition the parts that you see marked off should be played one after the other, the lower part following the upper." 49 E.g., In exitu Israel, where the two instruments exchange not only roles (rhythmic or melodic patterns giving one or the other dominance), but actual notes as well, in a fairly complicated but nonetheless obvious manner; thus the parts for "non nobis" are simply reversed for "Deus autem."

50 The hand-cut wood-block form of printing, of which the Novus partus is a late representative, makes correcting difficult, and there is no evidence of any corrections having been made in the entire volume. Some errors in the ensemble music, such as when Besard has forgotten the transposition of the large lute, or his copyist has misplaced some measures, are easily identified, but the dissonances in Ex. 3 illustrate some of the more insoluble puzzles of this music.

51 One case is the Gagliarda "del Signor Pietro Paulo Meli musico Cesareo' in the Novus partus; it is the same as Meli's Gagliarda detta la Rossa in his Intavolatura di liuto attiorbato, Vol. II (Venice, I614), but is replete with errors in Besard's print.

197




ere mei Deus. Psalm. I. B. B.

r 9

n j i ' 1o v - - r 7 F

r ' j 'r-

1P r -r

* r r

V I III I

~ .~ -; ,, -^ , . .. .- - -

.^^r J * r r^ ?

F r r r r F 5crJ r r [s

r r r r ,

198

Ex.3

Miser

N.L.

S.L.

L.L.

Sup.

Bass.




III I II IIIIV - III - IVIII o I -

the relatively new idiom of ensemble music. While it may be that some unusual dissonances were intended by Besard, we may well be forced to conclude that a combination of serious typographical errors and poor writing renders some of these works unplayable.

The most consistent characteristic of the Novus partus is the use of variation techniques.52 Forty-four of the 59 compositions have been found either to be clear variation forms or to employ the variation principle at some point (3 of the 40 dances, all of the song settings, and seven of the thirteen instrumental compositions). Twenty-nine of these pieces are by Besard, a high percentage of the 35 compositions known to be his in the collection. Furthermore, 21 of the 24 compositions for ensemble make use of variation, a proportion so high as to indicate that Besard considered the variation form standard for ensemble music.

The techniques of variation may be divided into three major classi- fications: first, and most frequent (seventeen pieces), the double, where normally the melody is varied by diminutions in the repetition of each section; second (eleven compositions), pieces recognizable as sets of variations, chiefly melodic, either on a ground or on a fixed melody and bass (e.g., the passamezos, or Vne Jeune fillette); third (five composi-

52 Bukofzer, op. cit., p. 352: "Variation appears so consistently as an element of baroque music that the whole era may justly be called one of variation."

199




tions), the monothematic continuous variations (the Canzonetta), in which a short motive runs throughout the piece. The first type is representative of French variation techniques, the second was known every- where, and the third shows Italian influence.

There is naturally some overlapping of variation techniques; thus the double technique is employed within each variation of Vne Jeune fillette, and the Alia simphonia consists of three movements, each of which is a separate set of variations. There are, in addition, certain oddities, such as the Branle quondam Laurencini nuncupatim, nunc vero a I. B. B. ad vsum nouae suae Testudinis accommodatu, which may be a variation on a branle by Laurencinus, and is in itself a double form.

The double as found in Besard derives directly from the simple two- part form typical of the dances of the period. In the Novus partus, nine of the 4o dances are in this simple form, but fifteen are in double form (AA'BB'). Eight dances are variations of this double form, such as AA'B, or AA'BB'C. The only dances, in fact, that are not two-part or double forms are those which are variations on ostinati (the passamezos, canarias, and the Bergamasco), the folia variations (La follie saltus Hispanicus), and the Saltus German; since the latter, however, could best be described as two variations on a double cantus firmus, itself in a rounded binary form (II:A :11: B A' :11), it is not strictly outside the category of the two- part form. The double principle is, finally, used in two song settings, en Revenant de Saint Nicolas and Lachrimae J. Dooland.

Of the eleven compositions in the Novus partus consisting of sets of variations on a bass, or on a double cantus firmus (which remains un- changed itself), or on a harmonic pattern, it is worth noting that seven of this group are based on cantus firmi of long history and international fame (see fn. 55 for details of the history of one). None of these sets of variations consist of a theme first stated simply and then followed by variations; all vary or ornament the theme or themes from the start. Seven of this group are for large ensemble; perhaps this type of composition was considered more ambitious than the others. The variations are the following: 53

1. *Passemezo (no. I): three 32-measure variations on the Romanesca melody and the Passamezzo antico bass (one note of the c.f. to every four measures).

2. Passemezo (no. 59): two i6-measure variations on the Passamezzo moderno (one note of the c.f. every two measures).

3. Canarias (no. 19): seven 8-measure variations on the Passamezzo moderno.

4. Canaria (no. 56): four 14-measure variations on I-V-I.

58 Starred compositions on this list are from Part I of the Novus partus, for three lutes and two other instruments or voices (the Passemezo, however, is for three lutes only).

200




5. Bergamasco (no. 31): twelve 4-measure variations on I-IV-V-I-I-IV- V-I.54

6. * Une Jeune fillette (no. 2): three 24-measure variations on a double

c.f.55 7.

* La follie saltus Hispanicus (no. 6): four i6-measure variations on a double c.f.56

54 This Bergamasco coincides exactly with the definition of Thurston Dart, "Bergamasca," Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed., ed. Eric Blom, vol. I, p. 640. Although Erich Valentin, "Bergamasca," MGG, vol. I, cols. I685-87, does not see the Bergamasca as a bass variation type, Besard's variations here and in the Thesaurus (Book V), and several others I have encountered (Klavierbuch der Jungfrau Regina Clara Im Hoff, Vienna MS I8491 [I629], fol. 2r; Fuhrmann, Testudo Gallo-Germanica [ix6S], p. i82; Bernardo Gianoncelli "detto il Bernadell," II liuto, I650, reprinted in 0. Chilesotti, ed., Lautenspieler des XVI. Jahrhunderts [i891], p. 232) definitely contradict him. Both of Besard's Bergamasca settings also maintain very strong rhythmic patterns.

55 The history of Une jeune Fillette, one of the most famous migratory tunes of the i6th century, is extensive, and will be summarized here as a typical example of the histories of the well-known tunes or basses in this collection. According to John Ward, "Music for A Handefull of pleasant delites," this JOURNAL X (1957), p. 175, it was known in England as "The Queen's Almaine," in Italy as the "Aria della Monicha," in Germany as "Ich ging einmal spazieren," and in the Low Countries under various names. It was also known in France as "Almande Nonette," under which title it appeared in Phalese's Luculentum theatrum musicum [Louvain, 1568], and, according to Mr. Ward, this is its earliest datable appearance. Professor Ward may not have known, however, that J.-B. Weckerlin, in L'ancienne chanson populaire en France (16' et 177 siecle) (Paris, I887), p. 464, gives the full text of Une jeune Fil- lette as taken from the Recueil de plusieurs chansons divise en trois parties: en la premiere sont les chansons musicales; en la seconde les chansons amoureuses et rustiques; et en la tierce les chansons de la guerre. Reveu et amplifie de nouveau (Lyons, Rigaud and Saugrain, 1557); although Weckerlin's reference gives no hint as to whether the music was included with the text, we should note that his source was specified as a second edition. The tune's sacred history is almost as extensive as its secular: Tiersot, Histoire de la chanson populaire en France (Paris, I889), p. 247, states that Lucas le Moigne's noel, "Une jeune Pucelle," from his collection printed in 1520, "est une adaptation a la fois litteraire et musicale de la chanson. ..."; if this is true, then the tune may go back at least to 1520. The noel "Je crois Vierge Marie"was also set to this melody. In Germany the famous chorale "Von Gott will ich nicht lassen" first appeared to this melody in 1593 in the Dresdner Gesangbuch of Joachim von Magdeburg (see Carl von Winterfeld, Der evangelische Kirchengesang, I [Leipzig, 1843], pp. 420-424), in which form it remains part of the current chorale repertoire; also in the same collection is a New Year's song by Paul Ebers, "Helf mir Gott's Giite preisen," set to this tune.

Besard attested to the melody's great popularity by making three settings of it: in the Thesaurus, "Allemande une jeune fillette" (transcribed by Chilesotti, Lauten- spieler, pp. 200-202) and "Ma belle si ton ame," an air de cour (fol. 73), and in the Novus partus the setting described here. In this arrangement the large lute part remains the same through all three variations (as do the voice parts with the cantus firmus), and the new lute and small lute simply exchange parts in Variations 2 and 3. Each variation is in itself a double form (AA' BB') in the lute parts.

56 The folia has been studied extensively; a thorough exposition of its long history is to be found in John Ward's article, "The Folia," Kongressbericht Internationale Gesellschaft fur Musikwissenschaft, Utrecht, 1952, (Amsterdam, 1953), pp. 415-422, in which he summarizes the work of other scholars such as Otto Gombosi, as well as his own findings. In the Novus partus setting there is no part for the large lute in the fourth variation. As in the other two settings of non-stylized dances for large en-

201




8. * Saltus German (no. 7): two i6-measure variations on a bipartite melody and bass.

9. * In exitu Israel (no. 9): three separate movements, each consisting of four variations.

10. * Laudate Dominum (no. IO): four I I-measure variations on the Passamezzo moderno.

II. * Alia Simphonia (no. 12): three separate movements, the first two containing three variations, the third having two variations.57

Five compositions fall into the category of the continuous variation. Three of these may be classified as monothematic ricercars (Toccata cromatica, no. 29; Ricercar . . . sopra ut re mi fa sol la, no. 30; Canzon- etta, no. 51). The other two are programmatic compositions: Gallus et Gallina, no. 52, and Campanae Parisiensis, no. 53, which is through- composed on one varied motive.

Only seven pieces (nos. 8, I, 25, 27, 28, 31, 56) are purely through- composed. All of them are sectional in the sense that they are either based on successive themes or motives, or are divided by decisive cadences. Six are for instruments alone.

All forms, it must be emphasized, are typically short. The most ambitious compositions are barely over ioo measures long, while most pieces, whatever their type, are under 60 measures in length.

The question of modality versus tonality is always of interest in the music of the early Baroque, for usually evidence is to be found of the transition from one to the other.58 In the Novus partus, 26 compositions are definitely modal, 6 are in minor keys (which might be considered modal, but which consistently employ tonal alterations), 23 are definitely in major keys, and 4 seem to be ambivalent in nature. Breaking these figures down according to types is revealing; it shows us what would be expected-that the dances tend to be tonal rather than modal (24 compared to 13), while most of the more serious instrumental works and the cantus firmus pieces are modal (all of the six compositions in minor are dances, but the significance of this is not clear). The tonal compositions might more properly be called pre-tonal, since they ex- hibit only a moderate degree of functionalism in their harmonies, with the exception of those pieces based on I-V-I and I-IV-V-I patterns.

semble, Ballo del gran Duca and Saltus German, there is an absence of sixteenth notes in the passages in diminutions, which may suggest that these dances were meant to be played at a faster tempo than, for example, the stylized Passemezo.

67 The new lute and small lute exchange parts (with some alterations) from the first to the second variation, and the small lute plays sixteenth notes in the third variation as a form of rhythmic climax. The music for the large lute is the same for all three variations.

58 See Edward E. Lowinsky, "Awareness of Tonality in the i6th Century," I. M. S.: Report of the Eighth Congress, New York, 1961; vol. I (Kassel, 196I), pp. 44-52, for a review of the development of tonality prior to Besard's time.

202



THE MUSIC OF J. B. BESARDIS NOVUS PARTUS, I6I7

Even in the modal pieces, however, all final cadences are authentic, and all final chords, whether in tonal or modal works, are either major or open. Modulations are to closely-related keys, and the modal compositions frequently employ musica ficta or other alterations in the direction of major-minor tonality. Among the dances, all the ballets, both canarias, and three of four voltas are major; the other dance types represented by more than one composition do not adhere to tonality or modality according to any particular pattern. For all types of modal compositions, the Dorian and Aeolian modes are, as would be expected, the most popular (there are only two Mixolydian and two Phrygian compositions).

Key centers in the Novus partus, whether modal or tonal, are pri- marily on G (i8 pieces), C (i5), and F (13); this reflects not only the most common keys of the period, but the facts that the lower three fretted courses of the lute were G, c, and f, and that the additional, un- fretted, bass courses extended downwards from F to C, so that the most common chord roots in these three keys (except for the Bb) were available in the lower register on open strings. Furthermore, the frequent instructions to tune the tenth course to BBb filled the need for this chord root. Besides the music in the most popular keys, there are also five pieces in D, three in Eb, two in E, two in Bb, and one in A.

Although the Novus partus contains only a fraction of the number of compositions in the Thesaurus (59 as compared with 403), a comparison of these collections, published fourteen years apart, reveals elements of continuity as well as changes that took place in early-Baroque instrumental music. Madrigal and villanella intabulations, which make up one book of the Thesaurus, are missing in the Novus partus; so are the fantasias, the allemandes, and the choreas, all but the last of which are also heavily represented in the earlier collection. The toccatas and ricercars of the Novus partus, however, closely approximate the fantasia-types of the Thesaurus,59 and since no pieces called toccata or ricercare are in the earlier collection, may be considered as replacements for the fantasias. Of the types that appear in both volumes, the proportions in some cases differ quite radically. Whereas in the Thesaurus the galliardas form the largest single group (51 out of 403), in the Novus partus they comprise one of the smaller groups (3 out of 59). Voltas have decreased in importance also (35 in the Thesaurus compared to 4 in the Novus partus). As is to be expected, courantes have increased in importance, as have branles and canarias. There is one Bergamasco in each collection. While this, and some of the other contents of each collection are undoubtedly there by chance, the general increase in popularity of the courante and branle, and the decrease in popularity of the gagliarda and volta are clearly reflected in the Novus partus. It is, nevertheless, remarkable how similar in contents the two collections are, despite their tremendous

69 Garton, op. cit., p. I6.

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difference in size and the fourteen years that separate them. The most marked difference appears in the instrumentation: of the huge number of works in the Thesaurus we find only three compositions for lute ensemble, while more than one-third of the Novus partus is devoted to ensemble music. Clearly, concerted music was the modern trend of the time.

To sum up, the Novus partus seems representative of the period in its idiomatic instrumental style, its variety of types, its emphasis on simple variation forms or popular ostinati, and its organization. It is also truly international in character; French, German, English, and Italian influ- ences are present. While the preponderance of dances is a heritage of the instrumental music of the Renaissance, it is also a portent of the popularity the suite was to enjoy. The inclusion of many other types of lute music illustrates the encyclopedic tendencies of the period, present also in Besard's Thesaurus as well as in his medical book. It is much to be regretted that Besard's abilities as a composer and his care as a proof- reader seem not to have been commensurate with his ambition. Neverthe- less, some of the music has real charm, and the lute instructions are of considerable importance. Even upon close examination, therefore, the collection remains a valuable source for this transitional period in the development of instrumental music.

Queens College of the City University of New York

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The Music of J. B. Besard's "Novus Partus", 1617

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