The long road to recovery: Community responses to...
19
The long road to recovery: Community responses to industrial disaster Note to the reader from the UNU This hook is an outcome of a research project on "Community Responses to Industrial lazards" carried out under the Environment Programme of the United Nations University. "1 he project was initiated with a conference of the same title held in Minamata, Japan, in November 1992. The main objectives of the project were to study cases where societal disruption has been caused by serious environmental pollution, and to exchange information and lessons concerning the community recovery process following such disasters. The explicit concern was to learn from these experiences so as to avoid similar unfortunate episodes in the future and, where they cannot he avoided, to facilitate community rehabilitation. The seven case-studies selected cover a variety of geographical locations in both industrialized and developing countries. The hazards analysed fall into the category of disaster "surprises," and range from industrial accidents to those caused by war. The book focuses on the relatively neglected issue of long-term recovery from industrial disasters. It calls for a new system for conceptualizing and managing industrial hazards and disasters. Edited by James K. Mitchell r ip, United Nations University Press TOKYO • NEW YORK • PARIS C“'t
Transcript of The long road to recovery: Community responses to...
The
long
road
to
reco
very
: C
omm
unity
re
spon
ses t
o in
dust
rial d
isas
ter
Not
e to
the
read
er fr
om th
e U
NU
Th
is h
oo
k i
s an
ou
tcom
e of
a re
sear
ch p
roje
ct o
n "
Co
mm
unit
y R
esponse
s to
In
dust
rial
laz
ards
" ca
rrie
d ou
t un
der
the
Env
iron
men
t P
rogr
amm
e of
the
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Uni
vers
ity.
"1 h
e pr
ojec
t was
init
iate
d w
ith
a co
nfer
ence
of
the
sam
e ti
tle
held
in
Min
amat
a, J
apan
, in
Nov
embe
r 19
92. T
he m
ain
obje
ctiv
es o
f th
e pr
ojec
t wer
e to
st
udy
case
s w
here
soc
ieta
l di
srup
tion
has
bee
n ca
used
by
seri
ous
envi
ronm
enta
l po
llut
ion,
and
to
exch
ange
inf
orm
atio
n an
d le
sson
s co
ncer
ning
the
com
mun
ity
reco
very
pro
cess
fol
low
ing
such
dis
aste
rs. T
he e
xpli
cit
conc
ern
was
to
lear
n fr
om
thes
e ex
peri
ence
s so
as
to a
void
sim
ilar
unf
ortu
nate
epi
sode
s in
the
fut
ure
and,
w
here
they
can
not h
e av
oide
d, to
fac
ilit
ate
com
mun
ity
reha
bili
tati
on.
The
sev
en c
ase-
stud
ies
sele
cted
cov
er a
var
iety
of
geog
raph
ical
loca
tion
s in
bot
h in
dust
rial
ized
and
dev
elop
ing
coun
trie
s. T
he h
azar
ds a
naly
sed
fall
into
the
cate
gory
of
dis
aste
r "s
urpr
ises
," a
nd r
ange
fro
m i
ndus
tria
l ac
cide
nts
to t
hose
cau
sed
by w
ar.
The
boo
k fo
cuse
s on
the
rel
ativ
ely
negl
ecte
d is
sue
of l
ong-
term
rec
over
y fr
om
indu
stri
al d
isas
ters
. It
call
s fo
r a
new
sys
tem
for
con
cept
uali
zing
and
man
agin
g in
dust
rial
haz
ards
and
dis
aste
rs.
Edite
d by
Jam
es K
. Mitc
hell
r ip, U
nite
d Na
tions
Un
iver
sity
Pre
ss
TOK
YO
• N
EW Y
OR
K •
PAR
IS
C“'t
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
Iran
ian
reco
very
from
in
dust
rial d
evas
tatio
n du
ring
war
with
Iraq
H
oosh
ang
Am
irah
mad
i
Intr
oduc
tion
Mai
nstre
am li
tera
ture
abo
ut in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
har
dly
reco
gniz
es th
e re
leva
nce
of w
ar. Y
et w
ar is
a m
ajor
des
troye
r of i
ndus
trial
faci
litie
s.
Ong
oing
war
s in
the
form
er Y
ugos
lavi
a an
d th
e fo
rmer
USS
R n
ot
only
hav
e ki
lled
tens
of t
hous
ands
of p
eopl
e bu
t als
o ha
ve d
estro
yed
impo
rtant
indu
stria
l pla
nts
in p
lace
s su
ch a
s Sa
raje
vo, G
rozn
yy, a
nd
Sukh
umi -
with
far-
reac
hing
con
sequ
ence
s fo
r the
eco
nom
ic s
ur-
viva
l of t
hose
citi
es. T
he P
ersi
an G
ulf W
ar o
f 199
0-19
91 d
evas
tate
d th
e in
dust
rial
bas
es o
f Ir
aq a
nd K
uwai
t, ca
used
sub
stan
tial h
arm
to
hum
ans,
and
dam
aged
the
natu
ral e
nvir
onm
ent (
El-
Baz
and
M
akha
rita
1994
). O
bvio
usly
, war
may
trig
ger t
he sa
me
kind
s of i
ndus
-tri
al d
isas
ters
that
occ
ur d
urin
g pe
acet
ime
(e.g
. fire
s, e
xplo
sion
s). I
t ca
n al
so a
dd s
ome
new
dim
ensi
ons
to in
dust
rial
dis
aste
rs (e
.g. s
ys-
tem
atic
, del
iber
ate,
and
repe
ated
des
truc
tion
of th
e sa
me
faci
litie
s;
cont
amin
atio
n of
indu
stria
l pla
nts
by c
hem
ical
wea
pons
). Fi
nally
, the
in
flue
nce
of w
ar o
n in
dust
rial
dis
aste
rs m
ay b
e in
dire
ct, a
s in
the
thre
at o
f pol
lutio
n fr
om w
eapo
ns-m
anuf
actu
ring
pla
nts,
wea
pon-
test
ing
site
s, a
nd w
eapo
ns d
umps
(Sto
ckho
lm In
tern
atio
nal P
eace
R
esea
rch
Inst
itute
[SIP
RIJ
197
7, 1
980)
. W
ar is
a m
ore
com
plex
and
per
vasi
ve p
heno
men
on th
an in
dust
rial
disa
ster
, so
plan
ning
for -
and
reco
veri
ng fr
om -
war
-rel
ated
indu
s-tri
al d
isas
ters
is li
kely
to b
e a
com
plic
ated
bus
ines
s. E
xpla
natio
ns o
f
the
orig
ins
of th
e w
ar to
uch
on m
any
diff
eren
t dee
p-se
ated
and
wid
e-ra
ngin
g at
trib
utes
of s
ocie
ty. W
ars
them
selv
es a
re re
petit
ive
phe-
nom
ena
but e
very
war
is u
niqu
e. W
ars
are
also
sem
i-con
tinuo
us a
nd
mor
e or
les
s al
l-em
brac
ing.
C—
pare
d w
ith c
onve
ntio
nal i
ndus
tria
l ha
zard
s, th
e pe
riod
of a
ctiv
e th
reat
is u
sual
ly p
rolo
nged
dur
ing
war
s an
d a
larg
er p
ropo
rtio
n of
the
citiz
enry
are
aff
ecte
d. B
ecau
se w
ars
leav
e a
mor
e co
mpl
ex a
nd p
erva
sive
impr
int o
n so
ciet
y, th
ey m
ake
post
-war
reco
nstru
ctio
n m
ore
chal
leng
ing
than
rest
orat
ion
in th
e w
ake
of in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
. Th
e ch
angi
ng n
atur
e of
con
tem
pora
ry w
ar s
igna
ls a
pos
sibi
lity
of
mor
e w
ar-r
elat
ed in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
in th
e fu
ture
as
wel
l as
a w
ider
ra
nge
of o
ther
thre
ats
to th
e en
viro
nmen
t and
hum
an h
ealth
(Win
ne-
feld
and
Mor
ris 1
994)
. Thi
s is
an
outc
ome
of tr
ends
in th
ree
fact
ors
--th
e te
chni
cal s
ophi
stic
atio
n of
wea
ponr
y, th
e st
rate
gic
logi
c of
tar-
getin
g a
natio
n's
indu
stria
l cap
acity
dur
ing
war
, and
the
incr
easi
ngly
re
gion
al n
atur
e of
con
flic
t. A
dvan
ces
in w
ar-m
akin
g te
chno
logi
es
such
as
met
hods
of s
urve
illan
ce, p
reci
sion
-gui
ded
shor
t-ra
nge
mis
-si
les,
che
mic
al a
nd b
iolo
gica
l war
fare
, hel
icop
ters
, and
all-
wea
ther
an
d ni
ght v
isio
n sy
stem
s, a
mon
g ot
hers
, ens
ure
incr
ease
d de
stru
ctiv
e ca
pabi
litie
s. A
nat
ion'
s in
dust
rial
cap
acity
and
ass
ocia
ted
civi
lian
popu
latio
ns a
re in
crea
sing
ly fa
vour
ed ta
rget
s be
caus
e th
ey g
ener
ate
inco
me
and
mat
eria
ls n
eede
d to
mai
ntai
n th
e w
ar e
ffor
t. R
egio
nal
conf
lict i
s un
ques
tiona
bly
on th
e ri
se (e
.g. B
osni
a, A
rmen
ia, A
zer-
baija
n, S
omal
ia, A
fgha
nist
an, R
wan
da, P
hilip
pine
s, S
ri La
nka)
. Dur
-in
g su
ch c
onfli
cts,
dam
age
is u
sual
ly re
stric
ted
to s
mal
l are
as, w
hich
su
stai
n re
peat
ed a
ttack
s an
d di
spro
porti
onat
ely
heav
y lo
sses
. W
hat f
ollo
ws
is a
cas
e-st
udy
of in
dust
rial h
azar
ds a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith
Iran
's ei
ght-
year
war
aga
inst
Iraq
(198
0- 1
988)
. Man
y of
the
com
-m
uniti
es in
Iran
's oi
l- an
d ga
s-pr
oduc
ing
regi
ons
wer
e af
fect
ed b
y th
is
conf
lict.
The
war
's im
pact
on
indu
stry
was
mer
ely
one
face
t of t
he
wid
er c
onfli
ct, s
o th
e ca
se-s
tudy
is d
iscu
ssed
in th
e la
rger
con
text
of
the
conf
lict's
soc
io-e
cono
mic
impa
ct o
n Ir
ania
n so
ciet
y (C
orde
sman
19
90).
Bec
ause
nei
ther
an
accu
rate
nor
a fi
rst-h
and
acco
unt o
f Ira
q's
expe
rienc
e w
ith th
is w
ar is
read
ily a
vaila
ble,
the
pers
pect
ive
is c
on-
scio
usly
Iran
ian.
' Alth
ough
the
acco
unt m
ay b
e in
com
plet
e, th
e in
for-
mat
ion
is n
ever
thel
ess
belie
ved
to b
e ac
cura
te.
By
delin
eatin
g Ir
an's
expe
rienc
e w
ith th
e w
ar a
nd re
cons
truct
ion,
it
is in
tend
ed n
ot o
nly
to a
naly
se th
e re
latio
nshi
p of
war
, com
mun
ity
dest
ruct
ion,
and
indu
stri
al d
isas
ter b
ut a
lso
to s
how
how
par
ticul
ar
issu
es o
f rec
over
y fr
om in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
can
bec
ome
caug
ht u
p in
br
oade
r con
cern
s ab
out r
ecov
ery
from
oth
er e
vent
s th
at in
flict
mor
e
148
149
•1.
fahu
n D
ehlo
ran
•
Sh
im•
0
Kilo
met
ers
200
°M
IRA
N
Qm
r-e
KE
RM
AN
SH
AIIA
N•
Kerm
ansh
ah •
Ilan o
B
AG
HD
AD
•
Kho
rrut
naba
d
ILA
NI
Al A
rnar
th •
E= Wa
r dam
aged
pro
vinc
es
•Pr
ovin
cial
Cap
ital
•C
ity
•Maul
4Ifr
KIIIIZ
ES
TA
N
llove
lseh
•
(sf
ID A
lma,
.
Al B
asra
SA
UD
I A
RA
BIA
Rut
gers
Car
togr
aphy
199
3
',Ham
adan
Indu
stri
al d
evas
tatio
n in
Iran
Fig.
6.1
F
ront
-lin
e pr
ovin
ces
of I
ran,
198
0-19
88 (
Sour
ce:
Am
irah
mad
i 198
7: 1
36)
(red
raw
n)
in s
igni
fican
t num
bers
, tho
ugh
prec
ise
figur
es a
re d
iffic
ult t
o de
ter-
min
e. O
ne s
ourc
e lis
ts 2
0 ch
emic
al ro
cket
atta
cks,
284
che
mic
al a
ir at
tack
s, a
nd 7
4 ch
emic
al a
rtill
ery
atta
cks,
whi
ch k
illed
ove
r 5,7
00
peop
le, m
ostly
civ
ilian
s liv
ing
in u
rban
are
as (S
hem
irani
199
3). T
he
Iraq
i Kur
dish
tow
n of
Hal
abch
eh w
as a
lmos
t tot
ally
des
troy
ed b
y a
chem
ical
bom
bard
men
t und
erta
ken
by Ir
aq to
pre
vent
it fa
lling
into
th
e ha
nds
of Ir
ania
n tr
oops
. Eve
n no
w, m
any
year
s af
ter t
he e
nd o
f op
en h
ostil
ities
, bot
h co
untr
ies
still
reta
in s
tock
pile
s of
che
mic
al
wea
pons
.
151
Am
irah
mad
i
enco
mpa
ssin
g ty
pes
of d
amag
e. F
urth
er, t
his
chap
ter e
xplo
res
inte
r-co
nnec
tions
am
ong
loca
l-le
vel r
econ
stru
ctio
n pr
iori
ties,
nat
iona
l-le
vel g
oals
, and
inte
rven
tion
by th
e in
tern
atio
nal c
omm
unity
in th
e po
st-w
ar p
eace
and
reco
nstr
uctio
n ef
fort
s. It
is h
oped
that
the
case
-st
udy
will
als
o pr
ovid
e in
sigh
ts th
at le
ad to
war
d cr
eatio
n of
mod
els
of
indu
stria
l dis
aste
r im
pact
ass
essm
ent a
nd re
cove
ry fo
r war
-dam
aged
so
ciet
ies
and
will
iden
tify
obst
acle
s to
reco
nstr
uctio
n an
d w
ays
of
impr
ovin
g im
plem
enta
tion.
Mili
tary
and
stra
tegi
c con
text
Iraq
inva
ded
Iran
in S
epte
mbe
r 198
0 an
d in
itiat
ed a
pro
tract
ed la
nd,
sea,
and
air
conf
lict t
hat l
aste
d un
til A
ugus
t 198
8, w
hen
it w
as b
roug
ht
to a
n en
d by
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
urity
Cou
ncil
Res
olut
ion
598.
The
in
vasi
on f
ollo
wed
Sad
dam
Hus
sein
's un
ilate
ral a
brog
atio
n of
the
Tre
aty
of A
lgie
rs, w
hich
he
had
him
self
neg
otia
ted
with
the
then
Sh
ah o
f Ira
n in
197
5.2
Five
Iran
ian
prov
ince
s th
at b
orde
r Ira
q - K
huze
stan
, Ila
m, K
er-
man
shah
an, K
urde
stan
, and
Wes
t Aze
rbai
jan
- bec
ame
activ
e th
ea-
tres
of a
ir an
d gr
ound
con
flict
s, w
hile
ano
ther
11
prov
ince
s su
ffer
ed
sust
aine
d ae
rial b
omba
rdm
ent (
fig. 6
.1).
Thes
e fiv
e pr
ovin
ces
acco
unt
for 1
0.8
per c
ent o
f Ira
n's
land
are
a an
d in
clud
e th
e co
untr
y's
mos
t he
avily
pop
ulat
ed a
nd d
evel
oped
regi
on. I
n 19
80, t
he w
ar-t
orn
re-
gion
's po
pula
tion
dens
ity w
as 3
5.4
per s
quar
e m
ile, c
ompa
red
with
23
.2 fo
r the
nat
iona
l ave
rage
(Am
irah
mad
i 199
0b).
Bef
ore
the
war
, K
huze
stan
boa
sted
maj
or e
cono
mic
est
ablis
hmen
ts, i
nclu
ding
por
t fa
cilit
ies,
ste
el fa
ctor
ies,
oil
wel
ls a
nd re
finer
ies,
pet
roch
emic
al c
om-
plex
es, a
nd a
maj
or h
ydro
elec
tric
dam
and
irri
gatio
n pr
ojec
t. K
er-
man
shah
an w
as c
onsi
dere
d an
impo
rtan
t cen
tre
for a
gric
ultu
re a
nd
trad
ition
al in
dust
ry. N
earl
y 14
,000
squ
are
kilo
met
res
of Ir
ania
n te
r-rit
ory
wer
e oc
cupi
ed b
y Ir
aqi f
orce
s fo
r mos
t of t
he w
ar.
The
Iran
-Ira
q w
ar w
as u
nusu
al fo
r a n
umbe
r of r
easo
ns. T
houg
h it
was
the
long
est c
onve
ntio
nal w
ar o
f the
twen
tieth
cen
tury
, it w
as
conf
ined
to a
rela
tivel
y sm
all l
and
area
. A m
ixtu
re o
f anc
ient
and
m
oder
n ta
ctic
s w
ere
empl
oyed
, inc
ludi
ng in
tens
ive
"hum
an w
ave"
as
saul
ts (i
.e. t
he s
imul
tane
ous
conv
erge
nce
of th
ousa
nds
of a
rmed
tr
oops
on
one
targ
et) a
nd a
"w
ar o
n ci
ties"
that
incl
uded
the
use
of
tech
nolo
gica
lly a
dvan
ced
artil
lery
to ta
rget
dis
tant
indu
stri
es p
re-
cise
ly (S
hem
irani
199
3). I
raq
used
dire
ct m
issi
le a
ttack
s as
par
t of a
n ex
plic
it st
rate
gy to
dep
opul
ate
settl
emen
ts a
nd s
tran
gle
the
Iran
ian
econ
omy.
The
Iraq
i arm
y al
so u
sed
chem
ical
and
bio
logi
cal w
eapo
ns
150
Antir
ahm
adi
Impa
cts o
f the
war
on
hum
an h
ealth
and
long
-term
hab
itabi
lity
of th
e re
gion
Hum
an 1
,-, sse
s
Eig
ht y
ears
of i
nten
se c
onfl
ict e
xact
ed h
eavy
tolls
on
the
popu
la-
tion
of Ir
an. T
here
wer
e ap
prox
imat
ely
300,
000
Iran
ian
casu
altie
s,
incl
udin
g 61
,000
mis
sing
in a
ctio
n an
d 5,
000
in Ir
aqi p
riso
ns. T
he
relie
f and
reco
nstru
ctio
n pr
oces
s w
as fu
rther
com
plic
ated
by
the
fact
th
at a
noth
er 2
.5 m
illio
n Ir
ania
ns h
ave
beco
me
hom
eles
s, h
ave
lost
th
eir j
obs,
or a
re d
ispl
aced
. Mos
t of t
hese
hav
e ta
ken
sanc
tuar
y in
re
fuge
e ca
mps
, mak
eshi
ft s
hack
s, a
nd te
mpo
rary
she
lters
in m
ajor
ur
ban
cent
res o
r in
perip
hera
l are
as o
f war
zon
es (A
mira
hmad
i 199
0b:
63).
A g
over
nmen
t sur
vey
take
n af
ter t
he e
nd o
f hos
tiliti
es re
veal
ed
that
593
,000
civ
ilian
s w
ere
phys
ical
ly a
nd/o
r men
tally
dis
able
d by
the
war
(Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 48)
. T
he fu
ture
pro
duct
ivity
of I
ran
has
been
per
man
ently
alte
red;
the
ener
gy a
nd c
apac
ity o
f mill
ions
of p
rodu
ctiv
e w
orki
ng p
eopl
e w
ho
serv
ed in
the
war
hav
e be
en ir
retr
ieva
bly
lost
. Alm
ost a
ll of
them
w
ere
youn
g an
d de
dica
ted
to th
e Ir
ania
n re
volu
tion.
Hum
an d
evel
-op
men
t inc
ludi
ng e
duca
tion
— h
as b
een
grie
vous
ly a
ffec
ted.
In th
e w
ar re
gion
alo
ne, m
ore
than
20
per c
ent (
9,30
0) o
f the
pre
-war
cla
ss-
room
s (4
4,30
0) w
ere
dam
aged
or d
estro
yed.
Ove
r a th
ird (4
50,0
00) o
f th
e re
gion
's 1.
25 m
illio
n st
uden
ts fl
ed e
lsew
here
. Thi
s pl
aced
gre
at
stra
ins
on re
ceiv
ing
scho
ol s
yste
ms,
whi
ch w
ere
forc
ed to
teac
h pu
pils
in
con
tinuo
us s
hift
s (U
nite
d N
atio
ns S
ecre
tary
-Gen
eral
199
1a: 4
5).
The
prov
isio
n of
hea
lth c
are
was
sim
ilarly
inte
rrup
ted:
" ..
. a to
tal o
f 10
2 'h
ealth
hou
ses',
84
rura
l hea
lth c
ente
rs, 8
0 ur
ban
heal
th c
ente
rs
and
12 p
rovi
ncia
l and
/or
dist
rict
hea
lth c
ente
rs w
ere
dest
roye
d"
(Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 48)
. Wat
er a
nd s
ewer
age
syst
ems
in th
e ar
ea w
ere
also
hea
vily
dam
aged
. Th
e de
mog
raph
ic p
rofil
e of
Iran
has
bee
n gr
eatly
alte
red
sinc
e th
e be
ginn
ing
of th
e w
ar. M
any
of th
e ch
ange
s ar
e a
dire
ct c
onse
quen
ce
of g
over
nmen
t pol
icy
to in
crea
se th
e na
tiona
l pop
ulat
ion.
Dur
ing
the
war
yea
rs, p
opul
atio
n gr
ew a
t mor
e th
an 3
.7 p
er c
ent a
nnua
lly; b
y 19
88, t
otal
num
bers
wer
e ab
out 5
0 pe
r cen
t gre
ater
tha
n in
197
6. In
19
76, 1
7.2
per c
ent o
f Ira
n's p
opul
atio
n liv
ed in
the
five
war
-aff
ecte
d pr
ovin
ces;
by
1986
, the
pro
port
ion
had
falle
n to
15
per c
ent.
At
pres
ent,
45 p
er c
ent o
f th
e na
tiona
l pop
ulat
ion
are
unde
r the
age
of
14. C
onco
mita
nt d
eman
ds fo
r soc
ial s
ervi
ces a
nd e
duca
tiona
l fac
ilitie
s
152
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
pose
a c
halle
nge
for a
utho
ritie
s en
gage
d in
the
allo
catio
n of
reso
urce
s fo
r rec
onst
ruct
ion
(Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991
a: 2
9). M
ore
rece
ntly
, the
gov
ernm
ent h
as a
cted
to s
low
pop
ulat
ion
grow
th. T
he
new
pol
icy
seem
s to
be
havi
ng s
ome
effe
ct, b
ut th
e co
untr
y's
pop-
ulat
ion
is st
ill g
row
ing
fast
eno
ugh
(3.2
per
cen
t in
1992
) to
caus
e se
ri-ou
s al
arm
.
Env
iron
men
tal d
amag
e
Info
rmat
ion
abou
t env
ironm
enta
l da
mag
e in
flict
ed b
y th
e w
ar is
sca
t-te
red
and
inco
nclu
sive
. Thi
s is
prim
arily
bec
ause
the
Iran
ian
auth
or-
ities
who
wer
e ch
arge
d w
ith r
econ
stru
ctio
n fo
cuse
d at
tent
ion
on
imm
edia
te re
lief e
ffor
ts a
nd o
n re
build
ing
both
the
econ
omy
and
the
mili
tary
. Mor
eove
r, in
con
trast
to th
e G
ulf W
ar o
f 199
0, th
e in
tern
a-tio
nal c
omm
unity
did
not
mon
itor e
nviro
nmen
tal e
ffec
ts o
f the
Iran
--Ir
aq w
ar. T
his
is a
ttrib
utab
le b
oth
to d
iffic
ultie
s th
at th
e m
ass
med
ia
expe
rien
ced
in re
port
ing
the
war
and
to th
e fa
ct th
at Ir
an h
ad fa
llen
out o
f fav
our w
ith W
este
rn g
over
nmen
ts th
at m
ight
oth
erw
ise
have
ta
ken
an in
tere
st.
Des
pite
the
lack
of r
elia
ble
data
on
envi
ronm
enta
l im
pact
s,
som
e ef
fect
s ar
e kn
own
(Haw
ley
1992
; Joc
hnic
k an
d N
orm
and
n.d.
). Fo
r ex
ampl
e, it
is k
now
n th
at e
xten
sive
min
efie
lds
and
unex
plod
ed w
ar
mat
eria
ls in
all
of Ir
an's
five
war
-affe
cted
pro
vinc
es h
ave
pose
d da
ily
haza
rds t
o lo
cal p
opul
atio
ns. R
eza
Mal
ekza
deh,
repr
esen
tativ
e of
the
Iran
ian
Min
istry
of H
ealth
, rep
orte
d in
199
1 th
at a
t lea
st 1
0 pe
ople
a
day
wer
e w
ound
ed, m
aim
ed, o
r kill
ed b
y liv
e w
ar m
uniti
ons (
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 29)
. It i
s al
so k
now
n th
at g
roun
d ba
ttles
and
aer
ial b
omba
rdm
ents
cau
sed
exte
nsiv
e de
stru
ctio
n of
for-
ests
— a
pro
cess
that
was
exa
cerb
ated
by
peop
le se
arch
ing
for c
ooki
ng
fuel
to re
plac
e no
rmal
sup
plie
s; ru
n-of
f and
ero
sion
hav
e in
crea
sed
as
a re
sult.
Dur
ing
the
conf
lict,
mor
e th
an 3
mill
ion
date
pal
ms a
nd 5
,000
he
ctar
es o
f orc
hard
s w
ere
dest
roye
d. S
ome
130,
000
hect
ares
of n
atu-
ral f
ores
ts a
nd 7
53,0
00 h
ecta
res
of p
astu
re la
nd in
the
war
-aff
licte
d pr
ovin
ces
wer
e al
so re
nder
ed u
nusa
ble.
Th
e im
pact
of w
ar o
n fa
rmla
nd w
as e
qual
ly s
igni
fican
t. In
Khu
ze-
stan
, ]la
m, a
nd K
erm
ansh
ahan
, " ..
. rec
onst
ruct
ion
of th
e fa
rmin
g su
b-se
ctor
invo
lves
land
-leve
ling
and
grad
ing
of a
bout
251
,000
ha
of
irrig
ated
farm
land
and
roug
h le
velin
g of
53,
700
ha o
f rai
n-fe
d la
nd"
(Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 40-
41).
Farm
land
s in
the
five
war
-impa
cted
pro
vinc
es a
ppea
r to
be c
onta
min
ated
by
toxi
c m
ate-
153
Atn
eral
imad
t
rial
s em
anat
ing
from
che
mic
al a
nd b
iolo
gica
l wea
pons
. Dur
ing
the
war
, pro
duce
from
sou
ther
n Ir
an w
as c
onsi
dere
d un
heal
thy
and
coul
d no
t be
mar
kete
d, th
ereb
y dr
ivin
g up
pric
es a
nd c
reat
ing
shor
tage
s.
The
situ
atio
n w
as n
ot s
impl
y on
e of
dir
ect d
estr
uctio
n an
d co
n-ta
min
atio
n. T
he p
robl
ems
of w
arfa
re w
ere
com
poun
ded
by o
ther
pr
oble
ms,
incl
udin
g re
mov
al o
f top
soil,
com
pact
ion
and
flood
ing
of
agric
ultu
ral l
ands
, mod
ifica
tions
of r
iver
flow
s, in
terr
uptio
n of
irrig
a-tio
n w
ater
sup
plie
s, a
nd w
ater
logg
ing
and
salin
izat
ion
due
to s
alt
wat
er fl
owin
g on
to a
gric
ultu
ral l
and
whe
n irr
igat
ion
cana
ls w
ere
dest
roye
d. F
inal
ly, s
tudy
of c
onta
min
atio
n in
rura
l are
as is
ham
pere
d by
the
pres
ence
of u
nide
ntifi
ed m
inef
ield
s (U
nite
d N
atio
ns S
ecre
tary
-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 28-
48).
Leve
ls o
f env
ironm
enta
l int
oxic
atio
n ar
e m
uch
mor
e di
ffic
ult t
o as
certa
in th
an d
irect
des
truct
ion,
par
ticul
arly
bec
ause
of t
he la
ck o
f re
cord
s m
entio
ned
abov
e bu
t als
o be
caus
e in
toxi
catio
n as
sess
men
t re
quire
s fai
rly so
phis
ticat
ed te
chno
logy
that
has
bee
n ne
ither
ava
il-ab
le in
Iran
nor
sup
plie
d by
the
inte
rnat
iona
l env
ironm
enta
l com
-m
unity
. Non
e th
e le
ss, i
t is p
ossi
ble
to p
rovi
de a
gen
eral
ove
rvie
w o
f th
e im
pact
s on
a re
gion
-by-
regi
on b
asis.
Th
e so
uth-
wes
tern
pro
vinc
es h
ave
expe
rienc
ed e
xtre
me
envi
ron-
men
tal d
amag
e, p
artic
ular
ly in
the
coas
tal s
trip
and
alon
g m
ain
inla
nd
wat
erw
ays.
The
Kar
oun
Riv
er, o
nce
the
mai
nsta
y of
eco
nom
ic a
ctiv
-ity
, is
now
hea
vily
pol
lute
d an
d un
usab
le. A
mon
g th
e ru
ral p
op-
ulat
ion,
a h
igh
inci
denc
e of
dis
ease
s, es
peci
ally
eye
infe
ctio
ns, s
tom
-ac
h ill
ness
es, a
nd s
kin
ailm
ents
, has
bee
n re
porte
d (U
nite
d N
atio
ns
Secr
etar
y-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 28-
48).
The
exac
t cau
se o
f the
se a
ilmen
ts is
not k
now
n, b
ut h
ealth
off
icia
ls n
ote
that
the
rate
of i
ncid
ence
is m
uch
high
er th
an in
are
as u
naff
ecte
d by
the
war
. Sin
ce th
e w
ar's
end
ther
e ha
s bee
n an
ala
rmin
g in
crea
se in
hea
lth-th
reat
enin
g in
sect
s and
pes
ts.
Ther
e ha
s als
o be
en a
n in
crea
sed
inci
denc
e of
acu
te re
spira
tory
dis
-ea
se, p
ossib
ly a
s a re
sult
of w
ar-in
duce
d to
xins
in th
e en
viro
nmen
t, as
w
ell a
s an
incr
ease
in
the
num
ber o
f tho
se a
fflic
ted
by se
vere
dia
r-rh
oea,
whi
ch c
an b
e m
ore
dire
ctly
link
ed to
the
disr
uptio
n of
the
prov
isio
n of
fres
h w
ater
sup
plie
s.
The
coa
stal
reg
ion
betw
een
Aba
dan
and
the
Stra
it of
Hor
muz
, en
com
pass
ing
appr
oxim
atel
y 25
0 sq
uare
kilo
met
res
of b
each
, was
co
vere
d in
tar a
nd a
spha
lt. T
hese
subs
tanc
es p
osed
a g
rave
thre
at to
al
read
y en
dang
ered
spec
ies a
nd p
rote
ctiv
e ve
geta
tion.
Lea
ks fr
om o
il ta
nker
s at
tack
ed in
the
Gul
f are
bel
ieve
d to
be
the
caus
e (W
alke
r 19
89).
Oil-
rela
ted
pollu
tion
is a
lso
attri
bute
d to
the
bom
bing
of o
il pl
atfo
rms
in th
e G
ulf.
Cap
ping
thes
e oi
l wel
ls h
as ta
ken
year
s of
1111
1111
1111
11 th
'Ia.V
ial1
011
Iii
Iran
effo
rt. T
he te
rrito
ry o
f Ira
n in
clud
es m
any
isla
nds
in th
e G
ulf,
20 o
f w
hich
hav
e be
en a
dver
sely
aff
ecte
d by
oil
pollu
tion
and
oil s
pills
. The
pr
awn-
fish
ing
indu
stry
has
bee
n se
vere
ly th
reat
ened
, ow
ing
to th
e de
stru
ctio
n 01
man
grov
e an
d se
a-gr
ass
cultu
res
in th
e co
asta
l reg
ions
of
the
Gul
f. Se
a gr
asse
s ar
e af
fect
ed b
y to
xic
hydr
ocar
bons
and
con
-ta
min
atio
n of
sed
imen
ts; o
ils p
enet
rate
the
stom
ata
and
kill
entir
e se
a-gr
ass c
omm
uniti
es th
at p
rovi
de n
urse
ry g
roun
ds fo
r pra
wns
(Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991b
: 29)
. In
addi
tion,
the
dest
ruct
ion
of
all o
r par
t of t
he p
raw
n ye
ar c
lass
has
cum
ulat
ive
effe
cts o
n su
bseq
uent
ca
tche
s. A
noth
er s
ourc
e of
con
tam
inan
ts is
the
sunk
en s
hips
and
wre
cks
that
stil
l lie
in a
nd a
long
the
Shat
t-al-A
rab
wat
erw
ay. T
he m
agni
tude
of
the
prob
lem
incr
ease
s with
tim
e be
caus
e cu
rren
ts c
arry
con
tam
inan
t ca
rgoe
s th
roug
hout
the
wat
erw
ay s
yste
m a
nd o
ut to
the
Gul
f. T
his
pose
s a
dist
inct
thre
at to
the
fishi
ng in
dust
ry a
s w
ell a
s to
the
ecol
ogy
of th
e ar
ea, a
nd q
uite
pos
sibl
y to
the
adja
cent
wat
er-ta
ble.
The
nat
ure
of th
e ca
rgo
in th
ese
ship
s is
unk
now
n an
d on
ly a
sub
stan
tial i
nves
-tig
atio
n w
ould
reve
al th
e ex
act c
onta
min
ants
. The
est
imat
ed c
ost o
f cl
ean-
up h
as b
een
put b
y va
rious
sou
rces
at $
2 bi
llion
to $
4 bi
llion
. N
o le
ss th
an tw
o ye
ars
of c
ontin
uous
wor
k is
nee
ded
to re
habi
litat
e th
e riv
er.
Furt
her d
esta
biliz
atio
n of
the
envi
ronm
ent i
n so
uthe
rn Ir
an h
as
resu
lted
from
dis
turb
ance
s in
the
Gul
f reg
ion
durin
g th
e U
S-le
d Pe
rsia
n G
ulf W
ar o
f 199
0-19
91. S
ome
of th
e en
viro
nmen
tal e
ffec
ts th
at a
re
now
obs
erve
d in
sou
ther
n Ir
an m
ay b
e tra
ceab
le in
par
t to
that
war
.'
Dam
age
to h
uman
set
tlem
ents
and
the
econ
omy
Dam
age
to se
ttlem
ents
in Ir
an w
as e
norm
ous.
The
war
wip
ed o
ut 4
,000
vi
llage
s, da
mag
ed 5
2 ci
ties,
and
destr
oyed
abo
ut 1
20,0
00 h
ouse
s; 6
of
the
citie
s wer
e co
mpl
etel
y le
velle
d w
hile
ano
ther
15
sust
aine
d da
m-
age
of 3
0 -8
0 pe
r cen
t. Th
e ci
ty o
f Kho
rram
shah
r (19
80 p
opul
atio
n 30
0,00
0) w
as Ir
an's
mos
t im
porta
nt p
ort o
n th
e G
ulf.
It no
w li
es in
ne
ar-to
tal r
uin,
hav
ing
sust
aine
d de
stru
ctio
n of
80
per c
ent o
f its
bu
ildin
gs. I
mpa
cts i
n ru
ral a
reas
wer
e eq
ually
gre
at: o
ver 3
0 pe
r cen
t of
the
villa
ges i
n th
e fiv
e m
ost w
ar-to
rn p
rovi
nces
wer
e co
mpl
etel
y de
stro
yed;
oth
ers
sust
aine
d se
vere
dam
age.
The
mon
etar
y va
lue
of
dam
age
to h
uman
set
tlem
ents
was
est
imat
ed a
t $13
bill
ion
for t
he
peri
od S
epte
mbe
r 198
0 to
Sep
tem
ber 1
985.
For
the
entir
e w
ar,
hum
an s
ettle
men
ts d
amag
e m
ay h
ave
exce
eded
$18
bill
ion
(Am
ir-ah
mad
i 199
2a: 8
2).
154
155
I 2 eo 2 1 Si a r. O E is 5
0
•5
DU
0. '9
•g
CD N CD N 00 00 ,t 00 vn vn
.4. 4
7CI ,t 01,
00
r-
. .
. .
. .
. .
c4 r
4 en e
n
on en r
- vl
ol o
n •
A--.1
en o
n N
e. e.
rq
8 8
8 8
8 8
8 8
ei*.
•
c43 r'
g 4
n E.8
V2 g;
ch.
q; ei
47 00 c
D e
n et
un NC ,
r (s.1
Nr-
CD 00 vn vn N NO
r- e
n e.
4D
el e. e
l 410
oo
e4
-4. s
o r-
c3 c)
92
47 410 e
A o
n N u
n 0'
. 0'
st ,s
On
on In V
D VD
CD
CD N
•
et V1
wl wl
01 ,r.
ocr
r- oo
od
on v
i 7t
.zr M
on
N N
el
.er
r- on
oo C
D t".
.. r-
el CA O
n 00
•en
.1-
en CO
en on C
D
§ r-
CD
oC r-
so .9 § i
r- F,
't 71- .1-
cn c,
,-...
„ 1-..
. 01, N.
N.
00
, ,-^
„
g 4 gg * T,
g g T
-1 ;71
' N
VI
cv u
n et r- el
-. e
l
en c
4
c4
e.
e.
,-.
a 73g
g FA
‘11...ma° !!
CN
00 C- • In
0'r
CD C
A 00
en
Ch
en 0
0 cr e.
In
• r- •nch
on
,r 47 00
ri
r- e
n cD
e.
oti
,4
•vi
00
71 A I
n 2;
,r43 N
VD
Cr;
0 o
gu 0 --
a) Li 2
5g ;8
Fx1 S2
n 4
g E; 2
8 L
Cr,
Ch C
h Ch
O'
N 0
it
r. ,4
r.
r.
r.
O
GO N N
A m
irah
mad
i
Thre
e ty
pes o
f dir
ect e
cono
mic
dam
age
resu
lting
from
the
war
wer
e di
sting
uish
ed b
y th
e Ira
nian
gov
ernm
ent —
bui
ldin
gs a
nd in
stalla
tions
, m
achi
nery
and
equ
ipm
ent,
and
mat
eria
ls a
nd g
oods
(see
tabl
e 6.
1).
The
gove
rnm
ent a
lso
calc
ulat
ed a
sepa
rate
ind
irec
t eco
nom
ic d
amag
e ca
tego
ry th
at in
clud
es o
ppor
tuni
ty c
osts
but
exc
lude
s dam
age
to th
e de
fenc
e se
ctor
and
hum
an lo
sses
; a v
alue
-add
ed a
ppro
ach
was
use
d w
ithin
a n
atio
nal i
ncom
e-ac
coun
ting
fram
ewor
k. T
he se
ven
econ
omic
se
ctor
s fo
r whi
ch d
ata
are
avai
labl
e in
clud
e ag
ricu
lture
, min
ing,
m
anuf
actu
ring,
oil,
ele
ctric
ity/g
as/w
ater
, con
stru
ctio
n an
d ho
usin
g,
and
serv
ices
.' B
y th
e tim
e th
at Ir
an a
nd Ir
aq a
gree
d to
a c
ease
-fire
, Ira
n's i
ndus
-try
was
ope
ratin
g at
onl
y 20
-30
per c
ent o
f cap
acity
. Dire
ct e
cono
mic
da
mag
e (i.
e. p
hysi
cal d
estru
ctio
n) in
flict
ed o
n Ir
an a
mou
nted
to a
ye
arly
ave
rage
of 2
3.35
per
cen
t of t
he c
ount
ry's
gros
s dom
estic
pro
d-uc
t (G
DP)
. The
UN
Sec
urity
Cou
ncil
estim
ates
that
the
cost
of d
irect
ec
onom
ic d
amag
e, e
xclu
ding
mili
tary
dam
age
and
loss
of h
uman
life
, am
ount
ed to
$97
.3 b
illio
n. U
sing
a di
ffere
nt e
xcha
nge
rate
, the
Iran
ian
gove
rnm
ent p
uts t
he fi
gure
muc
h hi
gher
, at o
ver $
300
billi
on. M
ilita
ry
dam
age
was
est
imat
ed a
t $50
bill
ion.
Som
e ob
serv
ers e
stim
ate
that
th
e to
tal c
ost
of d
amag
e is
in th
e ne
ighb
ourh
ood
of U
S$1,
000
billi
on
(Ath
ari 1
991)
. O
f all
the
prod
uctiv
e se
ctor
s, th
e oi
l sec
tor s
usta
ined
by
far t
he
mos
t dam
age
(tabl
e 6.
2; fi
g. 6
.2).
This
sect
or a
ccou
nted
for 2
3.96
per
ce
nt o
f the
tota
l dire
ct e
cono
mic
dam
age
and
59.4
5 pe
r cen
t of t
he
dam
age
infli
cted
on
all p
rodu
ctiv
e se
ctor
s. In
thes
e se
ctor
s, ne
arly
86
per c
ent o
f all
the
dam
age
infli
cted
on
build
ings
and
inst
alla
tions
was
bo
rne
by th
e oi
l ind
ustry
. O
il in
stal
latio
ns in
the
Gul
f reg
ion
wer
e a
prim
ary
atta
ck ta
rget
. Th
e m
ain
Irani
an lo
adin
g te
rmin
al, l
ocat
ed in
Kha
rg Is
land
, was
bad
ly
dam
aged
in A
ugus
t 198
2, e
ffect
ivel
y ha
lvin
g Ira
nian
oil
expo
rts. B
efor
e th
e at
tack
s, K
harg
had
an
offlo
adin
g ca
paci
ty o
f 14
mill
ion
barre
ls of
oi
l per
day
at 1
4 be
rthin
g fa
cilit
ies;
its 1
993
capa
city
was
just
2 m
illio
n ba
rrel
s pe
r day
. Of 3
9 cr
ude
oil s
tora
ge ta
nks,
21
wer
e co
mpl
etel
y de
stro
yed
by fi
res r
esul
ting
from
atta
cks;
ass
umin
g fu
ll ca
paci
ty, o
il sp
ills
into
the
Gul
f fro
m th
e K
harg
faci
lity
alon
e am
ount
ed to
12
mill
ion
barr
els (
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al 1
991a
: 29)
Th
e oi
l ind
ustry
was
, and
is, e
xtre
mel
y im
porta
nt to
the
econ
omic
vi
abili
ty o
f Ira
n. O
il re
venu
es a
ccou
nted
for 5
1 pe
r cen
t of t
otal
gov
-er
nmen
t rev
enue
s in
1983
-198
4 an
d 44
per
cen
t of t
otal
gov
ernm
ent
reve
nues
in 1
986-
1987
. In
fact
, oil
reve
nues
gen
eral
ly a
ccou
nt fo
r ov
er 9
5 pe
r cen
t of I
ran'
s for
eign
exc
hang
e ea
rnin
gs a
nd p
ay fo
r the
156
157
N
00
cr,
N m
s
? gs; 'Pm
04.
a4
S' 4
6,'"
0!! 2
306%
Man
uluc
lurI
ng 5
2a%
M
lnin
p 01
2%
Agr
icul
lure
579
%
Elec
, Gas
. Wal
er 4
26%
C
onsl
ruct
ion
0.80%
Ser
vice
s 50
7%
Indu
stri
al d
evas
tatio
n in
Ira
n
c i ic.,
_q
n .." .
..--..'-'
"
N
li. (. 4 p
.. 'D
- F^ ̂ A
i'° 1
e'l
mi‘o ch
.4:
P4 '
N7as "r
. is:
g n
es;
n 0
ta. '
. 2.
g I
°1 ^1°
1 N
0
(Ni
(.4 N
-
:pi Ti
- .0
tE
l a
i". 4:
E F
:. il
°. ; ;
i ,A
°..
_. •-,,
..`g
'NF'
2,n5
;:giis
e - -
_ 2
E
41 ei 0, " -•• 0
.,i "
A ,..,,,
I
.s
•
,, 71.
,--? ° ...r t-F
-' .Nir
i 0s N
00 ,
.a.
.O ..
... .
.2
,,i --,
so &
4 .T
. ic:
8
E2 :
: ? -
0 .1
M
e%
v
N -
c,
vl v)
00
a'
ffi °..4
g ✓1
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4. 4
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m
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5 !!
--; t- -. N
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g
r'
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;7144
ti
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c4 N g
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si
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7,.' E
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oA
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4 ." , , - - .p
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6. A
L''̀'
I .
g '''
/ 'c:
g 3
!I R
g. i
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5 ii
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e e F
Oa
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0
o 0
Ts 2
pi 0
xi
a '-.
.4)
0 .
2
2
.0 2
.2 -‘3
.2
-g 5
T1.32 ac
i i
.S 2
.5
-.
ar
" 4
"g
2 " I
g 1 .
4 -
.v.I
00 0
....
a al
i :,.
,' -.E- d
g i i
A
u .
o .g
2 a
',.2
4 'o
""'l
-a c
, -
...g
ri
2
0
,0 I I
i l 1
i 8 a
l / .
g 4
it: 1 1
1 1
c Al
..,t0t .-
4 (-4
m ..
.. '.- ..
.) sO
(2 e
, N
m ,
13
WI
g CI3
6 i
Fig. 6
.2
Dir
ect e
cono
mic
loss
es b
y se
ctor
(Sou
rce:
Pla
n an
d B
udge
t Org
aniz
atio
n,
Isla
mic
Rep
ublic
of I
ran
1991
: 50)
bulk
of I
ran'
s in
dust
rial
inpu
ts, f
ood
impo
rts,
and
mili
tary
nee
ds.
Iran
ian
indu
strie
s de
pend
on
fore
ign
mar
kets
for o
ver 6
5 pe
r cen
t of
thei
r raw
mat
eria
ls, 7
5 pe
r cen
t of t
heir
inte
rmed
iate
inpu
ts, a
nd o
ver
90 p
er c
ent o
f the
ir ca
pita
l goo
ds. O
ne a
naly
st e
stim
ated
that
the
cost
of
the
war
abs
orbe
d 60
per
cen
t of
Iran
's gr
oss
natio
nal p
rodu
ct
(GN
P) d
urin
g th
e 19
80-1
988
perio
d (M
olid
199
0).
Furt
her b
reak
dow
n of
sec
tora
l dam
age
reve
als
that
the
man
ufac
-tu
ring
sect
or s
uffe
red
mos
t hea
vily
in te
rms
of m
achi
nery
and
equ
ip-
men
t, na
mel
y, lo
ss o
f cap
ital s
tock
: it a
ccou
nts
for t
he la
rges
t sha
re
of d
amag
e in
this
cat
egor
y, a
t 59.
17 p
er c
ent,
with
agr
icul
ture
a d
is-
tant
sec
ond
at 2
2.86
per
cen
t. E
lect
rici
ty, g
as, a
nd w
ater
incu
rred
th
e m
ost d
amag
e in
term
s of
mat
eria
ls a
nd g
oods
-- c
onst
itutin
g 49
.57
per c
ent o
f the
tota
l los
ses
to m
ater
ials
and
goo
ds, w
hile
agr
icul
ture
ac
coun
ts fo
r 28.
17 p
er c
ent o
f thi
s typ
e of
dam
age.
With
in a
gric
ultu
re,
farm
ing
suff
ered
the
mos
t dam
age,
follo
wed
by
fore
stry
, ani
mal
hus
-ba
ndry
, hun
ting,
and
fish
erie
s. M
ost d
amag
e in
the
cons
truct
ion
sec-
tor w
as to
bui
ldin
gs a
nd in
stal
latio
ns, w
hich
con
stitu
ted
65.4
9 pe
r cen
t of
the
dam
age
to th
at s
ecto
r. D
irect
eco
nom
ic d
amag
e to
the
natio
n's
publ
ic se
rvic
es a
lone
acc
ount
s for
51.
19 p
er c
ent o
f the
tota
l and
85.
74
per c
ent o
f the
dam
age
sust
aine
d by
the
serv
ice
sect
or a
s a
who
le.
158
159
0
N
N
N
N
in
N 00
O N 00
Ch
2 3 2
0
00
E CO tg E 445 0
in 8 N
r.
0
O N N So
1 2 is 1 I I 2 COcn 0
N N
AD
N —
N-amooquq
BIER
00,445
,4vi
r--
r183
1:.."
N.
sc..
'11
00 N
cry
ri 0,00
ma—
tm
N. 01. rid
v1
4.
8 ri
N
—_;
§ .
8
-5 E
o 1 g m
11
5.1
0 t, o
rz
161
'ex .1.
1
itc2
s.0
N
N
00 00
Amir
ahm
adi
The
trans
porta
tion,
stor
age,
and
com
mun
icat
ions
sect
or su
stai
ned
the
maj
ority
of d
amag
e to
its m
achi
nery
and
equ
ipm
ent,
at 8
3.48
per
cen
t of
its d
irect
loss
es. W
ithin
this
sect
or, t
rans
porta
tion
was
the
hard
est
hit,
owin
g to
the
dest
ruct
ion
of ro
ads,
railw
ays,
and
priv
ate
vehi
cles
(P
lan
and
Bud
get O
rgan
izat
ion
1991
). A
bre
akdo
wn
of th
e da
ta fo
r sec
tora
l dam
age
by p
rovi
nce
reve
als
that
Khu
zesta
n in
curre
d 34
.27
per c
ent o
f all
dire
ct e
cono
mic
dam
age
(tabl
e 6.
3). K
huze
stan
's la
rge
shar
e of
the
dam
age
was
not
une
x-pe
cted
: man
y pe
troch
emic
al e
stab
lishm
ents
, lig
ht in
dust
ry fa
cilit
ies,
oil i
nsta
llatio
ns, m
ajor
por
t fac
ilitie
s, an
d m
oder
n ag
ribus
ines
ses —
prim
e ta
rget
s of a
eria
l bom
bard
men
ts —
are
loca
ted
ther
e. T
he c
ity o
f K
horr
amsh
ahr a
nd th
e w
orld
's la
rges
t oil
refin
ery
at A
bada
n w
ere
alm
ost c
ompl
etel
y de
stroy
ed, w
hile
the
city
of A
bada
n its
elf s
usta
ined
50
per
cen
t dam
age.
Of t
he to
tal d
amag
e to
the
prov
ince
, app
rox-
imat
ely
40 p
er c
ent w
as a
ssoc
iate
d w
ith b
uild
ings
and
insta
llatio
ns.
Rec
over
y fr
om w
ar
Def
inin
g pr
iorit
ies f
or re
cons
truct
ion
beca
me
a fu
lcru
m fo
r par
tisan
de
bate
and
pol
itica
l con
test
in th
e Ir
ania
n go
vern
men
t. Th
is is
an
expe
rienc
e co
mm
on to
man
y so
ciet
ies t
hat h
ave
expe
rienc
ed w
ide-
spre
ad d
estru
ctio
n fro
m d
isaste
r, w
heth
er it
is w
ar, i
ndus
trial
cal
amity
, or
nat
ural
dis
aste
r. In
Iran
, diff
eren
t pol
itica
l gro
ups s
ough
t to
have
th
eir o
wn
soci
al a
nd e
cono
mic
age
ndas
refle
cted
in th
e re
cons
truct
ion
strat
egy.
Deb
ate
cent
red
arou
nd fo
ur is
sues
— re
build
ing
the
mili
tary
, re
invi
gora
ting
the
natio
nal e
cono
my,
pro
mot
ing
the
econ
omic
wel
l-be
ing
of th
e po
or, a
nd re
cons
truct
ing
war
-dam
aged
are
as. O
nly
the
mos
t rad
ical
fact
ion
of th
e go
vern
men
t was
con
cern
ed w
ith e
quity
an
d so
cial
just
ice.
Con
serv
ativ
e an
d pr
agm
atis
t fac
tions
bel
ieve
d th
at
econ
omic
gro
wth
and
effi
cien
cy sh
ould
gui
de re
cons
truct
ion,
and
it is
th
ese
view
s tha
t cam
e to
dom
inat
e of
ficia
l pol
icy.
As a
resu
lt, m
ost
reco
nstru
ctio
n ef
forts
are
dev
oted
to s
treng
then
ing
mar
ket m
echa
-ni
sms,
priv
atiz
atio
n, a
nd li
bera
lizat
ion
of tr
ade.
Im
ports
are
an
esse
ntia
l com
pone
nt o
f the
Iran
ian
econ
omy,
and
re
cons
truct
ion
of b
oth
the
civi
lian
and
mili
tary
sec
tors
can
not b
e ac
com
plish
ed w
ithou
t the
m.
But i
mpo
rts m
ust
be p
aid
for w
ith h
ard
curr
ency
and
mos
t of
this
is o
btai
ned
in e
xcha
nge
for
Iran
ian
oil.
Unf
ortu
nate
ly, I
ran'
s oil
reve
nues
hav
e bee
n in
suffi
cien
t for
the t
ask
and
gove
rnm
ent l
eade
rs a
re p
reoc
cupi
ed w
ith fi
ndin
g al
tern
ativ
e so
urce
s of h
ard
curr
ency
. Con
serv
ativ
e fac
tions
— w
hich
are
curr
ently
in
pow
er —
favo
ur o
peni
ng th
e Ira
nian
econ
omy
to fo
reig
n in
vest
ors,
160
Aln
II'ah
? la
th
limiti
ng s
tate
inte
rven
tion,
and
allo
win
g th
e m
arke
t and
the
priv
ate
sect
or to
stim
ulat
e ra
pid
econ
omic
gro
wth
. Mor
e ra
dica
l fac
tions
ha
ve a
rgue
d fo
r gro
wth
at a
slow
er p
ace
and
for g
over
nmen
t inv
est-
men
t in
dom
estic
indu
strie
s tha
t will
supp
ly c
emen
t, st
eel,
and
othe
r co
mm
oditi
es to
mee
t the
bas
ic n
eeds
of r
econ
stru
ctio
n. T
he ra
dica
ls
have
als
o fa
vour
ed a
wel
fare
relie
f pro
gram
me
that
targ
ets
the
need
iest
. Whi
le d
omes
tic in
vest
men
t and
relie
f are
incl
uded
in th
e go
vern
men
t's re
cons
truct
ion
plan
, con
serv
ativ
e po
licie
s ar
e cl
early
do
min
ant.
Sinc
e 19
89, P
resi
dent
Ali
Akb
ar H
ashe
mi R
afsa
njan
i, a
polit
ical
pr
agm
atis
t, ha
s tri
ed to
acc
omm
odat
e pu
blic
, priv
ate,
and
coo
pera
- tiv
e se
ctor
s in
the
reco
nstru
ctio
n pr
oces
s. H
is g
over
nmen
t has
relie
d on
a b
lend
of d
omes
tic re
sour
ces a
nd c
apab
ilitie
s; in
tern
atio
nal t
rade
, in
vestm
ent a
nd b
orro
win
g; e
xpan
sion
of th
e ro
le o
f the
priv
ate
sect
or;
and
utili
zatio
n of
pub
lic p
lann
ing
and
mar
ket m
echa
nism
s. Fo
llow
ing
reco
mm
enda
tions
of t
he W
orld
Ban
k an
d th
e In
tern
atio
nal M
onet
ary
Fund
(IM
F), t
he g
over
nmen
t has
impl
emen
ted
econ
omic
stab
iliza
tion
and
stru
ctur
al a
djus
tmen
t pro
gram
mes
that
are
des
igne
d to
put
the
econ
omy
on a
pea
cetim
e fo
otin
g th
at e
mph
asiz
es in
crea
sed
grow
th
and
grea
ter e
ffic
ienc
y. M
ost p
rice
cont
rols
hav
e be
en li
fted;
nat
iona
l-iz
ed in
dust
ries
are
bein
g so
ld to
the
priv
ate
sect
or; s
ubsi
dies
hav
e la
rgel
y be
en e
limin
ated
; a si
ngle
exc
hang
e ra
te h
as b
een
intro
duce
d;
the
Iran
ian
rial h
as b
een
deva
lued
and
mad
e co
nver
tible
, and
the
gove
rnm
ent's
bud
get d
efic
it ha
s be
en b
roug
ht u
nder
con
trol.
The
Iran
ian
gove
rnm
ent h
as a
lso
take
n a
serie
s of o
ther
step
s: it
has
bor
-ro
wed
upw
ards
of $
30 b
illio
n fro
m fo
reig
n go
vern
men
ts an
d fin
anci
al
and
indu
stria
l ins
titut
ions
; it h
as e
ncou
rage
d - w
ith le
ss s
ucce
ss -
fore
ign
inve
stm
ent;
and
it ha
s cr
eate
d fr
ee e
cono
mic
zon
es in
the
Pers
ian
Gul
f isl
ands
and
els
ewhe
re in
the
coun
try. ,
The
imm
edia
te
impa
cts o
f thi
s mac
roec
onom
ic p
olic
y ha
ve b
een
high
er in
flatio
n, a
w
ider
gap
bet
wee
n th
e in
com
es o
f ric
h an
d po
or, a
nd a
larg
er in
ter-
natio
nal d
ebt;
mea
nwhi
le, i
ts lo
ng-te
rm s
ucce
ss re
mai
ns in
dou
bt
whi
le th
e U
S go
vern
men
t opp
oses
the
gove
rnm
ent i
n Te
hera
n an
d th
ere
is u
ncer
tain
ty a
bout
pol
itica
l cha
nges
follo
win
g th
e en
d of
Raf
-sa
njan
i's te
rm in
199
7. H
owev
er, f
rom
the
pers
pect
ive
of e
cono
mic
gr
owth
, the
pol
icy
has
alre
ady
been
suc
cess
ful b
ecau
se th
e gr
owth
ra
te h
as a
vera
ged
abou
t 8 p
er c
ent p
er y
ear b
etw
een
1989
and
19
92. N
one
the
less
, mos
t of t
he b
enef
its o
f thi
s gr
owth
hav
e be
en
erod
ed b
y a
popu
latio
n in
crea
se ra
te o
f aro
und
3.2
per c
ent p
er y
ear
(199
2).
162
Indu
stri
al d
evas
tatio
n in
Iran
Nat
iona
l rec
onst
ruct
ion
plan
s
The
Firs
t Soc
io-E
cono
mic
and
Cul
tura
l Dev
elop
men
t Pla
n of
the
Isla
mic
Rep
ublic
pro
vide
d fo
r thr
ee, m
ore
or le
ss d
istin
ct, s
tage
s of
econ
omic
reco
nstru
ctio
n. In
dust
rial r
ecov
ery
is a
n im
porta
nt o
bjec
-tiv
e. In
the
first
stag
e, e
ffor
ts a
re d
irect
ed to
war
d fu
ll us
e of
exi
stin
g pr
oduc
tive
capa
citie
s (pa
rticu
larly
in o
il an
d ga
s), i
nfra
stru
ctur
e, a
nd
hum
an re
sour
ces.
Stro
ng e
mph
asis
is a
lso
plac
ed o
n ag
ricul
ture
and
ru
ral d
evel
opm
ent.
The
goal
at t
his
stag
e is
the
rest
orat
ion
of th
e ec
onom
y to
its
norm
al fu
nctio
ning
leve
l and
the
incr
ease
of o
il ex
-po
rts to
gen
erat
e as
muc
h fo
reig
n ex
chan
ge a
s po
ssib
le. S
truct
ural
ad
just
men
t and
sta
biliz
atio
n, a
s pr
escr
ibed
by
the
Wor
ld B
ank
and
IMF,
and
inve
stm
ent i
n th
e oi
l sec
tor a
re th
e m
ajor
gov
ernm
ent p
ro-
gram
mes
at p
rese
nt.
The
next
pla
n (1
994-
1998
) will
focu
s on
usin
g oi
l rev
enue
to a
chie
ve
econ
omic
gro
wth
and
incr
ease
d pe
r cap
ita in
com
e by
exp
andi
ng p
ro-
duct
ive
capa
citie
s and
job-
gene
ratin
g in
vestm
ents.
The
third
and
fina
l pl
an w
ill a
ttem
pt to
con
solid
ate
the
grow
th p
roce
ss a
nd m
ake
it in
de-
pend
ent o
f the
oil
sect
or. T
his
is a
sta
ge fa
r int
o th
e fu
ture
. Ira
nian
le
ader
s bel
ieve
that
onl
y th
en w
ill th
e co
untry
be
able
to a
chie
ve g
oals
of so
cial
justi
ce a
nd e
cono
mic
self-
suffi
cien
cy.
Whi
le e
cono
mic
nor
mal
izat
ion
is th
e fo
cus o
f the
firs
t nat
iona
l pla
n,
the
gove
rnm
ent h
as a
lso
been
mak
ing
prog
ress
tow
ard
the
phys
ical
re
cons
truct
ion
of w
ar-d
amag
ed a
reas
and
the
esta
blis
hmen
t of n
ew
econ
omic
act
iviti
es. B
efor
e au
thor
ities
cou
ld p
lan
for r
ebui
ldin
g ur
ban
and
indu
stria
l are
as, t
hey
need
ed to
kno
w h
ow m
any
peop
le w
ould
be
retu
rnin
g to
pre
-war
settl
emen
ts; h
ence
pop
ulat
ion
proj
ectio
ns w
ere
unde
rtake
n. S
econ
d, th
e go
vern
men
t stu
died
the
func
tions
of v
ari-
ous c
ities
in a
ntic
ipat
ion
of c
hang
ing
thei
r pre
-war
role
s. Th
ird, a
u-th
oriti
es a
dopt
ed a
regi
onal
vie
w o
f dev
elop
men
t acc
ordi
ng to
whi
ch,
citie
s an
d vi
llage
s w
ere
rega
rded
as
inte
gral
par
ts o
f pro
vinc
es th
at
wer
e th
emse
lves
par
t of a
n in
tegr
ated
nat
iona
l sta
te.
The
Nat
iona
l Spa
tial P
lann
ing
Stra
tegy
requ
ires
that
reco
nstru
c-tio
n of
rura
l set
tlem
ents
will
pre
cede
that
of t
he c
ities
. The
inte
nt is
to
prev
ent u
nwan
ted
mig
ratio
n of
rura
l peo
ple
to th
e ci
ties.
This
stra
t-eg
y is
con
sist
ent w
ith th
e go
vern
men
t's e
arlie
r pla
n to
mak
e ag
ricul
-tu
re a
n ax
is o
f dev
elop
men
t and
to re
settl
e ru
ral a
reas
. The
gov
-er
nmen
t's p
lan
calls
for g
radu
al re
cons
truct
ion
of to
wns
and
vill
ages
so
that
peo
ple
will
retu
rn to
thei
r pre
viou
s se
ttlem
ents
as
esse
ntia
l pu
blic
and
priv
ate
activ
ities
are
taki
ng sh
ape.
Pla
nnin
g, c
ultu
ral m
at-
163
Am
irahm
adi
ters
, and
oth
er h
uman
dim
ensi
ons o
f rec
onst
ruct
ion
are
said
to h
ave
rece
ived
par
ticul
ar a
ttent
ion.
It is
judg
ed th
at, a
s ra
vage
d ar
eas
are
revi
taliz
ed, w
ar m
igra
nts
will
retu
rn a
nd h
elp
to re
build
dam
aged
st
ruct
ures
. Hou
sing
reco
nstru
ctio
n ha
s rem
aine
d a
maj
or p
aram
eter
in
the
over
all p
lan
for n
orm
aliz
atio
n of
con
ditio
ns (
tabi
'i sa
zi) i
n th
e da
mag
ed a
reas
. D
urin
g th
e w
ar, r
econ
stru
ctio
n w
as a
n em
erge
ncy
or re
plac
e-m
ent a
ctiv
ity th
at fo
cuse
d la
rgel
y on
hou
sing.
Now
it in
clud
es u
pgra
d-in
g bu
ildin
g qu
ality
, inf
rast
ruct
ure,
and
eco
nom
ic p
rodu
ctiv
ity. T
he
Supr
eme
Cou
ncil
for R
econ
stru
ctio
n an
d R
enov
atio
n of
War
-Dam
-ag
ed A
reas
is th
e hi
ghes
t-lev
el b
ody
resp
onsi
ble
for r
econ
stru
ctio
n.
It m
akes
stra
tegi
c de
cisi
ons
and
over
sees
eff
orts
to p
rom
ote
publ
ic
finan
cial
con
tribu
tions
. Ano
ther
bod
y, th
e C
entra
l Hea
dqua
rters
for
Reco
nstru
ctio
n, se
ts pr
iorit
ies,
mak
es p
olic
ies,
supe
rvise
s im
plem
enta
-tio
n of
pro
ject
s, an
d co
ordi
nate
s the
wor
k of
oth
er o
rgan
izat
ions
. The
va
rious
sect
oral
reco
nstru
ctio
n he
adqu
arte
rs c
oord
inat
e re
cons
truc-
tion
wor
ks w
ith th
e se
ctor
al p
lann
ing
com
mitt
ees a
nd su
perv
ise
proj
-ec
ts b
eing
impl
emen
ted
by c
ontra
ctor
s. F
inal
ly, t
he p
rovi
ncia
l and
co
unty
reco
nstru
ctio
n he
adqu
arte
rs a
re re
spon
sibl
e fo
r a v
arie
ty o
f ta
sks,
incl
udin
g pr
iorit
izin
g th
e re
cons
truct
ion
proj
ects
for i
mpl
e-m
enta
tion.
The
se g
over
nmen
tal i
nstit
utio
ns a
re a
ssis
ted
by o
ther
pub
-lic
and
priv
ate
orga
niza
tions
incl
udin
g th
e H
ousi
ng F
ound
atio
n, th
e M
inis
try o
f Rec
onst
ruct
ion
Cru
sade
, the
End
owm
ent f
or th
e Ei
ghth
Im
am,
Seta
dha-
ye M
o'in
(su
ppor
ting
cent
res
for p
artic
ular
pro
ject
s or
citi
es su
ch a
s Kho
rran
isha
hr's
Seta
d),
phila
nthr
opic
org
aniz
atio
ns,
and
revo
lutio
nar y
fou
ndat
ions
(ba
seej
and
kom
iteh)
. W
here
pos
sibl
e, th
e Ir
ania
n go
vern
men
t doe
s no
t rel
ocat
e or
at
tem
pt to
com
bine
dam
aged
set
tlem
ents
. Rat
her,
the
polic
y is
to
rebu
ild th
em o
n th
eir o
rigin
al s
ites
(dar
ja .s
azi).
Thi
s is
inte
nded
to
min
imiz
e co
st, s
ave
time,
and
pre
vent
unn
eces
sary
con
flict
bet
wee
n th
e pe
ople
and
the
gove
rnm
ent.
The
gove
rnm
ent a
lso
avoi
ds c
erta
in
actio
ns su
ch a
s rec
onst
ruct
ing
apar
tmen
t com
plex
es, b
uild
ing
hous
es
befo
re th
e ow
ners
hav
e re
turn
ed to
the
settl
emen
ts, a
nd u
sing
pre
-fa
bric
atio
n te
chni
ques
. Exp
erie
nce
in Ir
an in
dica
tes
that
pre
viou
sly
thos
e ac
tions
wer
e no
t pop
ular
with
the
peop
le. R
athe
r, en
doge
nous
te
chni
ques
and
one
s th
at u
se m
ore
loca
l or n
atio
nal r
esou
rces
are
pr
efer
red:
they
are
sai
d to
redu
ce th
e na
tion'
s te
chno
logi
cal d
epen
-de
ncy.
A fl
exib
le p
lann
ing
appy
bach
is a
dopt
ed so
that
feed
back
and
in
puts
from
peo
ple
are
easi
ly in
corp
orat
ed to
impr
ove
the
qual
ity o
f op
erat
ions
. In
reco
nstru
ctin
g po
pula
tion
cent
res,
the
orde
r of p
riorit
y is,
firs
t, re
siden
tial a
nd c
omm
erci
al u
nits
and
fact
orie
s pro
duci
ng c
on-
indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
stru
ctio
n m
ater
ials
, fol
low
ed b
y ot
her e
mpl
oym
ent-g
ener
atin
g ac
tiv-
ities
, par
ticul
arly
in a
gric
ultu
re a
nd sm
all i
ndus
tries
. Pro
visio
n of
hea
t, w
ater
, ele
ctric
ity, r
oads
, inf
rast
ruct
ures
, edu
catio
nal a
nd h
ealth
ser-
vice
s, co
mm
unic
atio
n lin
ks, a
nd u
rban
am
eniti
es a
re a
lso
give
n hi
gh
prio
rity.
At t
he n
atio
nal l
evel
, spe
cial
prio
rity
has
been
atta
ched
to
reco
nstru
ctio
n of
larg
e in
dust
rial u
nits
suc
h as
pet
roch
emic
al c
om-
plex
es, o
il re
finer
ies,
and
pow
er p
lant
s. Th
ere
are
thre
e le
vels
of r
econ
stru
ctio
n pl
ans.
"N
atio
nal s
ecto
r"
plan
s (b
akhs
h-e
mel
li)
incl
ude
larg
e in
dust
rial a
nd in
fras
truct
ural
pr
ojec
ts th
at a
re im
plem
ente
d by
min
istri
es. "
Popu
lar s
ecto
r" p
lans
(b
akhs
h-e
mar
dom
i)
deal
with
reco
nstr
uctio
n of
resi
dent
ial a
nd
com
mer
cial
uni
ts b
y th
eir o
wne
rs. "
Reg
iona
l sec
tor"
pla
ns (
bakh
sh-e
m
anta
qehe
i) en
com
pass
regi
onal
dev
elop
men
t pro
gram
mes
and
ur
ban
or ru
ral s
ervi
ce p
roje
cts.
They
are
impl
emen
ted
by re
cons
truc-
tion
offic
es in
the
dam
aged
are
as. T
he ro
le o
f gov
ernm
ent i
s lim
ited
to in
vest
ing
in jo
b-ge
nera
ting
prod
uctiv
e un
its, s
uper
visi
on o
f rec
on-
stru
ctio
n pr
oces
ses,
prov
isio
n of
tech
nica
l ser
vice
s, an
d fin
anci
al a
s-si
stan
ce. I
n al
l cas
es, s
ite p
repa
ratio
n is
a p
ublic
resp
onsi
bilit
y. T
he
gove
rnm
ent i
s als
o re
spon
sibl
e fo
r equ
ippi
ng p
ublic
off
ices
with
ade
-qu
ate
equi
pmen
t and
ski
lled
labo
ur, a
s w
ell a
s fo
r del
iver
ing
basi
c co
nstru
ctio
n m
ater
ials
to th
e pr
ojec
t site
s. Fi
nanc
ially
, the
pub
lic se
ctor
ass
ists
reco
nstru
ctio
n by
inve
stin
g in
in
fras
truct
ure;
pro
vidi
ng te
chni
cal a
nd m
anag
eria
l per
sonn
el; r
eim
-bu
rsin
g th
e pu
blic
for p
art o
f the
war
-rel
ated
loss
es; a
nd g
rant
ing
cred
its, l
oans
, and
oth
er b
anki
ng se
rvic
es. F
or re
build
ing
urba
n re
si-
dent
ial u
nits
(fro
m 6
0 to
120
squa
re m
etre
s), t
he g
over
nmen
t pay
s up
to 6
mill
ion
rials
, plu
s the
cos
t of c
onst
ruct
ion
mat
eria
ls.
Supp
ort f
rom
inte
rnat
iona
l org
aniz
atio
ns a
nd lo
cal
com
mun
ities
Inte
rnat
iona
l eco
nom
ic a
nd d
iplo
mat
ic c
omm
uniti
es a
re p
layi
ng a
lim
ited
but d
irect
role
in re
cons
truct
ion,
to so
me
degr
ee re
vers
ing
the
"han
ds-o
ff"
appr
oach
ado
pted
by
othe
r cou
ntrie
s du
ring
the
war
. Fi
rms f
rom
Wes
tern
Eur
ope,
Japa
n, R
ussi
a, a
nd th
e U
nite
d St
ates
(as
subc
ontra
ctor
s) a
re c
urre
ntly
invo
lved
in re
build
ing
oil i
nsta
llatio
ns
and
have
join
ed in
oth
er m
ajor
indu
stria
l and
infr
astru
ctur
al p
roje
cts.
The
Uni
ted
Nat
ions
Sec
urity
Cou
ncil
(Dec
embe
r 199
1) h
as m
ade
unsu
cces
sful
ove
rture
s to
the
Wes
t for
tech
nica
l and
fina
ncia
l ass
is-
tanc
e to
Iran
.5
The
supp
ort o
f loc
al c
itize
ns h
as b
een
cruc
ial
to fi
ghtin
g th
e w
ar
165
164
166
167
A^ n
iral
unad
i
and
rebu
ildin
g ra
vage
d co
mm
uniti
es. D
urin
g th
e w
ar's
early
yea
rs
ther
e w
as g
reat
pop
ular
ent
husi
asm
for t
he Ir
ania
n re
volu
tion,
and
ci
tizen
s w
ere
will
ing
to ta
ke th
e le
ad in
reco
nstru
ctin
g ho
uses
and
pu
blic
faci
litie
s. T
his
spiri
t con
tinue
s ev
en a
fter t
he w
ar's
end:
it
is re
flect
ed in
reco
mm
enda
tions
of t
he C
ounc
il of
Pol
icy
Mak
ing
for R
econ
stru
ctio
n. In
198
8, th
e C
ounc
il, a
ctin
g on
reco
mm
enda
tions
fr
om th
e la
te A
yato
llah
Kho
mei
ni, o
utlin
ed it
s Dire
ctiv
e on
the
Com
-pr
ehen
sive
Nat
iona
l Rec
onst
ruct
ion
Plan
. The
Dire
ctiv
e ca
lled
for a
re
cons
truct
ion
stra
tegy
that
is fo
unde
d on
the
capa
bilit
ies o
f peo
ple
in w
ar-to
rn a
reas
, and
that
stre
sses
the
impo
rtanc
e of
"ob
serv
ing
the
cultu
ral,
tradi
tiona
l, an
d ps
ycho
logi
cal c
hara
cter
istic
s of t
he p
eopl
e in
ea
ch a
rea.
..."
(Am
irahm
adi 1
990b
: 247
). D
espi
te th
e em
phas
is o
n lo
cal i
nitia
tives
, the
gov
ernm
ent a
nd so
cial
syst
ems o
f Ira
n ar
e ce
n-tra
lized
. The
nat
iona
l gov
ernm
ent i
s who
lly re
spon
sibl
e fo
r all
reco
n-st
ruct
ion
plan
s. It
deci
des w
hich
pro
duct
ive
cent
res a
re to
be
rebu
ilt,
the
pace
of r
ebui
ldin
g, a
nd la
nd-u
se p
atte
rns.
Loca
l par
ticip
atio
n w
as in
tend
ed to
be
inst
itutio
naliz
ed b
y m
eans
of
exp
ande
d pr
ovin
cial
and
mun
icip
al a
utho
ritie
s, a
s w
ell a
s to
wn
coun
cils.
How
ever
, the
re is
no
auto
nom
ous n
on-g
over
nmen
tal a
genc
y th
at e
ncou
rage
s gr
ass-
root
s in
puts
. The
nat
iona
l gov
ernm
ent's
cal
l fo
r citi
zen
parti
cipa
tion
in th
e re
build
ing
is a
top-
dow
n m
anag
emen
t st
rate
gy, w
here
in th
e ce
ntra
l aut
horit
y m
akes
the
impo
rtant
dec
isio
ns
abou
t a w
ide
rang
e of
mat
ters
, inc
ludi
ng h
ow to
refa
shio
n ci
ties,
re
invi
gora
te lo
cal i
ndus
try, a
nd c
reat
e po
st-w
ar lo
cal a
dmin
istra
tions
. O
ver t
ime,
the
gove
rnm
ent h
as a
lso
rede
fined
loca
l par
ticip
atio
n in
te
rms
of in
crea
sing
priv
atiz
atio
n of
the
publ
ic s
ecto
r by
mea
ns o
f va
rious
ince
ntiv
e pa
ckag
es. C
onse
quen
tly, t
he c
laim
that
resi
dent
s of
war
-aff
licte
d ar
eas w
ill b
e in
volv
ed in
the
rebu
ildin
g pr
oces
s has
a
hollo
w ri
ng, e
xcep
t in
the
case
of p
rivat
e ho
usin
g re
cons
truct
ion.
W
ith th
e ad
optio
n of
free
mar
ket m
echa
nism
s as t
he u
ltim
ate
arbi
ters
of
reco
nstru
ctio
n, c
omm
unity
mem
bers
bec
ome
invo
lved
in th
e pr
o-ce
ss o
nly
to th
e ex
tent
that
they
pro
vide
the
hum
an c
apita
l nec
essa
ry
for e
cono
mic
gro
wth
and
rest
ruct
urin
g. T
he g
over
nmen
t doe
s, ho
w-ev
er,
cont
inue
to p
rovi
de m
ater
ials
to in
divi
dual
s wis
hing
to re
build
. C
ompe
nsat
ion
of v
ictim
s for
loss
es in
curr
ed d
urin
g th
e w
ar is
vie
wed
as
ess
entia
l for
mai
ntai
ning
pop
ular
supp
ort o
f the
regi
me.
O
wne
rs a
re re
spon
sibl
e fo
r the
des
ign
and
reco
nstru
ctio
n of
thei
r ow
n un
its. T
he D
irect
or o
f the
Pro
vinc
ial R
econ
stru
ctio
n O
ffic
e m
ay,
at h
is d
iscr
etio
n, a
ssis
t an
owne
r with
up
to 1
80 sq
uare
met
res o
f roo
f co
vera
ge. A
n ow
ner m
ay b
e al
so a
ssis
ted
by b
ank
loan
s. F
or u
rban
co
mm
erci
al e
stab
lishm
ents
, the
gov
ernm
ent p
ays
up to
1.5
mill
ion
Indu
stri
al d
evas
tatio
n in
Iran
rials
and
ass
ists
the
owne
r with
ban
k lo
ans.
For r
ebui
ldin
g an
d re
no-
vatin
g pr
oduc
tion
units
, the
gov
ernm
ent p
ays u
p to
6 m
illio
n ria
ls an
d pr
ovid
es c
onst
ruct
ion
mat
eria
ls a
t off
icia
l pric
es. O
ther
gov
ernm
ent
assi
stan
ce in
clud
es b
ank
loan
s and
pro
visi
on o
f for
eign
exc
hang
e to
be
use
d fo
r pur
chas
e of
mac
hine
ry a
nd e
quip
men
t. Th
e go
vern
men
t al
so re
imbu
rses
priv
ate
vict
ims
for a
long
list
of d
amag
ed it
ems,
ra
ngin
g fr
om a
gric
ultu
ral p
rodu
cts
and
palm
tree
s to
ani
mal
s an
d pr
ivat
e ve
hicl
es. B
uild
ing
perm
its a
nd a
cces
s to
wat
er a
nd e
lect
ricity
ar
e al
so p
rovi
ded
free
of c
harg
e. T
he R
econ
stru
ctio
n O
rgan
izat
ion
is
resp
onsi
ble
for c
lear
ing
and
rem
oval
of d
ebris
at n
o co
st to
ow
ners
. Fi
nally
, the
gov
ernm
ent s
ells
the
follo
win
g se
ven
"bas
ic"
hous
ehol
d ite
ms t
o w
ar m
igra
nts w
ho a
re re
turn
ing
to v
illag
es: m
achi
ne-m
ade
carp
et; r
efrig
erat
or; b
lack
and
whi
te te
levi
sion
; sto
ve; k
itche
n w
are
and
plat
es; s
ewin
g m
achi
ne, a
nd fa
n.
Urb
an re
cons
truc
tion
Citi
es a
re b
eing
reco
nstru
cted
on
thei
r pre
viou
s site
s and
with
an
eye
tow
ard
mod
erni
zatio
n. W
hile
mix
ed la
nd u
ses a
re m
aint
aine
d in
mos
t ca
ses,
indu
stria
l and
com
mer
cial
zon
es a
re se
para
ted
from
resi
dent
ial
area
s. T
his
has
led
to s
igni
fican
t cha
nges
in la
ndho
ldin
g pa
ttern
s w
ithin
reco
nstru
cted
urb
an s
ettle
men
ts. A
ttem
pts
are
bein
g m
ade
to e
nfor
ce Is
lam
ic b
uild
ing
code
s and
arc
hite
ctur
e, b
ut w
ithou
t muc
h su
cces
s. A
new
urb
an st
rate
gy is
now
in p
lace
. It f
ocus
es fi
rst o
n th
e re
cons
truct
ion
of p
rodu
ctiv
e se
ctor
s of
the
econ
omy
and
then
on
infr
astru
ctur
e, h
ousi
ng, a
nd se
rvic
es a
s bot
tlene
cks d
evel
op in
thos
e ar
eas.
The
new
stra
tegy
is in
tend
ed to
brin
g ab
out a
gra
dual
repo
pu-
latio
n of
dam
aged
settl
emen
ts, a
djus
ted
to th
e ra
te a
t whi
ch h
ousi
ng
and
jobs
are
ava
ilabl
e.
In m
any
plac
es re
cons
truct
ion
has p
roce
eded
slow
ly a
nd w
ith c
on-
side
rabl
e de
bate
. For
exa
mpl
e, th
e re
build
ing
of K
horr
amsh
ahr w
as
slow
ed b
y di
sagr
eem
ent a
bout
whe
ther
the
city
had
lost
its j
ustif
ica-
tion
as a
maj
or p
ort.
Alte
rnat
ive
ports
had
bee
n de
velo
ped
else
whe
re
durin
g th
e w
ar, s
ome
on m
ore
stra
tegi
cally
secu
re si
tes.
Whe
n re
con-
stru
ctio
n be
gan
in so
me
parts
of K
horr
amsh
ahr,
orig
inal
foun
datio
ns
wer
e ex
cava
ted
in a
n at
tem
pt to
con
firm
land
ow
ners
hip
with
surv
i-vo
rs. T
he e
ffor
t req
uire
d to
car
ry o
ut su
ch p
ains
taki
ng re
cons
truct
ion
was
judg
ed to
be
war
rant
ed b
y th
e ps
ycho
logi
cal,
soci
al, a
nd e
cono
mic
be
nefit
s tha
t acc
rued
from
wor
king
clo
sely
with
loca
l res
iden
ts (Z
arga
r an
d Po
or 1
991)
. Im
plem
enta
tion
of re
cons
truct
ion
plan
s beg
ins w
hen
the
Min
istry
Atn
irahm
adi
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
of H
ealth
and
the
Red
Cre
scen
t Soc
iety
hav
e fin
ishe
d di
sinf
ectin
g a
war
-dam
aged
are
a. A
t tha
t tim
e an
are
a m
anag
er is
app
oint
ed to
ov
erse
e th
e re
build
ing
of h
ouse
s. H
e (in
varia
bly
mal
e) is
the
sole
re
pres
enta
tive
of th
e H
ousi
ng F
ound
atio
n in
the
loca
lity
and
his
deci
sion
may
not
be o
vert
urne
d by
oth
er p
ublic
offi
cial
s. H
owev
er,
the a
rea
man
ager
mus
t wor
k w
ithin
the f
ram
ewor
k of
the r
elev
ant
prov
inci
al d
evel
opm
ent p
lan
and
coor
dina
te h
is ac
tiviti
es w
ith p
ro-
vinc
ial o
ffici
als a
nd a
ctiv
ities
. In
addi
tion
to a
rea
man
ager
s, ot
her
agen
ts in
volv
ed in
the t
ask
of h
ousin
g re
cons
truc
tion
incl
ude
owne
rs
of h
ouse
s, Is
lam
ic C
ounc
ils, a
uxili
ary
wor
k gr
oups
, and
pr
ovin
cial
re
pres
enta
tives
of t
he H
ousi
ng F
ound
atio
n.
Hou
sing
reco
nstru
ctio
n
The
natio
nal g
over
nmen
t put
s litt
le m
oney
into
the
reco
nstru
ctio
n of
da
niag
ed h
ouse
s. M
ost g
over
nmen
t fun
ds a
re in
vest
ed in
pub
lic se
r-vi
ces,
site
pre
para
tion,
em
ploy
men
t-gen
erat
ing
prod
uctiv
e ac
tiviti
es,
prov
isio
n of
con
stru
ctio
n m
ater
ials
, arc
hite
ctur
al d
esig
n, te
chni
cal
supe
rvis
ion,
and
bui
lder
trai
ning
. The
gov
ernm
ent h
as a
dopt
ed a
"n
ew to
wn"
dev
elop
men
t stra
tegy
and
em
ploy
s the
"si
te a
nd se
rvic
e pr
ovis
ion"
app
roac
h ad
voca
ted
by th
e W
orld
Ban
k. In
rura
l are
as,
the
Hou
sing
Foun
datio
n is
prim
arily
resp
onsib
le fo
r the
qua
lity
of th
e co
nstru
ctio
n m
ater
ials
and
bui
ldin
gs.
Som
e fin
anci
al a
ssis
tanc
e is
ava
ilabl
e to
hom
e-bu
ilder
s: it
can
take
th
e fo
rm o
f gra
nts,
cre
dit,
or b
ank
loan
s. B
ut th
e em
phas
is o
n se
lf-he
lp m
akes
hom
e-ow
ners
resp
onsib
le fo
r des
ign
and
cons
truct
ion
and
enco
urag
es th
em to
rely
on
loca
l tec
hnol
ogy
and
reso
urce
s.
Indu
stri
al re
cons
truc
tion
Maj
or e
cono
mic
ent
erpr
ises
and
indu
strie
s are
resp
onsi
ble
for r
econ
-st
ruct
ing
thei
r res
pect
ive
faci
litie
s und
er th
e di
rect
ion
of th
e M
inist
ry
of H
eavy
Indu
stries
, the
Min
istry
of (
Ligh
t) In
dustr
ies o
r the
Min
istry
of
Min
es a
nd M
etal
s. O
il, g
as, p
etro
chem
ical
indu
strie
s, b
asic
in-
dust
ries,
firm
s pro
duci
ng c
onst
ruct
ion
mat
eria
ls, m
etal
pro
duct
s, an
d ba
sic
need
s con
sum
er g
oods
hav
e be
en g
iven
top
prio
rity.
A
com
mitt
ee fi
rst d
eter
min
es if
a sp
ecifi
c fir
m s
houl
d be
scra
pped
or
rebu
ilt a
nd w
heth
er it
s fac
ilitie
s war
rant
repa
ir, r
epla
cem
ent,
or
upgr
adin
g. U
nits
that
are
unl
ikel
y to
be
rebu
ilt in
clud
e th
ose
with
m
ore
than
30
per c
ent d
amag
e, th
ose
tech
nica
lly to
o ob
sole
te o
r too
de
pend
ent,
and
units
with
littl
e pr
ospe
ct fo
r sig
nific
ant v
alue
-add
ed
capa
bilit
y. A
ttent
ion
is a
lso
paid
to la
bour
and
fina
ncia
l mar
kets
, ca
pita
l mar
kets,
pro
duct
ion
tech
nolo
gy, i
nput
s -ou
tput
s mar
kets,
trad
e pr
ospe
cts,
man
agem
ent r
equi
rem
ents
and
cap
abili
ties,
and
othe
r nec
-es
sary
inst
itutio
nal a
rran
gem
ents
. Whi
le th
ese
activ
ities
hav
e be
en
follo
wed
in th
e ca
se o
f ind
ustri
al re
build
ing,
the
natio
n as
yet
doe
s no
t hav
e a
clea
r ind
ustri
al p
olic
y or
a p
olic
y of
indu
stria
l sec
urity
in
case
of a
noth
er w
ar.
Wha
t thi
s ove
rvie
w o
f pos
t-war
reco
nstru
ctio
n sh
ows i
s tha
t ind
us-
trial
rede
velo
pmen
t is
a pr
iori
ty o
f the
Iran
ian
gove
rnm
ent,
but t
hat
ther
e is l
ittle
expl
icit
conc
ern
for i
ndus
tria
l saf
ety
as a
pla
nnin
g cr
ite-
rion
, for
add
ing
impr
oved
acc
iden
t-pre
vent
ion
syst
ems t
o th
e re
built
in
dust
rial f
acili
ties,
or fo
r mak
ing
othe
r atte
mpt
s to
miti
gate
pot
entia
l in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
. Whe
reas
pea
cetim
e in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
hav
e so
met
imes
stim
ulat
ed h
azar
d-re
duct
ion
legi
slat
ion
and
othe
r ini
tia-
tives
, one
less
on o
f Ira
n's
expe
rienc
e is
that
war
-rel
ated
indu
stria
l di
sast
ers a
re n
ot fo
llow
ed b
y su
ch c
hang
es.
Con
cept
ual f
ram
ewor
k fo
r a
mod
el o
f pos
t-war
rec
onst
ruct
ion
and
indu
stri
al h
azar
d re
cove
ry
The
best
way
to p
reve
nt w
ar-r
elat
ed in
dust
rial d
isas
ters
is to
pre
vent
w
ars f
rom
occ
urrin
g in
the
first
pla
ce. O
bvio
usly
, it i
s too
late
to p
re-
vent
the
outb
reak
of h
ostil
ities
bet
wee
n Ir
an a
nd Ir
aq: t
he d
amag
e ha
s al
read
y be
en d
one.
Reg
retta
bly,
sim
ilar s
ituat
ions
are
like
ly
to
arise
in th
e fu
ture
and
ther
e w
ill c
ontin
ue to
be
a ne
ed fo
r rec
on-
stru
ctio
n in
the
wak
e of
arm
ed c
onfli
ct. F
igur
e 6.
3 su
mm
ariz
es a
fr
amew
ork
for p
ost-w
ar re
cons
truct
ion
that
is b
ased
on
the
Iran
ian
expe
rienc
e. In
the
page
s tha
t fol
low
, the
mos
t im
porta
nt e
lem
ents
of
the
fram
ewor
k ar
e ex
plai
ned,
with
spec
ial a
ttent
ion
to th
e re
cove
ry
of in
dust
rial f
acili
ties
that
hav
e be
en d
estro
yed
or d
amag
ed a
nd o
f ad
jace
nt a
reas
and
pop
ulat
ions
tha
t hav
e be
en p
ollu
ted.
A r
econ
struc
tion
strat
egy
The
form
ulat
ion
of a
pos
t-war
reco
nstru
ctio
n st
rate
gy is
bou
nd to
be
com
e th
e ce
ntre
of f
ierc
e de
bate
, for
it m
ust s
atis
fy a
nd c
ut a
cros
s va
ryin
g id
eolo
gies
, soc
ial g
roup
s, ti
me
perio
ds, a
nd c
ultu
res.
The
ch
osen
stra
tegy
will
dep
end
in la
rge m
easu
re o
n th
e nat
ure o
f the
war
its
elf a
nd th
e ex
tent
of d
amag
e. E
ach
natio
n m
ust f
ashi
on it
s ow
n na
tiona
l rec
onstr
uctio
n str
ateg
y, b
ut th
e Ira
nian
expe
rienc
e can
serv
e as
a g
uide
to is
sues
and
alte
rnat
ives
.
169
168
Am
ira
hn
iud
i
I eco
nstr
ucti
on
/ P
lan
R
Priori
ties
Progra
mmes
Polici
es
Hum
an
Relief
Mat
eria
l dR
ecov
ery
I Im
pleme
ntatio
n (R
econst
ructio
n Pro
cess)
Input
Outpu
t F
inan
cial
dR
eplac
emen
ti
dnev
elopm
enti
Tec
hnic
al
Obs
tacl
es
Ski
ll
Lev
el
For
eign
E
xcha
nge
Pol
itic
al
Cul
ture
Fig.
6.3
Fr
amew
ork
for
post
-w
ar r
econ
stru
ctio
n
Firs
t and
fore
mos
t, a
reco
nstru
ctio
n st
rate
gy m
ust b
e ve
rsat
ile a
nd
flex
ible
. Thi
s m
eans
that
it m
ust h
e br
oad
enou
gh to
be
usab
le b
y di
ffer
ent s
ecto
rs a
nd d
iffer
ent l
evel
s of
pol
itica
l adm
inis
tratio
n, a
nd
able
to a
ccom
mod
ate
the
chan
ging
mix
of p
robl
ems
that
aris
e at
dif-
fere
nt s
tage
s of
the
reco
nstr
uctio
n pr
oces
s. It
mus
t als
o be
abl
e to
re
spon
d to
the
need
s of
diff
eren
t soc
io-e
cono
mic
gro
ups
and
to fo
cus
reso
urce
s on
urg
ent p
robl
ems
that
dem
and
quic
k ac
tion
(e.g
. ind
us-
trial
haz
ards
and
ass
ocia
ted
cont
amin
atio
n). T
he s
trate
gy m
ust a
lso
strik
e a
bala
nce
betw
een
com
petin
g de
man
ds fo
r the
imm
edia
te re
lief
of d
estru
ctio
n an
d th
e ne
ed to
inve
st in
act
iviti
es th
at w
ill e
vent
ually
re
stor
e th
e co
untry
's lo
ng-te
rm e
cono
mic
bas
e. T
ypic
ally
, in
the
post
-w
ar a
tmos
pher
e of
eco
nom
ic a
uste
rity
, man
y fo
rces
com
pete
for
scar
ce re
sour
ces,
and
gov
ernm
ents
can
be
draw
n in
to w
aste
ful s
ocia
l pr
ojec
ts th
at a
re a
ttrac
tive
on p
oliti
cal g
roun
ds.
In a
dditi
on to
thes
e ge
nera
l pri
ncip
les,
a re
cons
truc
tion
stra
tegy
Indu
stria
l tle
va.s
iiitio
n in
Iran
shou
ld in
corp
orat
e cl
ear l
ong-
term
goa
ls. T
o en
sure
suc
cess
, goa
ls
mus
t be
tran
slat
ed in
to c
lear
ly d
efin
ed o
bjec
tives
that
real
istic
ally
ta
ke in
to a
ccou
nt th
e so
ciet
y's
reso
urce
s, e
xpec
tatio
ns, c
onst
rain
ts,
and
capa
bilit
ies.
Afte
r an
eval
uatio
n of
thes
e fa
ctor
s, a
hie
rarc
hy o
f go
als
mus
t be
form
ed, b
ased
on
a se
t of n
atio
nal p
rior
ities
. In
post
-w
ar so
ciet
ies t
hese
goa
ls g
ener
ally
incl
ude
rest
orat
ion
of h
uman
hea
lth
and
long
-term
hab
itabi
lity,
reco
nstru
ctio
n of
the
econ
omy,
rebu
ildin
g of
nat
iona
l def
ence
, reh
abili
tatio
n of
war
-dam
aged
are
as, a
nd th
e co
rrec
tion
of s
ocia
l im
bala
nces
cau
sed
by w
ar.'
Nat
iona
l pla
nnin
g is
bas
ed o
n an
ass
umpt
ion
that
"th
e de
tails
" ca
n be
left
to re
gion
al, l
ocal
, or s
ecto
ral p
lans
. But
wha
t hap
pens
whe
n th
ere
is w
ides
prea
d lo
caliz
ed d
estr
uctio
n of
indu
stri
al fa
cilit
ies
that
ha
ve th
e po
tent
ial t
o cr
eate
per
vasi
ve, l
ong-
runn
ing
haza
rds
for
regi
ons,
cou
ntri
es, o
r the
ent
ire
eart
h? P
erha
ps it
will
be
nece
ssar
y to
dev
ise
new
form
s of
nat
iona
l pla
nnin
g or
to c
once
ptua
lize
loca
l-na
tiona
l—gl
obal
eve
nts
and
stra
tegi
es in
new
way
s. F
or th
e m
ore
focu
sed
task
of i
ndus
trial
revi
val,
such
pro
cedu
ral a
ppro
ache
s ha
ve to
be
com
e ev
en m
ore
spec
ific
, allo
win
g fo
r im
plem
enta
tion
of ta
sks
rela
ting
to v
ario
us re
sour
ces
and
com
mod
ity m
arke
ts, a
nd o
rgan
iza-
tiona
l arr
ange
men
ts w
ithin
and
out
side
the
indu
stri
es. P
artic
ipat
ion
of e
mpl
oyee
s in
the
revi
val o
f ind
ustri
es is
a c
ritic
al n
eed
that
may
be
met
by
orga
nizi
ng th
em in
var
ious
con
sulta
tive
and
exec
utiv
e bo
dies
. Im
plem
enta
tion
is b
ette
r ach
ieve
d if
acco
mpa
nied
by
wel
l-def
ined
an
d sp
ecif
ic p
olic
ies
conc
erni
ng e
nvir
onm
enta
l, ec
onom
ic, s
ocia
l, po
litic
al, i
deol
ogic
al, c
ultu
ral,
infr
astru
ctur
al, t
errit
oria
l, ed
ucat
iona
l, te
chni
cal,
and
lega
l cha
nges
. Env
iron
men
tal p
olic
ies
not o
nly
mus
t ta
ke in
to c
onsi
dera
tion
exis
ting
prob
lem
s bu
t als
o m
ust a
ddre
ss th
e fu
ture
sec
urity
of
indu
stri
al p
lant
s an
d su
rrou
ndin
g po
pula
tions
ag
ains
t int
erna
l and
ext
erna
l haz
ards
. Eco
nom
ic p
olic
ies
need
to
acco
unt f
or b
udge
t def
icits
incu
rred
in a
war
eff
ort,
whi
ch g
ener
ate
infla
tion,
une
mpl
oym
ent,
and
pove
rty. T
he g
over
nmen
t mus
t als
o be
re
spon
sibl
e fo
r gen
erat
ing
ince
ntiv
e pa
ckag
es th
at w
ill in
duce
the
priv
ate
sect
or to
inve
st in
pro
duct
ive
activ
ities
, whi
le a
t the
sam
e tim
e cu
rbin
g no
n-pr
oduc
tive
uses
of c
apita
l thr
ough
sel
ectiv
e m
easu
res
such
as
taxe
s an
d cu
mbe
rsom
e lic
ensi
ng re
quire
men
ts. T
he g
over
n-m
ent c
ould
als
o se
ek o
ut d
irec
t for
eign
inve
stm
ent f
or re
vita
lizin
g in
dust
ries.
Soci
al p
olic
ies m
ust b
e di
rect
ed to
war
d th
e pr
ovis
ion
of b
asic
nee
ds
in s
uch
area
s as
hea
lth,
edu
cati
on, h
ousi
ng, a
nd r
ecre
atio
n, w
ith
expl
icit
emph
asis
on
serv
ices
for
thos
e w
ho w
ere
phys
ical
ly o
r m
en-
tally
trau
mat
ized
dur
ing
the
war
. Hou
sing
pol
icy
is th
e m
ost c
ritic
al
170
171
Strate
gy
A nz
irahm
adi
com
pone
nt o
f the
gov
ernm
ent's
soc
ial p
olic
y du
ring
reco
nstru
ctio
n af
ter t
he w
ar: t
he h
ousi
ng s
ecto
r nor
mal
ly re
ceiv
es th
e m
ost d
amag
e an
d su
ffer
s fr
om s
horta
ges
even
in p
eace
time.
Impl
emen
ting
a po
licy
that
allo
ws
for a
sus
tain
able
hou
sing
pro
cess
is th
e m
ost i
mpo
rtan
t as
pect
of a
mor
e ef
fect
ive
soci
al p
olic
y. H
ere,
inco
me
gene
ratio
n sh
ould
bec
ome
the
prim
ary
goal
. Edu
catio
n po
licy
play
s a
very
sig
-ni
fican
t rol
e in
reco
nstru
ctio
n, p
artic
ular
ly in
the
third
wor
ld w
here
pr
ofes
sion
al a
nd te
chni
cal e
duca
tion
leve
ls re
mai
n lo
w. A
mor
e ef
fec-
tive
educ
atio
n pr
ogra
mm
e sh
ould
be
spec
ifica
lly d
irect
ed a
t tra
inin
g po
licy
mak
ers,
pla
nner
s, m
anag
ers,
and
loca
l lea
ders
, as
wel
l as
tow
ard
trans
form
ing
fight
ers
into
pro
duce
rs a
nd p
ollu
ters
into
env
i-ro
nmen
talis
ts! C
ultu
ral p
olic
ies
are
need
ed to
mai
ntai
n di
vers
ity a
nd
unity
dur
ing
the
high
ly d
isru
ptiv
e an
d tr
ansf
orm
ativ
e pr
oces
s of
re
cons
truct
ion.
A
fter
hou
sing
, inf
rast
ruct
ure
is th
e se
ctor
of s
ocie
ty th
at is
mos
t se
vere
ly a
ffec
ted
by w
ar. T
here
fore
, the
suc
cess
of a
reco
nstru
ctio
n st
rate
gy h
inge
s on
wel
l-de
sign
ed in
fras
truc
tura
l pol
icie
s th
at ta
ke
into
acc
ount
futu
re n
eeds
of c
omm
uniti
es a
nd s
tren
gthe
n lin
kage
s be
twee
n th
em. I
nfra
stru
ctur
al p
olic
ies
are
best
impl
emen
ted
in c
on-
junc
tion
with
set
tlem
ent p
olic
ies.
The
se c
an b
enef
it fr
om a
n in
te-
grat
ed re
gion
al a
ppro
ach
in w
hich
a h
iera
rchy
of r
ural
and
urb
an
area
s ar
e lin
ked
toge
ther
func
tiona
lly, a
s w
ell a
s by
tran
spor
tatio
n an
d co
mm
unic
atio
n ne
twor
ks. T
arge
ting
spec
ific
citi
es a
s m
arke
t ce
ntre
s or
oth
er fu
nctio
nal c
entr
es m
ay re
quir
e re
stru
ctur
ing
of th
e pr
e-w
ar u
rban
sys
tem
. Sm
all-s
cale
rura
l ind
ustri
es th
at s
timul
ate
the
agric
ultu
ral s
ecto
r (e.
g. fo
od p
roce
ssin
g) c
ould
be
linke
d to
indu
strie
s at
hig
her l
evel
s of
the
terr
itoria
l hie
rarc
hy.
An
esse
ntia
l par
t of t
he im
plem
enta
tion
proc
ess
is th
e co
dific
atio
n of
all
the
polic
ies
men
tione
d ab
ove,
in th
e fo
rm o
f an
appr
opri
ate
lega
l fra
mew
ork.
The
reco
nstr
uctio
n pl
an it
self
mus
t be
mad
e in
to
law
if it
s im
plem
enta
tion
is tr
uly
to b
e ca
rrie
d ou
t. L
ast,
but b
y no
m
eans
leas
t, re
cons
truc
tion
stra
tegy
mus
t dea
l with
pol
itica
l iss
ues
that
per
mea
te e
very
asp
ect o
f rec
onst
ruct
ion:
ther
e is
a g
reat
dea
l of
pote
ntia
lly d
estru
ctiv
e am
bigu
ity a
bout
the
role
s of
pos
t-war
mili
tary
fo
rces
, abo
ut fa
ctio
nalis
m, a
nd a
bout
sta
te—
soci
ety
rela
tions
. Whi
le
dem
ocra
tizat
ion
and
publ
ic p
artic
ipat
ion
are
the
only
mea
ns f
or
crea
ting
polit
ical
legi
timac
y, m
ost p
ost-
war
sta
tes
are
too
frag
ile
and
unst
able
to a
llow
for t
heir
impl
emen
tatio
n in
the
shor
t ter
m if
th
ey w
ere
not f
irmly
ent
renc
hed
in th
e po
litic
al s
yste
m b
efor
e w
ar
bega
n. M
ost p
ost-w
ar so
ciet
ies a
re c
hara
cter
ized
by
polit
ical
dis
cord
an
d na
tiona
l con
flict
s. In
spite
of t
his,
ther
e si
mpl
y is
no
alte
rnat
ive
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
to n
atio
nal r
econ
cilia
tion
if r
econ
stru
ctio
n is
to b
e im
plem
ente
d su
cces
sful
ly.
The
reco
nstr
uctio
n pr
oces
s
To so
me
degr
ee, t
he re
cons
truct
ion
proc
ess
exhi
bits
pre
dict
able
cha
r-ac
teris
tics.
The
se in
clud
e th
e te
nden
cy fo
r dam
aged
citi
es a
nd in
dus-
trie
s to
be
rebu
ilt o
n th
e sa
me
site
s, c
ontin
uatio
n of
pre
-war
tren
ds
in p
opul
atio
n gr
owth
and
urb
an e
xpan
sion
, con
tinua
tion
of p
redo
m-
inan
ce o
f cer
tain
indu
strie
s, a
nd c
ontin
uatio
n of
pre
viou
s so
cial
stra
t-ifi
catio
n pa
ttern
s (H
aas,
Kat
es, a
nd B
owde
n 19
77).
The
tend
ency
for
a so
ciet
y to
retu
rn to
the
stat
us q
uo a
nte
afte
r war
can
be
expl
aine
d by
tw
o po
wer
ful f
orce
s — fe
ar o
f cha
nge
(par
ticul
arly
in a
soci
ety
that
has
al
read
y se
en s
o m
uch
nega
tive
tran
sfor
mat
ion)
and
the
desi
re o
f th
ose
who
con
trol e
xist
ing
inst
itutio
ns to
hol
d on
to p
ower
. If m
arke
t m
echa
nism
s ar
e re
lied
upon
too
heav
ily d
urin
g po
st-w
ar re
cons
truc-
tion,
cla
ss c
leav
ages
may
bec
ome
even
mor
e pr
onou
nced
than
bef
ore
the
war
. Und
erpr
ivile
ged
mem
bers
of s
ocie
ty a
re th
e m
ost v
ulne
rabl
e in
a d
isas
ter:
they
are
the
leas
t lik
ely
to li
ve in
wel
l-con
stru
cted
she
l-te
rs th
at m
ay s
urvi
ve a
ttack
s, a
nd th
e le
ast l
ikel
y to
hav
e sa
ving
s to
fa
ll ba
ck o
n fo
r the
repl
acem
ent o
f des
troy
ed p
osse
ssio
ns. S
ome
owne
rs a
nd m
erch
ants
, on
the
othe
r han
d, a
re a
ble
to b
enef
it fr
om
the
busi
ness
boo
ms
gene
rate
d by
the
floo
d of
res
ourc
es in
to th
e re
cons
truct
ion
effo
rt. T
hese
circ
umst
ance
s m
ust h
e bo
rne
in m
ind
at
ever
y st
age
of th
e pl
anni
ng p
roce
ss.
An
acce
ptab
le re
cons
truc
tion
proc
ess
muc
h lik
e an
app
ropr
iate
re
cons
truct
ion
stra
tegy
— w
ill, o
f cou
rse,
var
y fr
om c
ase
to c
ase.
Fur
-th
er r
esea
rch
into
the
criti
cally
impo
rtan
t pro
pert
ies
of p
ost-
war
re
cons
truc
tion
will
pro
vide
soc
ietie
s w
ith b
ette
r in
form
atio
n fo
r de
cisi
on-m
akin
g. T
he fo
llow
ing
set o
f hyp
othe
ses
is b
ased
on
exis
ting
liter
atur
e an
d th
e au
thor
's ex
peri
ence
with
dis
aste
r pl
anni
ng a
nd
post
-war
reco
nstr
uctio
n, a
nd is
off
ered
as
a fr
amew
ork
for f
urth
er
anal
ysis.
1.
Reco
nstr
uctio
n te
nds
to b
ecom
e po
litic
ized
and
fact
iona
lism
tend
s to
del
ay th
e re
cons
truc
tion
of w
ar-d
amag
ed a
reas
. W
ar s
imul
ta-
neou
sly
plac
es d
eman
ds o
n a
coun
try'
s re
sour
ces
and
incr
ease
s pu
blic
exp
ecta
tions
of p
ost-
war
eco
nom
ic im
prov
emen
ts. T
he
shor
tage
s th
at o
ccur
gen
erat
e so
ciet
al te
nsio
n an
d in
tens
ify p
res-
sure
on
the
stat
e to
impl
emen
t im
med
iate
cor
rect
ive
mea
sure
s.
Fact
ions
stru
ggle
ove
r rec
onst
ruct
ion
stra
tegy
(pla
nned
ver
sus
mar
ket a
ppro
ach)
and
ther
e is
redu
ced
polit
ical
will
for r
econ
- 173
172
A m
irahm
adi
Indu
stri
al d
evas
tatio
n in
Iran
stru
ctio
n of
war
-dam
aged
are
as. A
lthou
gh th
ere
is g
ener
al a
gree
-m
ent a
bout
the
need
to re
solv
e ec
onom
ic c
rises
, pol
itica
l fa
ctio
n-ali
sm m
ay p
reve
nt s
peci
fic
mea
sure
s fr
om b
eing
impl
emen
ted.
E
nvir
onm
enta
l dib
asic
's —
incl
udin
g th
ose
that
are
con
nect
ed
with
indu
strie
s — a
re, h
owev
er, a
mor
e se
rious
mat
ter t
hat c
anno
t lo
ng b
e ig
nore
d. A
s a
resu
lt, th
ey te
nd to
requ
ire e
xpen
ditu
re o
f na
tiona
l res
ourc
es in
the
post
-war
per
iod.
2.
Rec
onst
ruct
ion
is e
ssen
tial t
hera
py fo
r a
wou
nded
soc
iety
. So
cial
th
erap
y ce
ntre
s on
peo
ple
rebu
ildin
g th
eir c
omm
uniti
es, b
oth
phys
ical
ly a
nd e
mot
iona
lly, a
nd th
is p
roce
ss c
an s
ucce
ed o
nly
if th
ere
is a
nat
iona
l com
mitm
ent t
o he
alin
g. L
ong-
term
hab
itabi
lity
mus
t bec
ome
a pr
iorit
y an
d th
e gu
idin
g go
al o
f the
reco
nstru
ctio
n.
3.E
nfor
cem
ent o
f leg
al s
afet
y co
des
and
prov
isio
n of
soc
ial i
nsur
-an
ce a
re e
ssen
tial t
o re
cons
truc
tion.
Thi
s is
par
ticul
arly
true
whe
n in
dust
rial h
azar
ds a
re p
erva
sive
and
env
ironm
enta
l deg
rada
tion
has
beco
me
thre
aten
ing.
The
imm
edia
te p
ost-w
ar p
erio
d ge
ner-
ates
hig
h em
otio
ns a
nd p
ress
ures
for r
apid
resp
onse
, and
ther
e is
an
und
erst
anda
ble
tend
ency
tow
ard
quic
k fix
es. H
owev
er, q
uick
fi
xes
may
ulti
mat
ely
be m
uch
mor
e co
stly
than
mor
e co
mpr
e-he
nsiv
e re
pairs
. Uns
afe
indu
stria
l site
s an
d po
orly
reco
nstru
cted
bu
ildin
gs p
ose
dang
erou
s ha
zard
s fo
r rec
onst
ruct
ion
wor
kers
and
re
side
nts,
with
bot
h m
oral
and
mat
eria
l con
sequ
ence
s.
4.Ju
st a
s re
cons
truc
tion
afte
r na
tura
l dis
aste
r m
ust b
e us
ed to
pre
-pa
re fo
r or
miti
gate
the
effe
cts
of th
e ne
xt d
isas
ter,
so
mus
t pos
t-w
ar r
econ
stru
ctio
n be
use
d to
red
uce
the
risk
of a
noth
er w
ar a
nd
its c
onse
quen
t ind
ustr
ial h
azar
ds b
y in
corp
orat
ing
the
caus
es o
f th
e w
ar in
to th
e st
rate
gy it
self.
In
add
ition
to w
ar-re
duct
ion
stra
t-eg
ies,
a n
atio
n m
ust a
lso
adop
t pre
vent
ive
stra
tegi
es th
at re
duce
in
dust
rial
haz
ard.
The
refo
re, n
atio
nal a
nd in
dust
rial
sec
urity
sc
hem
es, a
nd d
efen
sive
and
pre
vent
ive
mea
sure
s, b
ecom
e m
ajor
co
mpo
nent
s of
the
post
-war
reco
nstru
ctio
n. T
hese
mea
sure
s ar
e be
st a
chie
ved
by e
mph
asiz
ing
peac
e an
d by
reno
unci
ng w
ar a
s a
mea
ns to
set
tle d
ispu
te. S
ever
al s
trat
egie
s ca
n he
use
d to
ope
r-at
iona
lize
this
goa
l. Fi
rst,
ther
e m
ust b
e w
ide
reco
gniti
on o
f the
fa
ct th
at a
goo
d de
fenc
e po
licy
mus
t be
base
d on
dip
lom
acy,
as
wel
l as
on th
e fa
ct th
at m
aint
aini
ng a
n of
fens
ive
forc
e at
the
expe
nse
of e
cono
mic
dev
elop
men
t doe
s lit
tle to
war
d in
crea
sing
a
natio
n's
shar
e of
the
inte
rnat
iona
l bal
ance
of p
ower
. Sec
ond,
pe
ople
's at
titud
es to
war
d th
e en
emy
as w
ell a
s to
war
d th
e w
ar
and
envi
ronm
enta
l saf
ety
mus
t be
trans
form
ed. T
his
may
pro
ve
diff
icul
t, pa
rtic
ular
ly a
fter
a d
efea
t, bu
t rec
onst
ruct
ioni
sts
can
174
play
an
impo
rtan
t rol
e as
pea
ce a
ctiv
ists
, as
wel
l as
envi
ron-
men
talis
ts, a
nd e
duca
tion
can
be ta
rget
ed to
war
d re
duci
ng th
e co
untr
y's
zeal
for w
ar a
nd in
crea
sing
its
appr
ecia
tion
of e
co-
logi
cal s
afet
y. R
ealis
tic d
efen
sive
mea
sure
s th
at a
re d
esig
ned
to
impr
ove
a na
tion'
s pe
rcep
tion
of s
ecur
ity c
an b
e bu
ilt in
to th
e re
cons
truct
ion
proc
ess,
as
can
prev
entiv
e m
easu
res
that
impr
ove
indu
stria
l sec
urity
. Bor
der a
reas
mus
t be
repo
pula
ted
and
phys
i-ca
lly re
cons
truct
ed w
ith th
e ex
plic
it go
al o
f sec
urity
, whi
le s
tra-
tegi
c ec
onom
ic a
ctiv
ities
and
indu
stri
al p
lant
s ca
n be
relo
cate
d to
saf
er p
lace
s. R
egio
nal g
over
nmen
t and
mili
tary
inst
alla
tions
m
ust b
e re
forg
ed w
ith a
n ey
e to
terr
itori
al b
alan
ce a
nd c
ultu
ral
inte
grat
ion.
5.
War
dam
age,
indu
stri
al h
azar
ds, a
nd r
econ
stru
ctio
n ne
eds
mus
t be
care
fully
det
erm
ined
and
ass
esse
d. A
n as
sess
men
t of w
ar d
amag
e an
d in
dust
rial h
azar
ds re
quire
s an
inte
rdis
cipl
inar
y ap
proa
ch, f
or
dam
age
and
haza
rd s
ituat
ions
diff
er in
term
s of
thei
r phy
sica
l and
ch
emic
al n
atur
e, th
e so
cial
con
sequ
ence
s th
ey g
ener
ate,
and
the
econ
omic
feas
ibili
ty o
f the
ir re
pair
and
cle
an-u
ps. S
kille
d pr
o-fe
ssio
nals
in a
ll di
scip
lines
, as
wel
l as
the
popu
latio
n at
larg
e,
mus
t joi
n to
geth
er to
form
a c
onse
nsus
on
rebu
ildin
g pr
iorit
ies.
R
ecor
d ke
epin
g of
dam
age
and
haza
rds
is e
ssen
tial.
Am
ong
othe
r th
ings
, car
eful
ly k
ept r
ecor
ds o
f dam
age
avoi
d co
nfus
ion
over
ow
ners
hip
and
prov
ide
help
in d
eter
min
ing
com
pens
atio
n fo
r war
vi
ctim
s, ta
rget
ing
prio
rity
reco
nstr
uctio
n pr
ojec
ts, a
nd lo
catin
g re
sour
ces.
6.
Exi
stin
g an
d po
tent
ial r
esou
rces
far
reco
nstr
uctio
n an
d cl
ean-
ups
mus
t be
quic
kly
iden
tifie
d an
d m
obili
zed.
Th
e m
obili
zatio
n of
res
ourc
es m
ust b
egin
with
an
iden
tific
atio
n of
thei
r ty
pe,
qual
ity, a
mou
nt, d
istr
ibut
ion,
cos
ts, f
unct
ion,
eas
e of
use
, and
im
pact
. Ind
igen
ous
reso
urce
s m
ust b
e di
stin
guis
hed
from
ext
er-
nal r
esou
rces
, and
thes
e re
sour
ces
mus
t be
wei
ghed
in te
rms
of th
eir p
oten
tial t
o ca
use
depe
nden
cy, u
nwan
ted
cont
rol o
ver
deve
lopm
ent,
and
unev
en d
evel
opm
ent.
Aft
er r
esou
rces
are
id
entif
ied
and
anal
ysed
, the
y m
ust b
e m
obili
zed.
Mob
iliza
tion
will
dep
end
larg
ely
on g
over
nmen
t act
ion,
but
can
eff
ectiv
ely
be
augm
ente
d th
roug
h th
e ut
iliza
tion
of g
rass
-roo
ts o
rgan
izat
ions
su
ch a
s se
lf-h
elp
proj
ects
, wom
en's
grou
ps, a
nd c
oope
rativ
es
desi
gned
to tr
ain
peop
le a
nd p
rovi
de m
ater
ials
for r
ebui
ldin
g.
Mili
tary
per
sonn
el c
an b
ecom
e cl
ean-
up c
rew
s an
d re
build
ers.
Pu
blic
and
priv
ate
initi
ativ
es, s
uch
as th
e se
lling
of w
ar b
onds
and
se
lf-fin
anci
ng, w
ill h
elp
the
gove
rnm
ent t
ap p
erso
nal w
ealth
for
175
A m
irah
mad
i
mob
iliza
tion.
Mat
eria
l res
ourc
es c
an b
e m
obili
zed
by ex
pand
in
min
eral
expl
orat
ion
and
by re
lyin
g on
loca
l mat
eria
ls fo
r bui
ld.
ing.
Effe
ctiv
e co
mm
unic
atio
n an
d tra
nspo
rtatio
n sy
stem
s are
vita
l fo
r re
sour
ce m
obili
zatio
n.
7.Su
cces
sful
rec
onst
ruct
ion
and
haza
rd r
educ
tion
depe
nd o
n ac
cu-
rate
tim
ing.
Sp
eed
is es
sent
ial i
n ha
rnes
sing
polit
ical
will
an
d pu
blic
enth
usia
sm b
efor
e allo
catio
n of
dw
indl
ing
reso
urce
s ind
u ce
s pes
simism
. The
firs
t ste
p in
pos
t-disa
ster
pla
nnin
g is
an a
nal-
ysis
to d
eter
min
e the
caus
e and
cons
eque
nces
of t
he d
isast
er. T
he
optim
al ti
me
for
reco
nstr
uctio
n an
d cl
ean-
ups i
s afte
r th
e w
ar,
whe
n pe
ople
are
ret
urni
ng to
war
-dam
aged
are
as a
nd c
an b
e in
volv
ed in
the p
roce
ss. T
he b
est t
ime t
o pl
an, h
owev
er, i
s dur
ing
the w
ar so
that
the n
atio
n is
read
y to
rebu
ild a
s soo
n as
the w
ar
is ov
er. I
t is
doub
tful i
f the
exist
ing
indu
stri
al d
isast
er re
spon
se
plan
s (lik
e a U
S Su
perf
und-
style
prog
ram
me)
inte
nded
for p
eace
-tim
e use
will
wor
k du
ring
or a
fter a
war
. 8.
Reco
nstr
uctio
n sh
ould
be
defin
ed, p
lann
ed, a
nd im
plem
ente
d in
sta
ges.
Acc
ordi
ng to
exist
ing
liter
atur
e abo
ut d
isast
er p
lann
ing,
th
e m
ain
stag
es a
re e
mer
genc
y, r
esto
ratio
n, r
epla
cem
ent,
and
deve
lopm
enta
l rec
onst
ruct
ion
(Am
irah
mad
i l99
0b: 2
68).
Thes
e st
ages
are
not
nec
essa
rily
chr
onol
ogic
al, n
or a
re th
ey m
utua
lly
excl
usiv
e. Th
e dur
atio
n of
each
stag
e will
var
y ac
cord
ing
to th
e sc
ale
of th
e di
sast
er, t
he le
vel o
f com
mitm
ent t
o cl
ean-
up a
nd
reco
nstr
uctio
n, a
nd th
e ab
ility
of a
soci
ety
to c
ope
with
the
dis-
aste
r an
d to
form
ulat
e st
rate
gies
. Oth
er fa
ctor
s inc
lude
ava
il-ab
ility
of r
esou
rces
and
the
gove
rnm
ent's
abi
lity
to m
obili
ze
them
, qua
lity
of le
ader
ship
, the
spee
d at
whi
ch d
ecis
ions
are
m
ade a
nd im
plem
ente
d, ex
isten
ce o
f pop
ular
and
hum
anita
rian
or
gani
zatio
ns, a
nd in
tern
atio
nal c
oope
ratio
n.
The g
oal o
f the
em
erge
ncy
stage
is to
cop
e w
ith th
e di
saste
r and
to
hel
p vi
ctim
s sur
vive
. The
urg
ency
of t
his
stag
e pre
clud
es a
ny
real
pla
nnin
g; in
this
case
the
plan
ning
mus
t com
e be
fore
the
disa
ster.
It in
clude
s suc
h ac
tiviti
es a
s sea
rch,
resc
ue, m
ass f
eedi
ng,
clea
ranc
e of
deb
ris,
para
med
ical
hel
p, a
nd p
rovi
sion
of sh
elte
r an
d ot
her b
asic
nee
ds fo
r the
vic
tim. T
he p
rim
ary
reso
urce
s for
th
e em
erge
ncy
stag
e are
com
mun
ity em
erge
ncy
serv
ices
and
self-
help
, alth
ough
inte
rnat
iona
l rel
ief a
genc
ies o
ften
may
pro
vide
as
sista
nce.
The e
mer
genc
y st
age o
verl
aps w
ith th
e res
tora
tion,
or
reco
very
, sta
ge, i
n w
hich
the
goal
is to
mak
e th
e co
mm
unity
at
leas
t par
tially
func
tiona
l. D
amag
ed st
ruct
ures
are
pat
ched
up
or
retr
ofitt
ed a
nd m
ade u
sabl
e aga
in. T
his s
tage
obv
ious
ly in
volv
es
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
mor
e co
mpr
ehen
sive
pla
nnin
g, a
s w
ell a
s gr
eate
r nee
d fo
r re-
sour
ces,
par
ticul
arly
con
stru
ctio
n m
ater
ialu
res. I
tem
pora
ry, a
nd
nves
tmen
ts a
nd
expe
nditu
res
duri
ng th
is s
tage
are
by
nat
repa
irs g
ener
ally
requ
ire a
seco
nd, m
ore
perm
anen
t inv
estm
ent.
The
goal
of t
he re
plac
emen
t sta
ge is
to re
turn
the
com
mun
ity
to its
pre
-disa
ster
stat
e thr
ough
the c
reat
ion
serv
ices,
of p
erm
anen
t hou
s-
ing,
the r
etur
n of
disp
lace
d pe
rson
s, re
sum
ptio
n of
pub
lic re
quire
s re
viva
l of i
ndus
trie
s, an
d th
e cr
eati
wel
l as m
assiv
e re
sour
ces.
on as
of j
obs.
This
stage
subs
tant
ial c
ompr
ehen
sive p
lann
ing
It
shou
ld b
e fol
lowe
d —
or e
ven
acco
mpa
nied
— b
y a
four
th st
age,
deve
lopm
enta
l rec
onstr
uctio
n, in
whi
chve
l e l t
heC
ombi
ning
pol
icy
and
goal
is to
dev
elop
the
com
mun
ity b
eyon
d th
e pre
-disa
ster
.
reso
urce
s for
the r
epla
cem
ent a
nd d
evel
opm
ent
staof
ten
lead
s ge
s may
miti
-
gate
the t
ende
ncy
to p
atch
thin
gs q
uick
ly, w
hich
to
doub
le in
vest
men
t and
was
te. T
h st
e de
velo
pmen
t rec
onru
ctio
n
stag
e is v
ery
diffi
cult
in a
war
-torn
soci
ety,
for w
ars
do n
ot si
m-
reve
nt so
ciet
y fr
om
o ac
tion
capa
city
and
pl
y de
stro
y pa
rt o
f wha
t exi
sts:
they
also
p
mak
ing
new
inve
stm
ents
, fro
m u
tiliz
ingd
tech
nica
l cap
abili
ties.
prd
reso
urce
s, an
d fr
om d
evel
opin
g sk
ills a
n
9.Re
cons
truc
tion
and
haza
rd r
emov
al m
ust b
e pr
oper
ly a
nd e
ffi-
cien
tly m
anag
ed.
The
gove
rnm
ent m
ust,
of c
ours
e, a
ssum
e ul
ti-
mat
e res
pons
ibili
ty fo
r man
agem
ent,
yet c
erta
in lo
cal f
unct
ions
co
uld
be a
ssum
ed b
y gr
ass-
root
s org
aniz
atio
ns. A
com
preh
ensiv
e m
anag
emen
t sys
tem
can
be
embo
died
in o
ne o
f thr
ee fo
rms o
f
gove
rnm
ent b
urea
ucra
cy —
esta
blish
men
t of
a sp
ecia
lized
new
lammi
ng,
lann
ing,
cre
atio
n of
m
inist
ry fo
r re
cons
truc
tion
and
disa
ster
p
reco
nstr
uctio
n an
d di
saste
r-m
anag
emen
t offi
ces w
ithin
th
e ex
ist-
uarte
rs
ing
min
istri
es, o
r for
mat
ion
of a
hea
dq
with
in th
e ex
ecu-
tive
offic
e fo
r the
jobs
. 10
.Pr
ogre
ss m
ade
tow
ard
reco
nstr
uctio
n an
d cl
ean-
upll
i m
ust b
e do
cu-
men
ted
and
eval
uate
d. R
esul
ts sh
ould
be
perio
dcay
pub
lishe
d in
acad
emic
and
pro
fess
iona
l, as
wel
l asp
opu
lar,
med
ia. E
valu
atio
n
of re
cons
truct
ion
and
haza
rd-r
emov
al a
ctiv
ities
shou
ld b
e un
der-
ta
ken
by in
depe
nden
t age
ncie
s th
at h
ave
acce
ss to
key
gov
ern-
m
enta
l dat
a an
d po
licie
s bu
t rem
ain
outs
ide
the
gove
rnm
ent's
sphe
re o
f dire
ct in
fluen
ce.
Impr
ovin
g re
cove
ry a
nd p
olic
y im
plic
atio
ns
Thi
s ch
apte
r has
ana
lyse
d th
e re
latio
nshi
p of
war
, com
mun
ity d
e-
stru
ctio
n, a
nd in
dust
rial
dis
aste
r in
term
s of
Ira
n's
expe
rien
ce. 177
176
A in
iralo
nadi
It ha
s sh
own
how
par
ticul
ar is
sues
of r
ecov
ery
from
indu
stri
al d
isas-
ters
bec
ame
caug
ht u
p in
bro
ader
con
cern
s of r
ecov
ery
from
mor
e en
com
pass
ing
dam
age t
o th
e com
mun
ity, a
nd it
has
hig
hlig
hted
the
role
of m
acro
econ
omic
pla
nnin
g iss
ues.
Furt
her,
the
chap
ter
has
expl
ored
inte
rcon
nect
ions
am
ong
loca
l-lev
el re
cons
truc
tion
prio
ritie
s an
d na
tiona
l-lev
el g
oals,
dem
onst
ratin
g ho
w —
in Ir
an's
case
— th
e la
tter b
ecam
e dom
inan
t in
the c
ours
e of p
ost-w
ar re
cons
truc
tion.
Thi
s tr
end,
in tu
rn, l
ed to
a lo
wer
pri
ority
for
haza
rd c
lean
-up
and
for
rebu
ildin
g in
dustr
ies w
ith lo
w va
lue-
adde
d at
trib
utes
. Int
erve
ntio
n by
th
e int
erna
tiona
l com
mun
ity in
the p
ost-w
ar p
eace
and
reco
nstr
uc-
tion
effo
rts w
as sh
own
to h
ave b
een
min
imal
bec
ause
of I
ran'
s fra
c-tu
red
imag
e in
the W
est.
This
may
not
, how
ever
, be t
he ca
se in
oth
er
situa
tions
whe
re th
e nat
iona
l lea
ders
hip
mai
ntai
ns g
ood
cont
acts
with
th
e int
erna
tiona
l com
mun
ity.
Iran
's ex
peri
ence
sugg
ests
that
the p
roce
ss o
f pla
nnin
g fo
r ind
us-
tria
l haz
ards
mus
t tak
e in
to c
onsid
erat
ion
the
cont
ext o
f war
time
econ
omic
dam
age.
Afte
r a w
ar, t
he k
now
ledg
e tha
t des
truc
tion
was
th
e int
ent o
f an
aggr
esso
r put
s rec
over
y an
d re
cons
truc
tion
initi
ativ
es
in a
spec
ial l
ight
. Per
cept
ions
of m
ilita
ry a
nd d
iplo
mat
ic se
curi
ty
beco
me c
ruci
al to
the p
roce
ss o
f nat
iona
l reh
abili
tatio
n. D
emor
aliz
a-
tion
that
acc
ompa
nies
war
has
the p
oten
tial t
o th
war
t the
indu
stri
al
rebu
ildin
g pr
oces
s, pa
rtic
ular
ly if
such
effo
rts a
re a
lrea
dy h
ampe
red
by a
n ab
senc
e of
suffi
cien
t res
ourc
es, o
r if
the
fron
tier
of im
pact
is
subj
ect t
o po
ssib
le r
epea
ted
atta
cks.
In c
ases
such
as t
hese
, the
di
sast
er c
ycle
of e
mer
genc
y re
lief,
rest
orat
ion,
rep
lace
men
t, an
d re
cons
truc
tion
is un
dert
aken
aga
in a
nd a
gain
, ea
ch ti
me p
rogr
essiv
ely
erod
ing
the r
esili
ence
and
reso
urce
s of t
he a
ffect
ed p
opul
atio
n.
Mor
eove
r, be
caus
e the
impa
ct o
f war
is m
ore c
ompl
ex a
nd p
erva
-siv
e tha
n th
at o
f nat
ural
disa
ster
s or p
eace
time i
ndus
tria
l disa
ster
s, po
st-w
ar re
cons
truc
tion
is an
espe
cial
ly ch
alle
ngin
g ta
sk. F
or ex
am-
ple,
afte
r an
indu
stri
al d
isast
er, a
ffect
ed fa
cilit
ies a
re u
sual
ly ei
ther
re
pair
ed a
nd r
eope
ned
— w
ith o
r w
ithou
t im
prov
emen
ts —
or
are
clos
ed d
own,
aba
ndon
ed, o
r re
mov
ed. I
n ei
ther
cas
e, e
xplic
it an
d sw
ift d
ecisi
ons a
bout
the f
utur
e of t
hese
faci
litie
s are
gen
eral
ly ta
ken
by o
wne
rs a
nd g
over
nmen
ts. D
urin
g w
ars,
the
sam
e fa
cilit
ies m
ay
cont
inue
to o
pera
te in
an
impa
ired
state
for l
ong
perio
ds, a
fter p
artia
l an
d te
mpo
rary
repa
irs h
ave b
een
mad
e, or
they
may
rem
ain
inop
er-
able
unt
il su
ch ti
mes
as f
orm
al d
ecisi
ons a
bout
thei
r fu
ture
can
be
take
n at
the c
oncl
usio
n of
hos
tiliti
es. I
n sh
ort,
the c
ours
e of r
ecov
ery
from
a w
ar-in
duce
d in
dust
rial
disa
ster
is li
kely
to d
iffer
from
that
wh
ich o
ccur
s in
peac
etim
e.
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
The p
roce
ss o
f mai
ntai
ning
a w
ar ef
fort
and
the p
roce
ss o
f pos
t-war
re
cons
truc
tion
are l
inks
in th
e sam
e cha
in, a
nd th
at ch
ain
is fo
rged
of
mat
eria
ls an
d m
oney
. War
s cos
t phe
nom
enal
am
ount
s of m
oney
, whi
le w
ar d
amag
e is p
reci
sely
calc
ulat
ed to
redu
ce a
n en
emy'
s cap
acity
to
finan
ce a
war
. The
war
effo
rt o
ften
abso
rbs s
o m
uch
gove
rnm
ent
reve
nue t
hat t
here
are
few
rese
rves
left
for r
econ
struc
tion
or cl
ean-
up
work
. Lac
k of
fund
ing
for r
elief
, haz
ard
redu
ctio
n, a
nd re
cons
truc
tion
beco
mes
par
ticul
arly
seve
re if
the n
atio
ns en
gage
d in
war
cont
inue
to
feel
thre
aten
ed a
nd su
bseq
uent
ly fe
el co
mpe
lled
to ch
anne
l the
few
re
mai
ning
fund
s int
o th
e mili
tary
. A g
over
nmen
t's ti
me a
nd la
bour
m
ay b
e sp
ent i
n ev
alua
ting
the
futu
re p
oten
tial o
f its
ow
n ar
med
fo
rces
, ins
tead
of f
irst
ana
lysin
g th
e im
pact
of w
ar d
estr
uctio
n an
d as
soci
ated
indu
stri
al h
azar
ds a
nd th
en d
eter
min
ing
the b
est p
lan
for
heal
ing
soci
ety
and
rein
vigo
ratin
g ec
onom
ic p
rodu
ctiv
ity.
Iran
's e
xper
ienc
e pr
ovid
es in
sigh
ts a
bout
the
com
pone
nts o
f a
mod
el o
f disa
ster
-impa
ct a
sses
smen
t and
reco
very
for w
ar-d
amag
ed
soci
etie
s, he
lps t
o sp
ecify
pos
sible
obs
tacl
es to
rec
onst
ruct
ion,
and
su
gges
ts w
ays o
f im
prov
ing
impl
emen
tatio
n. H
owev
er, i
f the
con
-ce
ptua
l fra
mew
ork
deve
lope
d in
this
chap
ter
wer
e to
be
appl
ied
to
Iran
, it w
ould
forc
e the
gov
ernm
ent t
o be
com
e mor
e con
cern
ed w
ith
indu
stri
al h
azar
ds a
nd w
ays o
f rec
over
ing
from
them
than
has
bee
n th
e ca
se so
far.
Unf
ortu
nate
ly, I
ran'
s rel
ativ
e ne
glec
t of i
ndus
tria
l ha
zard
s in
the
larg
er r
ecov
ery
proc
ess i
s not
at a
ll un
ique
. In
mos
t de
velo
ping
nat
ions
, whe
re re
sour
ces a
re sc
arce
and
mac
roec
onom
ic
dist
ortio
ns te
nd to
des
tabi
lize r
egim
es, e
cono
mic
mat
ters
take
pre
ce-
denc
e ov
er e
nvir
onm
enta
l con
cern
s. Th
is is
as tr
ue o
f nat
ions
that
ha
ve g
one t
hrou
gh a
war
as i
t is o
f nat
ions
that
hav
e bee
n at
pea
ce fo
r de
cade
s. Th
eref
ore,
the m
odel
pro
pose
d in
this
chap
ter m
ay b
e con
-sid
ered
equa
lly a
pplic
able
to m
any
deve
lopi
ng n
atio
ns th
at fa
ce ec
o-no
mic
decli
ne a
nd re
cove
ry fr
om m
an-m
ade o
r nat
ural
disa
sters
.
Not
es
I. S
ome
over
view
s of
the
war
pro
vide
ske
tchy
info
rmat
ion
abou
t the
war
's im
pact
on
Iraq
's
popu
lati
on a
nd e
nvir
onm
ent.
See,
for
exam
ple,
Kub
ba (1
993)
. 2.
Tha
t tre
aty
had
been
bas
ed o
n pr
inci
ples
of "
terr
itori
al in
tegr
ity, t
he in
viol
abili
ty o
f bor
ders
, an
d no
n-in
terf
eren
ce in
inte
rnal
aff
airs
." I
t was
inte
nded
to s
ettl
e po
litic
al a
nd te
rrit
oria
l di
sput
es b
etw
een
the
two
gove
rnm
ents
and
to e
nsur
e sh
ared
sov
erei
gnty
ove
r th
e Sh
att-
al-
Ara
b w
ater
way
, whi
ch p
rovi
des
both
cou
ntri
es w
ith
vita
l acc
ess
to th
e P
ersi
an G
ulf.
Pre
si-
dent
Hus
sein
pro
clai
med
that
he
had
ampl
e ju
stifi
catio
n fo
r an
nulli
ng th
e tr
eaty
bec
ause
Ira
n ha
d al
lege
dly
brok
en it
by
refu
sing
to r
elin
quis
h te
rrito
rial
rig
hts
and
by in
terf
erin
g in
Ira
q's
inte
rnal
aff
airs
. In
retr
ospe
ct, e
vide
nce
sugg
ests
that
Pre
side
nt H
usse
in w
as a
lso
mot
ivat
ed
by o
ther
inte
rest
s in
clud
ing
the
pros
pect
of g
aini
ng fu
ll so
vere
ignt
y ov
er th
e Sh
att-
al-A
rab,
178
179
A m
irah
mad
i
cont
rol o
f K
huze
stan
pro
vinc
e (w
here
ove
r 90
per
cen
t of
Iran
's o
il re
serv
es a
re lo
cate
d), t
he
poss
ibil
ity
of in
stal
ling
a p
ro-I
raq
gove
rnm
ent i
n Ir
an, a
nd th
e pr
ospe
ct o
f se
curi
ng a
re
gion
al le
ader
ship
rol
e fo
r Ir
aq in
the
afte
rmat
h of
the
Sha
h's
over
thro
w.
3.T
he P
ersi
an G
ulf
is a
long
, sha
llow
, rel
ativ
ely
narr
ow, s
emi-
encl
osed
sea
that
rec
eive
s on
ly)
limite
d fr
eshw
ater
inpu
ts f
rom
riv
ers
and
poss
esse
s w
eak
flus
hing
cur
rent
s. T
he e
ntir
e sy
stem
is
rea
dily
dis
rupt
ed b
y po
llut
ants
. The
wea
k ti
dal c
urre
nts
prev
ent r
apid
dis
sipa
tion
of
con.
ta
min
ants
, whi
ch r
emai
n in
the
wat
er -
the
non-
vola
tile
com
pone
nts
of o
il f
alli
ng to
the
bott
om a
nd c
onti
nuin
g to
cau
se d
amag
e fo
r m
any
year
s. T
he f
ood
chai
n, w
hich
nor
mal
ly
sust
ains
250
spe
cies
of
fish
and
app
roxi
mat
ely
140
spec
ies
of m
igra
ting
bir
ds, i
s se
vere
ly
thre
aten
ed. H
igh
tem
pera
ture
s, s
hallo
w w
ater
s, a
nd h
igh
win
ds, w
hich
cha
ract
eriz
e th
e G
ulf,
ca
use
rapi
d ev
apor
atio
n, in
crea
sing
the
salin
ity o
f th
e w
ater
and
con
trib
utin
g to
the
stre
ss o
f or
gani
sms
livin
g th
ere.
Con
tam
inat
ion
by o
il an
d he
avy
met
als
stre
sses
the
ecos
yste
m e
ven
furt
her.
Cru
de o
il co
ntai
ns s
uch
heav
y m
etal
s as
mer
cury
, cad
miu
m, a
nd v
anad
ium
, as
wel
l as
othe
r ca
rcin
ogen
ic c
hem
ical
age
nts.
Com
mer
cial
fis
hing
in th
e ar
ea is
sev
erel
y re
stri
cted
, and
re
plen
ishm
ent o
f G
ulf
stoc
ks f
rom
the
ocea
n w
ill b
e ve
ry s
low
. For
Ira
n, a
s w
ell a
s fo
r ot
her
coun
trie
s th
at d
epen
d on
Gul
f fi
sh f
or d
aily
pro
tein
req
uire
men
ts, t
he d
estr
ucti
on o
f th
e fi
shin
g in
dust
ry m
eans
inc
reas
ed f
ood
impo
rts,
fur
ther
exa
cerb
atin
g fo
reig
n cu
rren
cy
rese
rves
and
fos
teri
ng d
epen
denc
ies
on o
ther
cou
ntri
es f
or b
asic
foo
dstu
ffs.
4.
The
tall
y of
dir
ect e
cono
mic
dam
age
may
be
slig
htly
infl
ated
bec
ause
the
gove
rnm
ent's
im
med
iate
con
cern
was
to p
rovi
de c
ompe
nsat
ion.
Any
infl
atio
n at
trib
utab
le to
this
cau
se is
lik
ely
to b
e of
fset
by
the
abse
nce
of s
ome
type
s of
rea
l eco
nom
ic c
osts
, suc
h as
env
iron
men
tal
cons
eque
nces
, con
cess
ions
giv
en to
reg
iona
l all
ies,
incr
ease
d in
sura
nce
cost
s, a
nd th
e ps
y-ch
olog
ical
and
soc
iocu
ltura
l cos
ts o
f th
e w
ar (
Am
irah
mad
i 199
2a: 6
9).
5.T
he W
orld
Ban
k re
spon
ded
by g
ivin
g a
few
sm
all l
oans
to I
ran
for
reco
nstr
ucti
on o
f ea
rth-
quak
e-da
mag
ed a
reas
($2
50 m
illio
n) a
nd f
or im
prov
ing
urba
n in
fras
truc
ture
($6
7 m
illio
n). I
n 19
93, a
noth
er lo
an f
or $
162
mill
ion
was
app
rove
d fo
r th
e ex
pans
ion
of a
pow
er-g
ener
atin
g pl
ant i
n Q
um c
ity.
IM
F a
nd th
e B
ank
have
hel
ped
the
Iran
ian
gove
rnm
ent t
o fo
rmul
ate
an
econ
omic
sta
bili
zati
on p
rogr
amm
e bu
t ha
ve n
ot a
s ye
t res
pond
ed to
req
uest
s fo
r a
maj
or
loan
. Reg
iona
l aut
hori
ties
, suc
h as
the
Org
aniz
atio
n of
Isl
amic
Con
fere
nce,
the
Ara
b L
ea-
gue,
and
the
Gul
f C
oope
ratio
n C
ounc
il, h
ave
larg
ely
rem
aine
d in
activ
e (A
mir
ahm
adi 1
992a
: 27
7). B
y id
enti
fyin
g Ir
aq a
s th
e ag
gres
sor
stat
e, th
e U
nite
d N
atio
ns S
ecur
ity
Cou
ncil
has
pr
ovid
ed a
n im
plic
it ba
sis
for
rest
itutio
n by
the
Iraq
i gov
ernm
ent.
It is
like
ly th
at I
ran
wou
ld
have
reg
aine
d in
tern
atio
nal r
espe
ctab
ilit
y am
ong
the
com
mun
ity
of n
atio
ns a
nd b
een
the
bene
fici
ary
of in
crea
sed
inte
rnat
iona
l ass
ista
nce
if it
was
not
for
con
tinue
d op
posi
tion
by th
e U
nite
d St
ates
. 6.
Eco
logi
cal r
esto
rati
on s
houl
d gu
ide
the
othe
r go
als
and
take
pri
orit
y be
caus
e it
und
erpi
ns
hum
an h
ealt
h; in
oth
er w
ords
, res
tora
tion
of
hum
an h
ealt
h an
d lo
ng-t
erm
env
iron
men
tal
habi
tabi
lity
are
pre
cond
itio
ns f
or th
e ge
nera
l rev
ival
of
soci
ety.
Pla
ns a
nd p
roje
cts
mus
t be
draw
n up
for
env
iron
men
tal c
lean
-up
and
rem
oval
of
haza
rdou
s si
tuat
ions
in v
ario
us e
co-
nom
ic s
ecto
rs, i
ndus
trie
s in
par
ticul
ar,
whe
re s
uch
haza
rds
tend
to p
ose
heal
th p
robl
ems
and
crea
te o
bsta
cles
for
reb
uild
ing.
Ach
ievi
ng e
cono
mic
vit
alit
y is
a tw
o-pa
rt p
roce
ss w
hich
hi
nges
, fir
st, o
n m
akin
g th
e m
ost o
f av
aila
ble
reso
urce
s an
d re
mov
ing
supp
ly b
ottl
enec
ks
(e.g
. in
fore
ign
exch
ange
and
ski
lled
labo
ur)
and,
sec
ond,
on
achi
evin
g ec
onom
ic g
row
th.
Ref
eren
ces
Am
irah
mad
i, H
oosh
ang.
198
7. "
Des
truc
tion
and
reco
nstr
uctio
n: A
str
ateg
y fo
r th
e w
ar d
amag
ed a
reas
of I
ran.
" In
tern
atio
nal J
ourn
al o
f Dis
aste
r Stu
dies
and
Pra
ctic
e 11
(2):
134
-147
.
. 199
0a. "
Eco
nom
ic r
econ
stru
ctio
n of
Ira
n: C
ostin
g th
e w
ar
dam
age.
" Th
ird
Wor
ld Q
uarte
rly 1
2(1)
: 26-
47.
180
Indu
stria
l dev
asta
tion
in Ir
an
1990
b. R
evol
utio
n an
d E
cono
mic
Tra
nsiti
on.
Alb
any,
New
Yor
k: S
tate
Uni
-
vers
ity o
f New
Yor
k Pr
ess.
-.
199
2a. "
Eco
nom
ic c
osts
of
the
war
and
the
reco
nstr
ucti
on in
Ira
n."
In: C
yrus
Bin
a an
d H
amid
Zan
gene
h, e
ds.
Mod
ern
Cap
italis
m a
nd Is
lam
ic Id
eolo
gy in
Iran
.
New
Yor
k: S
t. M
artin
's P
ress
. 19
92b.
"E
cono
mic
des
truc
tion
and
imba
lanc
es in
pos
t-re
volu
tion
ary
Iran
."
In: H
. Am
irah
mad
i and
N. E
ntes
sar,
eds
. Re
cons
truct
ion
and
Reg
iona
l Dip
lom
acy
in th
e Pe
rsia
n G
ulf.
Lon
don:
Rou
tledg
e.
Ath
ari,
Dja
mal
. 199
1. "
Rev
olut
iona
ry c
hang
es a
nd p
ost-
war
rec
onst
ruct
ion
in
Iran
."
In: R
eviv
ing
War
Dam
aged
Set
tlem
ents
. A
Rep
ort a
nd C
hart
er p
repa
red
in c
onne
c-
tion
with
the
Thi
rd I
nter
natio
nal Y
ork
Wor
ksho
p on
Set
tlem
ent R
econ
stru
ctio
n Po
st-W
ar, 2
2-24
Jul
y 19
91. Y
oika
lluve
rgity
of-Y
ork,
Ins
titut
e of
Adv
ance
d A
rchi
-q
tect
ural
Stu
dies
, Pos
t-W
ar R
econ
stru
ctio
n an
d D
evel
opm
ent U
nit,
p. 1
4.
Cor
desm
an, A
ntho
ny H
. 199
0.
The
Less
ons
of M
oder
n W
ar.
Bou
lder
: Wes
tvie
w
Pres
s. E
I-B
az, F
arou
k, a
nd R
.M. M
akha
rita
. 19
94.
The
Gul
f War
and
the
Env
ironm
ent.
New
Yor
k: G
ordo
n an
d B
reac
h Sc
ienc
e Pu
blis
hers
. -H
aas,
J. E
ugen
e, R
ober
t W. K
ates
, and
Mar
tyn
J. B
owde
n (e
ds.)
. 197
7.
Rec
on-
stru
ctio
n Fo
llow
ing
Dis
aste
r. C
ambr
idge
, Mas
s.: M
assa
chus
etts
Ins
titut
e of
Tec
h-
nolo
gy P
ress
. H
awle
y, T
.M.
1992
. A
gain
st th
e Fi
res
of H
ell:
The
Env
ironm
enta
l Dis
aste
r of t
he G
ulf
War
. New
Yor
k: H
arco
urt B
race
Jov
anov
ich.
Jo
chni
ck, C
hris
A.F
., an
d R
oger
Nor
man
d. "
A c
ritic
al lo
ok a
t the
law
of w
ar: L
esso
ns
from
the
Pers
ian
Gul
f war
." U
npub
lishe
d pa
per
in ti
le w
ith t
he a
utho
r. A
utho
rs o
f
the
arti
cle
are
Co-
Edi
tor
in C
hief
and
Exe
cuti
ve E
dito
r of
the
Har
vard
Hum
an
Righ
ts J
ourn
al.
Kub
ba, L
aith
. 199
3. "
The
war
's im
pact
on
Iraq
." I
n: F
arha
ng R
ajae
e, e
d.
The
Iran-
Iraq
War
: The
Pol
itics
of A
ggre
ssio
n.
Gai
nesv
ille:
Uni
vers
ity
of F
lori
da P
ress
,
pp. 4
7-54
. M
ofid
, Kam
ran.
199
0. "
Iran
: War
, des
truc
tion
and
rec
onst
ruct
ion.
" In
: Cha
rles
Dav
ies,
ed.
Afte
r the
War
: Ira
n, Ir
aq a
nd th
e A
rab
Gul
f. C
hich
este
r: C
arde
n Pu
b-
licat
ions
, pp.
117
-141
. Pl
an a
nd B
udge
t Org
aniz
atio
n, I
slam
ic R
epub
lic o
f Ira
n. 1
991.
Fi
nal R
epor
t on
the
Asse
ssm
ent of
the
Econ
omic
Dam
ages
of t
he W
ar Im
pose
d by
Iraq
on
the
Isla
mic
R
epub
lic o
f Ira
n (1
980-
1988
). T
eher
an: C
entr
e fo
r So
cio-
Eco
nom
ic D
ocum
enta
-
tion
and
Publ
icat
ions
. Sh
emir
ani,
Tah
eri.
1993
. "T
he w
ar o
f the
citi
es."
In:
Far
hang
Raj
aee,
ed.
The
Iran
-
Iraq
War
: The
Pol
itics
of A
ggre
ssio
n. G
aine
svill
e: U
nive
rsit
y of
Flo
rida
Pre
ss,
pp. 3
2-40
. SI
PRI
(Sto
ckho
lm I
nter
natio
nal P
eace
Res
earc
h In
stitu
te).
1977
. W
eapo
ns o
f Mas
s
Des
truct
ion
and
the
Envi
ronm
ent.
New
Yor
k: C
rane
, Rus
sak,
and
Com
pany
.
1980
. W
arfa
re in
a F
ragi
le W
orld
: Mili
tary
Impa
ct o
n th
e H
uman
Env
iron-
men
t. L
ondo
n: T
aylo
r an
d Fr
anci
s. U
nite
d N
atio
ns S
ecre
tary
-Gen
eral
. 199
1a. "
Rep
ort o
n Ir
an's
rec
onst
ruct
ion
effo
rts
in 't
he w
ake
of t
he c
onfl
ict
betw
een
the
Isla
mic
Rep
ublic
of
Iran
and
Ira
q."
24 D
ecem
ber.
19
91b.
"R
epor
t on
the
scop
e an
d na
ture
of d
amag
e in
flict
ed o
n th
e K
uwai
ti in
fras
truc
ture
dur
ing
the
Iraq
i occ
upat
ion.
" 26
Apr
il.
181
Am
irahm
adi
Wal
ker,
A.R
. 198
9. "
Rec
essi
onal
and
Gul
f War
impa
cts
on p
ort d
evel
opm
ent a
nd
ship
ping
in th
e G
ulf s
tate
s in
the
1980
s." G
eoJo
urna
l 18
(3):
273-
284.
W
inne
feld
, Jam
es A
., an
d M
ary
E. M
orris
. 199
4. W
here
Env
ironm
enta
l Con
cern
s an
d S
ecur
ity S
trate
gies
Mee
t: G
reen
Con
flict
in A
sia
and
the
Mid
dle
Eas
t. Sa
nta
Mon
ica:
Ra
nd.
Zarg
ar, A
kbar
, and
Moh
sen
Poor
. 199
1. "
City
reco
nstru
ctio
n: T
he
case
of K
hora
m-
shar
, Ira
n."
In:
Rev
ivin
g W
ar D
amag
ed S
ettle
men
ts.
A R
epor
t and
Cha
rter
pre
-pa
red
in c
onne
ctio
n w
ith th
e Th
ird In
tern
atio
nal Y
ork
Wor
ksho
p on
Set
tlem
ent
Rec
onst
ruct
ion
Post
-War
, 22-
24 Ju
ly 1
991.
Yor
k: U
nive
rsity
of Y
ork,
Inst
itute
of
Adv
ance
d A
rchi
tect
ural
Stu
dies
, Pos
t-W
ar R
econ
stru
ctio
n an
d D
evel
opm
ent
Uni
t, p.
10.
182
