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The InuitIndigenous peoples of the Arctic Regions

Inuit 1

Inuit

Inuit

Traditional qamutik (sled), Cape Dorset

Total population

150,000[1]

Regions with significant populations

Alaska, Greenland, Northwest Territories, Nunatsiavut, Nunavik, Nunavut, Nunatukavut, Siberia

Languages

Inuit language, various national languages

Religion

Christianity, Shamanism, Animism

Related ethnic groups

Aleuts, Sireniki Eskimos, Inupiats, Yupiks

The Inuit are a group of culturally similar indigenous peoples inhabiting the Arctic regions of Canada (NorthwestTerritories, Nunatsiavut, Nunavik, Nunavut, Nunatukavut), Denmark (Greenland), Russia (Siberia) and the UnitedStates (Alaska).[2] Inuit means “the people” in the Inuktitut language. An Inuk is an Inuit person. The Inuit languageis grouped under Eskimo-Aleut languages.[3]

The Inuit live throughout most of the Canadian Arctic and subarctic: in the territory of Nunavut ("our land"); thenorthern third of Quebec, in an area called Nunavik ("place to live"); the coastal region of Labrador, in areas calledNunatsiavut ("our beautiful land") and Nunatukavut ("Our Ancient Land"); in various parts of the NorthwestTerritories, mainly on the coast of the Arctic Ocean and formerly in the Yukon. Collectively these areas are knownas Inuit Nunangat.[4] [5]

In the US, Alaskan Inupiat live on the North Slope of Alaska and Siberian Coast, Little Diomede Island and BigDiomede Island. Greenland's Kalaallit are citizens of Denmark.In Alaska, the term Eskimo is commonly used, because it includes both Yupik and Inupiat, while Inuit is notaccepted as a collective term or even specifically used for Inupiat (who technically are Inuit). No universalreplacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people, is accepted across the geographical areainhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples.[6]

In Canada and Greenland, the Natives prefer the word Inuit. As they consider "Eskimo" pejorative, it has fallen outof favour.[7] [8] In Canada, the Constitution Act of 1982, sections 25 and 35 recognised the Inuit as a distinctivegroup of Canadian aboriginals, who are neither First Nations nor Métis.[9]

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Early historyFor pre-history, see: Paleo-Indians and Archaic periods (Canada)

Inuit are the descendants of what anthropologists call the Thule culture, who emergedfrom western Alaska around 1000 AD and spread eastwards across the Arctic. Theydisplaced the related Dorset culture, the last major Paleo-Eskimo culture (in Inuktitut,called the Tuniit). Inuit legends speak of the Tuniit as "giants", people who were tallerand stronger than the Inuit.[10] Less frequently, the legends refer to the Dorset as"dwarfs".[11] Researchers believe that the Dorset culture lacked dogs, larger weapons andother technologies that gave the expanding Inuit society an advantage. By 1300, the Inuithad settled in west Greenland, and they moved into east Greenland over the followingcentury.

Faced with population pressures from the Thule and other surrounding groups, such as theAlgonquian and Siouan to the south, the Tuniit gradually receded.[12] They were thoughtto have become completely extinct as a people by about 1400–1500 AD.

But, in the mid 1950s, researcher Henry B. Collins determined that, based on the ruinsfound at Native Point, the Sadlermiut were likely the last remnants of the Dorsetculture.[13] The Sadlermiut population survived up until winter 1902–03, when exposureto new infectious diseases brought by contact with Europeans led to their extinction as apeople.[14] More recently, mitochondrial DNA research has supported the theory ofcontinuity between the Tuniit and the Sadlermiut.[15] [16] It also has provided evidencethat a population displacement did not occur within the Aleutian Islands between theDorset and Thule transition.[17] In contrast to other Tuniit populations, the Aleut andSadlermiut benefited from both geographical isolation and their ability to adopt certainThule technologies.

In Canada and Greenland, Inuit circulated almost exclusively north of the "Arctic treeline", the de facto southern border of Inuit society. The most southern Inuit community in the world is Rigolet,[18]

Nunatsiavut, Newfoundland and Labrador. To the south, Native American cultures were well established. Theculture and technology of Inuit society that served so well in the Arctic were not suited to subarctic regions, so theydid not displace their southern neighbours.

Inuit had trade relations with more southern cultures; boundary disputes were common and gave rise to aggressiveactions. Warfare, in general, was not uncommon among those Inuit groups with sufficient population density. Inuit,such as the Nunatamiut (Uummarmiut) who inhabited the Mackenzie River delta area, often engaged in warfare. TheCentral Arctic Inuit lacked the population density to do so.Their first European contacts were with the Vikings who settled in Greenland and explored the eastern Canadiancoast. The Norse literature noted skrælingar, most likely an undifferentiated label for all the native peoples of theAmericas whom the Norse encountered: Tuniit, Inuit and Beothuk alike.Sometime in the 13th century, the Thule culture began arriving in Greenland from what is now Canada. Norseaccounts are scant; however, Norse-made items have been found at Inuit campsites in Greenland. It is unclearwhether they were there as the result of trade or plunder. One old account speaks of "small people" with whom theNorsemen fought. Ívar Bárðarson's[19] 14th-century account noted that the western settlement, one of the two Norsesettlements, had been taken over by the skrælings. The reason why the Norse settlements failed is unclear. The lastrecord of them is from 1408, roughly the same period as the earliest Inuit settlements in east Greenland.After about 1350, the climate grew colder during the period known as the Little Ice Age. Inuit were forced to abandon hunting and whaling sites in the high Arctic. As bowhead whaling disappeared in Canada and Greenland, Inuit had to subsist on a much poorer diet. In addition, they lost access to essential raw materials derived from

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whaling for their tools and architecture. During this period, Alaskan natives were, however, able to continue theirwhaling activities.The changing climate forced Inuit to work their way south, forcing them into marginal niches along the edges of thetree line. These were areas which Native Americans had not occupied, or where they were weak enough forcoexistence with Inuit. Researchers have difficulty defining when Inuit stopped territorial expansion. There isevidence that they were still moving into new territory in southern Labrador when they first began to interact withcolonial North Americans in the 17th century.

NomenclatureIn Canada and Greenland, the term Eskimo has fallen out of favour, as Natives consider it pejorative.[7] [8] It has beenreplaced by Inuit. But, while Inuit describes all of the Eskimo peoples in Canada and Greenland, it does notencompass all the peoples in Alaska and Siberia.In Alaska, the term Eskimo is commonly used, because it applies to both Yupik and Inupiat peoples. Inuit is notaccepted as a collective term or even specifically used for Inupiat (which technically is Inuit). No universalreplacement term for Eskimo, inclusive of all Inuit and Yupik people, is accepted across the geographical areainhabited by the Inuit and Yupik peoples.[6]

Inuit, Inupiat and Yupik

Distribution of Inuit language variants. (Yupik languages excluded)

The Inuit Circumpolar Council, aUnited Nations-recognisednon-governmental organization(NGO), defines its constituency toinclude Canada's Inuit and Inuvialuit;Greenland's Kalaallit Inuit; Alaska'sInupiat and Yup'ik people; and theSiberian Yupik people of Russia.[20]

But, the Yupik of Alaska and Siberiado not consider themselves Inuit.Ethnographers agree they are a distinctpeople. They prefer to be calledYup'ik, Yupiit, or Eskimo. The Yupiklanguages are linguistically distinctfrom the Inuit languages.[6]

Canada's Constitution Act, 1982recognised the Inuit as Aboriginalpeoples in Canada, which also includeFirst Nations and Métis peoples.[9] TheInuit are not to be confused with the Innu, a distinct First Nations people who live in northeastern Quebec andLabrador. They speak an Algonquian language known as Innu-aimun or Montagnais.

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Cultural history

Inupiat basket, with an ivory handle, made byKinguktuk (1871-1941) of Barrow, Alaska.

Displayed at the Museum of Man, San Diego,California.

Language

The Inuit speak chiefly one of the traditional Inuit languages ordialects, sometimes grouped under the term Inuktitut, but they mayalso speak the predominant language of the country in which theyreside. Inuktitut is mainly spoken in Nunavut and, as the Greenlandiclanguage, in some parts of Greenland.

Some of the Inuit dialects were recorded in the 18th century. Until thelatter half of the 20th century, most Inuit were not able to read andwrite in their own language. In the 1760s, Moravian missionariesarrived in Greenland, where they contributed to the development of awritten system of language called Qaliujaaqpait, based on the Latinalphabet. The missionaries later brought this system to Labrador, fromwhich it eventually spread as far as Alaska.[21]

The Inuktitut syllabary used in Canada is based on the Cree syllabarydevised by the missionary James Evans and developed by Edmund Peck. The present form of the syllabary forCanadian Inuktitut was adopted by the Inuit Cultural Institute in Canada in the 1970s. The Inuit in Alaska, theInuvialuit, Inuvialuktun speakers; and Inuit in Greenland and Labrador use the Roman alphabet, although it has beenadapted for their use in different ways.

Though conventionally called a syllabary, the writing system has been classified by some observers as an abugida.Syllables starting with the same consonant have related glyphs rather than unrelated ones. All of the charactersneeded for the Inuktitut syllabary are available in the Unicode character repertoire. (See Canadian Aboriginalsyllabics character table.) The territorial government of Nunavut has developed a TrueType font called Pigiarniq forcomputer displays, designed by Vancouver-based Tiro Typeworks.[22] [23]

The Inuit language is written in several different ways, depending on the dialect and region, but also on historicaland political factors. In Greenland during the 1760s, Moravian missionaries intending to introduce Inuit toChristianity through the Bible contributed to the development of an Inuktitut writing system that was based onRoman orthography. When they travelled to Labrador in the 19th century, they brought the written Inuktitut withthem. The Roman alphabet-writing scheme is distinguished by its inclusion of the letter kra. The Alaskan Yupik andInupiat, and the Siberian Yupik also adopted the system of Roman orthography. In addition, the Alaskan peoplesdeveloped their own system of hieroglyphics.Eastern Canadian Inuit were the last to adopt the written word. In the 1860s, missionaries imported the writtensystem Qaniujaaqpait[24] which they had developed in their efforts to convert the Cree to Christianity. The last Inuitto encounter missionaries and writing were the Netsilik Inuit in Kugaaruk and north Baffin Island. The Netsilikadopted Qaniujaaqpait by the 1920s.As the "Greenlandic" system has been substantially reformed in recent years, Labrador writing has become used onlyfor the Nunatsiavummiutut dialect. In Nunavut and Nunavik, most people write Inuktitut using a scheme calledQaniujaaqpait, or Inuktitut syllabics, based on Canadian Aboriginal syllabics. The western part of Nunavut and theNorthwest Territories use a Roman orthography (alphabet scheme) usually identified as Inuinnaqtun orQaliujaaqpait.[24] This reflects the influence of the missionaries who reached this area in the late 19th century andearly 20th century.

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DietThe Inuit have traditionally been hunters and fishers. They still hunt whales (esp. bowhead whale), walrus, caribou,seal, polar bears, muskoxen, birds, and at times other less commonly eaten animals such as the Arctic Fox. Thetypical Inuit diet is high in protein and very high in fat - in their traditional diets, Inuit consumed an average of 75%of their daily energy intake from fat.[25] While it is not possible to cultivate plants for food in the Arctic, the Inuithave traditionally gathered those that are naturally available. Grasses, tubers, roots, stems, berries, and seaweed(kuanniq or edible seaweed) were collected and preserved depending on the season and the location.[26] [27] [28] [29]

[30] There is a vast array of different hunting technologies that the Inuit used to gather their food.In the 1920s anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson lived with and studied a group of Inuit.[31] The study focused onthe fact that the Inuit's extremely low-carbohydrate diet had no adverse effects on their health, nor indeed,Stefansson's own health. Stefansson (1946) also observed that the Inuit were able to get the necessary vitamins theyneeded from their traditional winter diet, which did not contain any plant matter. In particular, he found that adequatevitamin C could be obtained from items in their traditional diet of raw meat such as Ringed Seal liver and whale skin(muktuk). While there was considerable scepticism when he reported these findings, they have been borne out inrecent studies.[32]

Transport, navigation, and dogs

Inupiat in a kayak, Noatak, Alaska, c. 1929(photo by Edward S. Curtis)

Modern public housing in Greenland

The natives hunted sea animals from single-passenger,covered seal-skin boats called qajaq (Inuktitut syllabics:ᖃᔭᖅ)[33] which were extraordinarily buoyant, and could easilybe righted by a seated person, even if completely overturned.Because of this property the design was copied by Europeans,and Americans who still produce them under the Inuit namekayak.

Inuit also made umiaq ("woman's boat"), larger open boatsmade of wood frames covered with animal skins, fortransporting people, goods and dogs. They were 6–12 m(20–39 ft) long and had a flat bottom so that the boats couldcome close to shore. In the winter, Inuit would also hunt seamammals by patiently watching an aglu (breathing hole) inthe ice and waiting for the air-breathing seals to use them.This technique is also used by the polar bear, who hunts byseeking holes in the ice and waiting nearby.

On land, the Inuit used dog sleds (qamutik) for transportation.The husky dog breed comes from Inuit breeding of dogs andwolves for transportation. A team of dogs in either atandem/side-by-side or fan formation would pull a sled madeof wood, animal bones, or the baleen from a whale's mouthand even frozen fish,[34] over the snow and ice. The Inuit usedstars to navigate at sea and landmarks to navigate on land;they possessed a comprehensive native system of toponymy.Where natural landmarks were insufficient, the Inuit would erect an inukshuk.

Dogs played an integral role in the annual routine of the Inuit. During the summer they became pack animals, sometimes dragging up to 20 kg (44 lb) of baggage and in the winter they pulled the sled. Yearlong they assisted with hunting by sniffing out seals' holes and pestering polar bears. They also protected the Inuit villages by barking

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at bears and strangers. The Inuit generally favoured, and tried to breed, the most striking and handsome of dogs,especially ones with bright eyes and a healthy coat. Common husky dog breeds used by the Inuit were the CanadianEskimo Dog, the official animal of Nunavut,[35] (Qimmiq; Inuktitut for dog), the Greenland Dog, the Siberian Huskyand the Alaskan Malamute. The Inuit would perform rituals over the newborn pup to give it favourable qualities; thelegs were pulled to make them grow strong and nose was poked with a pin to enhance the sense of smell.

Industry, art, and clothing

Igloo.

Inuit woman's parka, Canada.

Inuit industry relied almost exclusively on animal hides, driftwood, andbones, although some tools were also made out of worked stones,particularly the readily worked soapstone. Walrus ivory was aparticularly essential material, used to make knives. Art played a bigpart in Inuit society and continues to do so today. Small sculptures ofanimals and human figures, usually depicting everyday activities suchas hunting and whaling, were carved from ivory and bone. In moderntimes prints and figurative works carved in relatively soft stone such assoapstone, serpentinite, or argillite have also become popular.

Inuit made clothes and footwear from animal skins, sewn togetherusing needles made from animal bones and threads made from otheranimal products, such as sinew. The anorak (parka) is made in asimilar fashion by Arctic peoples from Europe through Asia and theAmericas, including the Inuit. The hood of an amauti, (women's parka,plural amautiit) was traditionally made extra large, to allow the motherto carry a baby against her back and protect it from the harsh wind.Styles vary from region to region, from the shape of the hood to thelength of the tails. Boots (mukluk or kamiit), could be made of caribouor seal skin, and designs varied for men and women.

During the winter, certain Inuit lived in a temporary shelter made fromsnow called an iglu, and during the few months of the year whentemperatures were above freezing, they lived in tents made of animalskins supported by a frame of bones. Some, such as the Siglit, useddriftwood,[36] while others built sod houses.[37]

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Typical clothing, Perry River, Canada, 1959.

Gender roles, marriage, birth, and community

Inupiat woman, Alaska, circa 1907

The division of labour in traditional Inuit society had a strong gendercomponent, but it was not absolute. The men were traditionally huntersand fishermen and the women took care of the children, cleaned thehome, sewed, processed food, and cooked. However, there arenumerous examples of women who hunted, out of necessity or as apersonal choice. At the same time men, who could be away from campfor several days at a time, would be expected to know how to sew andcook.[38]

The marital customs among the Inuit were not strictly monogamous:many Inuit relationships were implicitly or explicitly sexual. Openmarriages, polygamy, divorce, and remarriage were known. Amongsome Inuit groups, if there were children, divorce required the approvalof the community and particularly the agreement of the elders.Marriages were often arranged, sometimes in infancy, and occasionallyforced on the couple by the community.[39]

Inupiat family, Noatak, Alaska, 1930

Marriage was common for women at puberty and for men when theybecame productive hunters. Family structure was flexible: a householdmight consist of a man and his wife (or wives) and children; it mightinclude his parents or his wife's parents as well as adopted children; itmight be a larger formation of several siblings with their parents, wivesand children; or even more than one family sharing dwellings andresources. Every household had its head, an elder or a particularlyrespected man.[40]

There was also a larger notion of community as, generally, severalfamilies shared a place where they wintered. Goods were shared withina household, and also, to a significant extent, within a whole community.The Inuit were hunter–gatherers,[41] and have been referred to as nomadic.[42] One of the customs following the birthof an infant was for an Angakkuq (shaman) to place a tiny ivory carving of a whale into the baby's mouth, in hopesthis would make the child good at hunting. Loud singing and drumming were also customary after a birth.[43]

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RaidingVirtually all Inuit cultures have oral traditions of raids by other indigenous peoples, including fellow Inuit, and oftaking vengeance on them in return, such as the Bloody Falls Massacre. Western observers often regarded these talesas generally not entirely accurate historical accounts, but more as self-serving myths. However, evidence shows thatInuit cultures had quite accurate methods of teaching historical accounts to each new generation.[44]

The historic accounts of violence against outsiders does make clear that there was a history of hostile contact withinthe Inuit cultures and with other cultures.[45] It also makes it clear that Inuit nations existed through history, as wellas confederations of such nations. The known confederations were usually formed to defend against a moreprosperous, and thus stronger, nation. Alternately, people who lived in less productive geographical areas tended tobe less warlike, as they had to spend more time producing food.Justice within Inuit culture was moderated by the form of governance that gave significant power to the elders. As inmost cultures around the world, justice could be harsh and often included capital punishment for serious crimesagainst the community or the individual. During raids against other peoples, the Inuit, like their non-Inuitneighbours, tended to be merciless.[46]

Suicide, murder, and death"A pervasive European myth about Inuit is that they killed elderly (senicide) and unproductive people.",[47] but thisis not generally true.[48] [49] [50] In a culture with an oral history, elders are the keepers of communal knowledge,effectively the community library.[51] Because they are of extreme value as the repository of knowledge, there arecultural taboos against sacrificing elders.[52] [53]

In Antoon A. Leenaars book Suicide in Canada he states that "Rasmussen found that the death of elders by suicidewas a commonplace among the Iglulik Inuit."[54] He heard of many old men and women who had hangedthemselves.[54] By ensuring they died a violent death, Inuit elders purified their souls for journey to theafterworld.[54]

According to Franz Boas, suicide was "...not of rare occurrence..." and was generally accomplished throughhanging.[55] Writing of the Labrador Inuit, Hawkes (1916) was considerably more explicit on the subject of suicideand the burden of the elderly:

Aged people who have outlived their usefulness and whose life is a burden both to themselves and theirrelatives are put to death by stabbing or strangulation. This is customarily done at the request of the individualconcerned, but not always so. Aged people who are a hindrance on the trail are abandoned.—Antoon A. Leenaars, Suicide in Canada[56]

People seeking assistance in their suicide made three consecutive requests to relatives for help.[57] Family memberswould attempt to dissuade the individual at each suggestion, but with the third request by a person, assistancebecame obligatory.[57] In some cases, a suicide was a publicly acknowledged and attended event.[57] Once thesuicide had been agreed to, the victim would dress him or herself as the dead are clothed, with clothing turned insideout.[57] The death occurred at a specific place, where the material possessions of deceased people were brought to bedestroyed.[57]

When food is not sufficient, the elderly are the least likely to survive. In the extreme case of famine, the Inuit fullyunderstood that, if there was to be any hope of obtaining more food, a hunter was necessarily the one to feed onwhatever food was left. However, a common response to desperate conditions and the threat of starvation wasinfanticide.[58] [59] A mother abandoned an infant in hopes that someone less desperate might find and adopt thechild before the cold or animals killed it. The belief that the Inuit regularly resorted to infanticide may be due in partto studies done by Asen Balikci,[60] Milton Freeman[61] and David Riches[62] among the Netsilik, along with the trialof Kikkik.[63] [64]

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Anthropologists believed that Inuit cultures routinely killed children born with physical defects because of thedemands of the extreme climate. These views were changed by late 20th century discoveries of burials at anarchaeological site. Between 1982 and 1994, a storm with high winds caused ocean waves to erode part of the bluffsnear Barrow, Alaska, and a body was discovered to have been washed out of the mud. Unfortunately the stormclaimed the body, which was not recovered. But examination of the eroded bank indicated that an ancient house,perhaps with other remains, was likely to be claimed by the next storm. The site, known as the "Ukkuqsiarchaeological site", was excavated. Several frozen bodies (now known as the "frozen family") were recovered,autopsies were performed, and they were re-interred as the first burials in the then-new Imaiqsaun Cemetery south ofBarrow.[65] Years later another body was washed out of the bluff. It was a female child, approximately 9 years old,who had clearly been born with a congenital birth defect.[66] This child had never been able to walk, but must havebeen cared for by family throughout her life.[67]

During the 19th century, the Western Arctic suffered a population decline of close to 90%, resulting from exposureto new diseases, including tuberculosis, measles, influenza, and smallpox. Autopsies near Greenland reveal that,more commonly pneumonia, kidney diseases, trichinosis, malnutrition, and degenerative disorders may havecontributed to mass deaths among different Inuit tribes. The Inuit believed that the causes of the disease were of aspiritual origin.[68]

Traditional lawInuit traditional laws are anthropologically different from Western law concepts. 'Customary law' was thoughtnon-existent in Inuit society before the introduction of the Canadian legal system. Hoebel, in 1954, concluded thatonly 'rudimentary law' existed amongst the Inuit. Indeed, prior to about 1970, it is impossible to find even onereference to a Western observer who was aware that any form of governance existed among any Inuit,[69] however,there was a set way of doing things that had to be followed:• maligait refers to what has to be followed• piqujait refers to what has to be done• tirigusuusiit refers to what has to be avoidedIf an individual's actions went against the tirigusuusiit, maligait or piqujait, the angakkuq (shaman) might have tointervene, lest the consequences be dire to the individual or the community.[70]

We are told today that Inuit never had laws or "maligait". Why? They say because they are not written onpaper. When I think of paper, I think you can tear it up, and the laws are gone. The laws of the Inuit are not onpaper.—Mariano Aupilaarjuk, Rankin Inlet, Nunavut, Perspectives on Traditional Law[71]

Traditional beliefs

Some Inuit believed that the spirits of theirancestors could be seen in the northern lights

The Inuit lived in an environment that inspired a mythology filled withadventure tales of whale and walrus hunts. Long winter months ofwaiting for caribou herds or sitting near breathing holes hunting sealsgave birth to stories of mysterious and sudden appearance of ghostsand fantastic creatures. Some Inuit looked into the aurora borealis, ornorthern lights, to find images of their family and friends dancing inthe next life.[72] However, some Inuit believed that the lights weremore sinister and if you whistled at them, they would come down andcut off your head. This tale is still told to children today.[73] For others

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they were invisible giants, the souls of animals, a guide to hunting and as a spirit for the angakkuq to help withhealing.[73] [74] They relied upon the angakkuq (shaman) for spiritual interpretation. The nearest thing to a centraldeity was the Old Woman (Sedna), who lived beneath the sea. The waters, a central food source, were believed tocontain great gods.The Inuit practised a form of shamanism based on animist principles. They believed that all things had a form ofspirit, including humans, and that to some extent these spirits could be influenced by a pantheon of supernaturalentities that could be appeased when one required some animal or inanimate thing to act in a certain way. Theangakkuq of a community of Inuit was not the leader, but rather a sort of healer and psychotherapist, who tendedwounds and offered advice, as well as invoking the spirits to assist people in their lives. His or her role was to see,interpret and exhort the subtle and unseen. Angakkuit were not trained; they were held to be born with the ability andrecognised by the community as they approached adulthood.Inuit religion was closely tied to a system of rituals integrated into the daily life of the people. These rituals weresimple but held to be necessary. According to a customary Inuit saying,

The great peril of our existence lies in the fact that our diet consists entirely of souls.By believing that all things, including animals, have souls like those of humans, any hunt that failed to showappropriate respect and customary supplication would only give the liberated spirits cause to avenge themselves.The harshness and unpredictability of life in the Arctic ensured that Inuit lived with concern for the uncontrollable,where a streak of bad luck could destroy an entire community. To offend a spirit was to risk its interference with analready marginal existence. The Inuit understood that they had to work in harmony with supernatural powers toprovide the necessities of day-to-day life. Before the 1940s, Inuit had minimal contact with Europeans, who passedthrough on their way to hunt whales or trade furs but seldom had any interest in settling down on the frozen land ofthe Arctic. So the Inuit had the place to themselves. They moved between summer and winter camps to always beliving where there were animals to hunt.But that changed. As World War II ended and the Cold War began, the Arctic became a place where countries thatdid not get along were close to each other. The Arctic had always been seen as inaccessible, but the invention ofaircraft made it easier for non-Arctic dwellers to get there. As new airbases and radar stations were built in the Arcticto monitor rival nations, permanent settlements were developed around them, including schools and health carecentres. In many places, Inuit children were required to attend schools that emphasised non-native traditions. Withbetter health care, the Inuit population grew too large to sustain itself solely by hunting. Many Inuit from smallercamps moved into permanent settlements because there was access to jobs and food. In many areas Inuit wererequired to live in towns by the 1960s.

Postcontact history

Canada

Early contact with Europeans

The lives of Paleo-Eskimos of the far north were largely unaffected by the arrival of visiting Norsemen except formutual trade.[75] Labrador Inuit have had the longest continuous contact with Europeans.[76] After the disappearanceof the Norse colonies in Greenland, the Inuit had no contact with Europeans for at least a century. By the mid-16thcentury, Basque whalers and fishermen were already working the Labrador coast and had established whalingstations on land, such as the one that has been excavated at Red Bay.[77] [78] The Inuit appear not to have interferedwith their operations, but they raided the stations in winter for tools and items made of worked iron, which theyadapted to their own needs.Martin Frobisher's 1576 search for the Northwest Passage was the first well-documented post-Columbian contact between Europeans and Inuit. Frobisher's expedition landed in Frobisher Bay, Baffin Island, not far from the

Inuit 11

settlement now called The City of Iqaluit which was long known as Frobisher Bay. Frobisher encountered Inuit onResolution Island where five sailors left the ship, under orders from Frobisher, and became part of Inuit mythology.The homesick sailors, tired of their adventure, attempted to leave in a small vessel and vanished. Frobisher broughtan unwilling Inuk to England, doubtless the first Inuk ever to visit Europe. The Inuit oral tradition, in contrast,recounts the natives helping Frobisher's crewmen, whom they believed had been abandoned.The semi-nomadic eco-centred Inuit were fishers and hunters harvesting lakes, seas, ice platforms and tundra. Whilethere are some allegations that Inuit were hostile to early French and English explorers, fishers and whalers, morerecent research suggests that the early relations with whaling stations along the Labrador coast and later James Baywere based on a mutual interest in trade.[79] In the final years of the 18th century, the Moravian Church beganmissionary activities in Labrador, supported by the British who were tired of the raids on their whaling stations. TheMoravian missionaries could easily provide the Inuit with the iron and basic materials they had been stealing fromwhaling outposts, materials whose real cost to Europeans was almost nothing, but whose value to the Inuit wasenormous and from then on contacts in Labrador were far more peaceful.

Hudson's Bay Company Ships bartering withInuit off the Upper Savage Islands, Hudson Strait,

1819

The European arrival tremendously damaged the Inuit way of life,causing mass death through new diseases introduced by whalers andexplorers, and enormous social disruptions caused by the distortingeffect of Europeans' material wealth. Nonetheless, Inuit society in thehigher latitudes had largely remained in isolation during the 19thcentury. The Hudson's Bay Company opened trading posts such asGreat Whale River (1820), today the site of the twin villages ofWhapmagoostui and Kuujjuarapik, where whale products of thecommercial whale hunt were processed and furs traded. The BritishNaval Expedition of 1821-3 led by Admiral William Edward Parry,which twice over-wintered in Foxe Basin, provided the first informed,sympathetic and well-documented account of the economic, social and religious life of the Inuit. Parry stayed inwhat is now Igloolik over the second winter. Parry's writings, with pen and ink illustrations of Inuit everyday life,and those of George Francis Lyon, both published in 1824 were widely read.[80] Captain George Comer's Inuit wifeShoofly, known for her sewing skills and elegant attire,[81] was influential in convincing him to acquire more sewingaccessories and beads for trade with Inuit.

Early 20th century

During the early 20th century a few traders and missionaries circulated among the more accessible bands, and after1904 they were accompanied by a handful of Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP). Unlike most Aboriginalpeoples in Canada, however, the lands occupied by the Inuit were of little interest to European settlers — to thesoutherners, the homeland of the Inuit was a hostile hinterland. Southerners enjoyed lucrative careers as bureaucratsand service providers to the north, but very few ever chose to visit there. Canada, with its more hospitable landslargely settled, began to take a greater interest in its more peripheral territories, especially the fur and mineral-richhinterlands. By the late 1920s, there were no longer any Inuit who had not been contacted by traders, missionaries orgovernment agents. In 1939, the Supreme Court of Canada found, in a decision known as Re Eskimos, that the Inuitshould be considered Indians and were thus under the jurisdiction of the federal government.Native customs were worn down by the actions of the RCMP, who enforced Canadian criminal law on Inuit, such asKikkik, who often could not understand what they had done wrong, and by missionaries who preached a moral codevery different from the one they were used to. Many of the Inuit were systematically converted to Christianity in the19th and 20th centuries, through rituals like the Siqqitiq.

Inuit 12

Second World War to the 1960s

World War II and the Cold War made Arctic Canada strategically important for the first time and, thanks to thedevelopment of modern aircraft, accessible year-round. The construction of air bases and the Distant Early WarningLine in the 1940s and 1950s brought more intensive contacts with European society, particularly in the form ofpublic education, which traditionalists complained instilled foreign values disdainful of the traditional structure ofInuit society.[82]

In the 1950s the High Arctic relocation was undertaken by the Government of Canada for several reasons. Thesewere to include protecting Canada's sovereignty in the Arctic, alleviating hunger (as the area currently occupied hadbeen over-hunted), and attempting to solve the "Eskimo problem", meaning the assimilation and end of the Inuitculture. One of the more notable relocation's was undertaken in 1953, when 17 families were moved from PortHarrison (now Inukjuak, Quebec) to Resolute and Grise Fiord. They were dropped off in early September whenwinter had already arrived. The land they were sent to was very different from that in the Inukjuak area; it wasbarren, with only a couple of months when the temperature rose above freezing and several months of polar night.The families were told by the RCMP they would be able to return within two years if conditions were not right.However, two years later more families were relocated to the High Arctic and it was to be thirty years before theywere able to visit Inukjuak.[83] [84] [85]

By 1953, Canada's prime minister Louis St. Laurent publicly admitted, "Apparently we have administered the vastterritories of the north in an almost continuing absence of mind."[86] The government began to establish about fortypermanent administrative centres to provide education, health and economic development services.[86] Inuit fromhundreds of smaller camps scattered across the north, began to congregate in these hamlets.[87]

Regular visits from doctors, and access to modern medical care raised the birth rate and decreased the death rate,causing an enormous natural increase. Before long, the Inuit population was beyond the carrying capacity of theecosystem (that which hunting and fishing could support). By the mid-1960s, encouraged first by missionaries, thenby the prospect of paid jobs and government services, and finally forced by hunger and required by police, allCanadian Inuit lived year-round in permanent settlements. The nomadic migrations that were the central feature ofArctic life had for the most part disappeared. The Inuit, a once self-sufficient people in an extremely harshenvironment were, in the span of perhaps two generations, transformed into a small, impoverished minority, lackingskills or resources to sell to the larger economy, but increasingly dependent on it for survival.Although anthropologists like Diamond Jenness (1964) were quick to predict that Inuit culture was facing extinction,Inuit political activism was already emerging.

Rejuvenation of culture

In the 1960s, the Canadian government funded the establishment of secular, government-operated high schools in theNorthwest Territories (including what is now Nunavut) and Inuit areas in Quebec and Labrador along with theresidential school system. The Inuit population was not large enough to support a full high school in everycommunity, so this meant only a few schools were built, and students from across the territories were boarded there.These schools, in Aklavik, Iqaluit, Yellowknife, Inuvik and Kuujjuaq, brought together young Inuit from across theArctic in one place for the first time, and exposed them to the rhetoric of civil and human rights that prevailed inCanada in the 1960s. This was a real wake-up call for the Inuit, and it stimulated the emergence of a new generationof young Inuit activists in the late 1960s who came forward and pushed for respect for the Inuit and their territories.The Inuit began to emerge as a political force in the late 1960s and early 1970s, shortly after the first graduates returned home. They formed new politically active associations in the early 1970s, starting with the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (Inuit Brotherhood and today known as Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami), an outgrowth of the Indian and Eskimo Association of the 60s, in 1971, and more region specific organisations shortly afterwards, including the Committee for the Original People's Entitlement (representing the Inuvialuit),[88] the Northern Quebec Inuit Association (Makivik Corporation) and the Labrador Inuit Association (LIA) representing Northern Labrador Inuit. Since the

Inuit 13

mid-1980s the Southern Labrador Inuit of Nunatukavut began organizing politically after being geographically cutout of the LIA, however, for political expediency the orgnaization was erroneously called the Labrador Metis Nation.NunatuKavummuit are Inuit. These various activist movements began to change the direction of Inuit society in1975 with the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement. This comprehensive land claims settlement for QuebecInuit, along with a large cash settlement and substantial administrative autonomy in the new region of Nunavik, setthe precedent for the settlements to follow. The northern Labrador Inuit submitted their land claim in 1977, althoughthey had to wait until 2005 to have a signed land settlement establishing Nunatsiavut. Southern Labrador Inuit ofNunatukavut are currently in the process of establishing landclaims and title rights that would allow them tonegotiate with the Newfoundland Government.In 1982, the Tunngavik Federation of Nunavut (TFN) was incorporated, in order to take over negotiations for landclaims on behalf of the Inuit living in the eastern Northwest Territories, that would later become Nunavut, from theInuit Tapiriit Kanatami, which became a joint association of the Inuit of Quebec, Labrador and the NorthwestTerritories.

Land claims settlements

The Inuvialuit are western Canadian Inuit who remained in the Northwest Territories when Nunavut split off. Theylive primarily in the Mackenzie River delta, on Banks Island, and parts of Victoria Island in the NorthwestTerritories. They are officially represented by the Inuvialuit Regional Corporation and, in 1984, received acomprehensive land claims settlement, the first in Northern Canada, with the signing of the Inuvialuit FinalAgreement.[89]

The TFN worked for ten years and, in September 1992, came to a final agreement with the Government of Canada.This agreement called for the separation of the Northwest Territories into an eastern territory whose aboriginalpopulation would be predominately Inuit,[90] the future Nunavut, and a rump Northwest Territories in the west. Itwas the largest land claims agreement in Canadian history. In November 1992, the Nunavut Final Agreement wasapproved by nearly 85% of the Inuit of what would become Nunavut. As the final step in this long process, theNunavut Land Claims Agreement was signed on May 25, 1993, in Iqaluit by Prime Minister Brian Mulroney and byPaul Quassa, the president of Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated, which replaced the TFN with the ratification of theNunavut Final Agreement. The Canadian Parliament passed the supporting legislation in June of the same year,enabling the 1999 establishment of Nunavut as a territorial entity.With the establishment of Nunatsiavut in 2005, almost all the traditional Inuit lands in Canada, with the exceptionNunatuKavut in central and South Labrador, are now covered by some sort of land claims agreement providing forregional autonomy.Inuit communities in Canada continue to suffer under crushing unemployment, overcrowded housing, substanceabuse, crime, violence and suicide. The problems Inuit face in the 21st century should not be underestimated.However, many Inuit are upbeat about the future. Arguably, their situation is better than it has been since the 14thcentury. Inuit arts, carving, print making, textiles and throat singing, are very popular, not only in Canada butglobally, and Inuit artists are widely known. Indeed, Canada has, metaphorically, adopted some of the Inuit cultureas a sort of national identity, using Inuit symbols like the inukshuk in unlikely places, such as its use as a symbol atthe 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. Respected art galleries display Inuit art, the largest collection of which is atthe Winnipeg Art Gallery. Some Inuit languages such as Inuktitut, appears to have a more secure future in Quebecand Nunavut. There are a surprising number of Inuit, even those who now live in urban centres such as Ottawa,Montreal and Winnipeg, who have experienced living on the land in the traditional life style. People such asLegislative Assembly of Nunavut member, Levinia Brown and former Commissioner of Nunavut and the NWT,Helen Maksagak were born and lived the early part of their life "on the land". Inuit culture is alive and vibrant todayin spite of the negative impacts of recent history.

Inuit 14

Inuit cabinet members

On October 30, 2008, Leona Aglukkaq was appointed as Minister of Health, "[becoming] the first Inuk to hold asenior cabinet position, although she is not the first Inuk to be in cabinet altogether."[91] Jack Anawak and NancyKaretak-Lindell were both parliamentary secretaries respectively from 1993–96 and in 2003.

GreenlandThe Thule people arrived in Greenland in the 13th century. There they encountered the Norsemen, who hadestablished colonies there since the late 10th century, as well as a later wave of the Dorset people. Because most ofGreenland is covered in ice, the Greenland Inuit (or Kalaallit) only live in coastal settlements, particularly thenorthern polar coast, the eastern Amassalik coast and the central coasts of western Greenland.[92] In 1953, Denmarkput an end to the colonial status of Greenland and granted home rule in 1979 and in 2008 a self-governmentreferendum was passed with 75% approval. Although a part of the Kingdom of Denmark, Greenland, known asKalaallit Nunaat, maintains much autonomy today. Of a population of 55,000, 80% of Greenlanders identify as Inuit.Their economy is based on fishing and shrimping.[93]

AlaskaThe Inuit of Alaska are the Inupiat (from Inuit- people - and piaq/piat real, i.e. 'real people') who live in theNorthwest Arctic Borough, the North Slope Borough and the Bering Straits region. Barrow, the northernmost city inthe United States, is in the Inupiat region. Their language is Iñupiaq (which is the singular form of Inupiat).

International issuesIn recent years, circumpolar cultural and political groups like the Inuit Circumpolar Council have come together topromote the Inuit and other northern people and to fight against ecological problems, such as climate change, whichdisproportionately affects the Inuit population. Global warming may cause Arctic mammal populations to decline.However, a study by Mitch Taylor, polar bear biologist with the Government of Nunavut, shows that, contrary to thedire predictions, eleven of thirteen polar bear populations have remained stable or increased. The study also showsthat the number of polar bears in western Hudson Bay is decreasing due to the effect of global warming, while thedecrease of the population in Baffin Bay is directly associated with the over hunting of the bears by Greenlandhunters.[94] [95] [96]

Modern culture

Inuit women at Nain, Newfoundland andLabrador

Well-known Inuit politicians include Premier of Nunavut, Eva Aariak,Nancy Karetak-Lindell, former MP for the riding of Nunavut, andLeona Aglukkaq, current MP and Federal Health Minister since2008.[97]

An important biennial event, the Arctic Winter Games, is held incommunities across the northern regions of the world, featuringtraditional Inuit and northern sports as part of the events. A culturalevent is also held. The games were first held in 1970, and while rotatedusually among Alaska, Yukon and the Northwest Territories, they havealso been held in Schefferville, Quebec in 1976, in Slave Lake,Alberta, and a joint Iqaluit, Nunavut-Nuuk, Greenland staging in 2002.

In other sporting events, Jordin Tootoo became the first Inuk to play in the National Hockey League in the 2003-04season, playing for the Nashville Predators.

Inuit 15

Although Inuit life has changed significantly over the past century, many traditions continue. InuitQaujimajatuqangit, or traditional knowledge, such as storytelling, mythology, music and dancing remain importantparts of the culture. Family and community are very important. The Inuktitut language is still spoken in many areasof the Arctic and is common on radio and in television programming.Visual and performing arts are strong. In 2002 the first feature film in Inuktitut, Atanarjuat, was released worldwideto great critical and popular acclaim. It was directed by Zacharias Kunuk, and written, filmed, produced, directed,and acted almost entirely by the Inuit of Igloolik. In 2009 the film, Le Voyage D'Inuk, a Greenlandic languagefeature film directed by Mike Magidson and co-written by Magidson and French film producer Jean-MichelHuctin.[98] One of the most famous Inuit artists is Pitseolak Ashoona. Susan Aglukark is a popular singer. MitiarjukAttasie Nappaaluk works at preserving Inuktitut and has written the first novel published in that language.[99] In2006, Cape Dorset was hailed as Canada's most artistic city, with 23% of the labour force employed in the arts.[100]

Inuit art such as soapstone carvings is one of Nunavut's most important industries.Recently, there has been an identity struggle among the younger generations of Inuit, between their traditionalheritage and the modern society which their cultures have been forced to assimilate into in order to maintain alivelihood. With current dependence on modern society for necessities, (including governmental jobs, food, aid,medicine, etc.), the Inuit have had much interaction with and exposure to the societal norms outside their previouscultural boundaries. The stressors regarding the identity crisis among teenagers have led to disturbingly highnumbers of suicide.[101]

A series of authors has focused upon the increasing myopia in the youngest generations of Inuit. Myopia was almostunknown prior to the Inuit adoption of western culture. This phenomenon is also seen in other cultures (for example,Vanuatu). Principal theories are the change to a western style diet with more refined foods, and extendededucation.[102] [103] [104]

Notes[1] Hessel, pg. 9[2] "Welcome to the Inuit Circumpolar Council" (http:/ / www. inuitcircumpolar. com/ index. php?Lang=En& ID=1). Inuitcircumpolar.com.

2008-12-05. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[3] "The Hunters of the Arctic" (http:/ / www. bambusspiele. de/ spiele/ nanuuk/ e_nunavut. htm). bambusspiele.de. . Retrieved 2008-01-07.[4] Maps of Inuit Nunaat (Inuit Regions of Canada) (http:/ / www. itk. ca/ publications/ maps-inuit-nunangat-inuit-regions-canada)[5] "Aboriginal Peoples in Canada in 2006: Inuit, Métis and First Nations, 2006 Census: Inuit" (http:/ / www12. statcan. ca/ english/ census06/

analysis/ aboriginal/ inuit. cfm). 2.statcan.ca. 2009-09-22. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[6] Kaplan, Lawrence. (2002). "Inuit or Eskimo: Which names to use?" (http:/ / www. uaf. edu/ anlc/ inuitoreskimo. html), Alaska Native

Language Center, University of Alaska Fairbanks, Retrieved on 2007-04-06.[7] The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition (http:/ / www. bartleby. com/ 61/ 24/ E0212400. html)[8] "Setting the Record Straight About Native Languages: What Does 'Eskimo' Mean In Cree?" (http:/ / www. native-languages. org/ iaq23. htm).

Native-languages.org. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[9] "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms" (http:/ / laws. justice. gc. ca/ en/ const/ 9. html). Department of Justice Canada. .[10] 101. Nunavut Handbook (http:/ / www. nunavuthandbook. com/ parks_pgs_297_331. pdf), Qaummaarviit Historic Park[11] "Tooth wear and the sexual division of labour in an Inuit population" (http:/ / ir. lib. sfu. ca/ bitstream/ 1892/ 5348/ 1/ b14258730. pdf)

(PDF). . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[12] Palmer, J. W (1998). The Dorset : An enigma = Le Dorset : une énigme. 19 (3 ed.). North American archaeologist. pp. 201–222.[13] Collins, Henry B. (1956). Vanished Mystery Men of Hudson Bay. Vol. CX No. 5. National Geographic Magazine. p. 674.[14] "Aboriginal 7 - Life in Canada" (http:/ / www. collectionscanada. gc. ca/ art/ 050602/ 0506020222_e. html). Library and Archives Canada. .

Retrieved 2008-03-21.[15] Davidson, Floyd L. (2004-04-26). "Re: Barrow Boy gibberish..." (http:/ / sci. tech-archive. net/ Archive/ sci. anthropology/ 2004-07/ 1342.

html). . Retrieved 2008-10-13.[16] "Arctic Studies Center Newsletter" (http:/ / www. mnh. si. edu/ arctic/ html/ pdf/ news02. pdf) (PDF). National Museum of Natural History.

Smithsonian Institution. June 2002. . Retrieved 2008-10-13.[17] Hayes, M.G. (2001). "Ancestor descendant relationships in North American Arctic prehistory: Ancient DNA evidence from the Aleutian

Islands and the Eastern Canadian Arctic." (http:/ / www. physanth. org/ annmeet/ aapa2001/ ajpasuppl32. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2008-10-13.[18] "Welcome to Rigolet" (http:/ / rigolet. ca/ ). rigolet.ca. . Retrieved 2010-06-04.[19] Ívar Bárðarson

Inuit 16

[20] Inuit Circumpolar Council. (2006). "HotCarl." (http:/ / inuitcircumpolar. com/ index. php?auto_slide=& ID=374& Lang=En& Parent_ID=&current_slide_num=) Inuit Circumpolar Council (Canada). Retrieved on 2007-04-06.

[21] Project Naming (http:/ / www. collectionscanada. ca/ inuit/ 020018-1200-e. html), the identification of Inuit portrayed on photographiccollections at Library and Archives Canada

[22] "Pigiarniq font available at the Government of Nunavut" (http:/ / www. gov. nu. ca/ english/ font/ ). Gov.nu.ca. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[23] "Tiro Typeworks" (http:/ / www. tiro. com/ syllabics/ resources/ index. html). Tiro.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[24] Writing Systems (http:/ / www. langcom. nu. ca/ languages/ en_writing. html)[25] "The Inuit Paradox" (http:/ / discovermagazine. com/ 2004/ oct/ inuit-paradox/ article_print). . Retrieved 2008-03-25.[26] Kuhnlein, Harriet (1991) [1991]. "Chapter 4. Descriptions and Uses of Plant Foods by Indigenous Peoples" (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=fPDErXqH8YYC& pg=PA26& lpg=PA26& dq=inuit+ seaweed& source=web& ots=wD5q-Sz3Mi&sig=4ZZ_YdBbSLfsu7VZ2LkrTaVzg-E). Traditional Plant Foods of Canadian Indigenous Peoples: Nutrition, Botany and Use (Food andNutrition in History and Anthropology) (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=fPDErXqH8YYC& pg=PA26& lpg=PA26& dq=inuit+ seaweed) (1sted.). Taylor and Francis. pp. 26–29. ISBN 978-2881244650. . Retrieved 2007-11-19.

[27] Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami. "Arctic Wildlife" (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070813015442/ http:/ / www. itk. ca/ environment/wildlife-index. php). Archived from the original (http:/ / www. itk. ca/ environment/ wildlife-index. php) on 2007-08-13. . Retrieved2007-11-20. "Not included are the myriad of other species of plants and animals that Inuit use, such as geese, ducks, rabbits, ptarmigan,swans, halibut, clams, mussels, cod, berries and seaweed."

[28] Bennett, John; Rowley, Susan (2004). "Chapter 5. Gathering" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=6cjGnMRRrcEC& pg=PA84&dq=inuit+ seaweed& sig=zIqIahWu8leC3FoRhzMnufW_QsU#PPR9,M1). Uqalurait: An Oral History of Nunavut (http:/ / books. google.com/ ?id=6cjGnMRRrcEC& pg=PA84& lpg=PA84& dq=inuit+ seaweed). McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 84–85.ISBN 978-0773523401. . "...shorelines, Inuit gathered seaweed and shellfish. For some, these foods were a treat;..."

[29] "kuanniq" (http:/ / www. livingdictionary. com/ term/ viewTerm. jsp?term=132285700004). Asuilaak Living Dictionary. . Retrieved2007-02-16.

[30] Bennett, John; Rowley, Susan (2004). "Chapter 5. Gathering" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=6cjGnMRRrcEC& pg=PA78& lpg=PA78&dq="in+ the+ land+ where+ it+ was+ flat"). Uqalurait: An Oral History of Nunavut. McGill-Queen's University Press. pp. 78–85.ISBN 978-0773523401. .

[31] Lieb et al. (1926). "The Effects of an Exclusive Long-Continued Meat Diet." JAMA, July 3, 1926[32] Fediuk, Karen. 2000 Vitamin C in the Inuit diet: past and present (http:/ / members. shaw. ca/ karen. fediuk/ VitaminCintheInuitdiet. pdf).

MA Thesis, School of Dietetics and Human Nutrition, McGill University 5-7; 95. Retrieved on: December 8, 2007.[33] "Qajaq" (http:/ / www. livingdictionary. com/ term/ viewTerm. jsp?term=49141890685). Asuilaak Living Dictionary. . Retrieved

2007-05-12.[34] Hegener, Helen (2008-12-30). "The Inuit Sled Dog" (http:/ / mushinghistory. blogspot. com/ 2008/ 12/ inuit-sled-dog. html).

Mushinghistory.blogspot.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[35] Legislative Assembly of Nunavut. "The Canadian Inuit Dog (http:/ / www. assembly. nu. ca/ about-legislative-assembly/

official-animal-nunavut)[36] "The Mackenzie Inuit Winter House" (http:/ / pubs. aina. ucalgary. ca/ arctic/ Arctic45-2-199. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[37] "Reconstructing traditional Inuit house forms using three-dimensional interactive computer modelling" (http:/ / www. ucalgary. ca/ ~rmlevy/

Thule/ Documents/ Visual Studies Final Copy. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[38] Inuit Women, by Janet Mancini Billson, Kyra Mancini. Published by Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. ISBN 0-7425-3597-5, 9780742535978.

p. 38[39] Billson 2007:65[40] Billson 2007:56[41] Snow, Dean R. "The first Americans and the differentiation of hunter-gatherer cultures." North America. Eds. Bruce G. Trigger and

Wilcomb E. Washburn. Cambridge University Press, 1996. Cambridge Histories Online. Cambridge University Press. 5 May 2008DOI:10.1017/CHOL9780521573924.004

[42] "The Inuit" (http:/ / dsp-psd. communication. gc. ca/ Collection/ R2-251-2003E-3. pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[43] Olmert, Michael (1996). Milton's Teeth and Ovid's Umbrella: Curiouser & Curiouser Adventures in History, p.158. Simon & Schuster, New

York. ISBN 0-684-80164-7.[44] Ernest S. Burch, Jr., PhD. "From Skeptic to Believer" (http:/ / www. alaskool. org/ projects/ traditionalife/ oralhistory/ skeptic_to_believer.

htm). .[45] Fienup-Reordan, Ann (1990). Eskimo Essays. Rutgers University Press.[46] "War by Rachel Attituq Qitsualik" (http:/ / www. nunatsiaq. com/ archives/ nunavut000131/ nunani. html). Nunatsiaq.com. . Retrieved

2011-01-24.[47] "Book reviews" (http:/ / utpjournals. metapress. com/ content/ f874574400118740/ fulltext. pdf) (PDF). Canadian Historical Review 79 (3):

591. September 1998. doi:10.3138/CHR.79.3.577. ISSN 0008-3755. .[48] "Senilicide and Invalidicide among the Eskimos" by Rolf Kjellstrom in Folk: Dansk etnografisk tidsskrift, volume 16/17 (1974/75)[49] Leighton,Alexander H.; Hughes, Charles C. (Winter 1955). "Notes on Eskimo Patterns of Suicide" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 3628908).

Southwestern Journal of Anthropology 11 (4): 327–38. .[50] Eskimos and Explorers, 2d ed., by Wendell H. Oswalt (1999)

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[51] "What is Traditional Knowledge?" (http:/ / www. nativescience. org/ html/ traditional_knowledge. html). Alaska Native ScienceCommission. . Retrieved 2008-05-05.

[52] Kawagley, Angayuqaq (1995). A Yupiaq World View. Waveland Press Inc. ISBN 0881338591.[53] Burch, Ernest S (1988). The Eskimos. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. p21. ISBN 0806121262. "Given the importance that Eskimos

attached to the aged, it is surprising that so many Westerners believe that they systematically eliminated elderly people as soon as they becameincapable of performing the duties related to hunting or sewing."

[54] Leenaars, Antoon A.; Michael J. Kral, Ronald J. Dyck (1998). Suicide in Canada (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=spGsTJFoMTAC&printsec=frontcover#PPA196,M1). University of Toronto Press. p. 196. ISBN 0802077919. .

[55] Boas, Franz (1964, p. 207)[56] Leenaars, Antoon A.; Michael J. Kral, Ronald J. Dyck (1998). Suicide in Canada (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=spGsTJFoMTAC&

printsec=frontcover#PPA195,M1). University of Toronto Press. p. 195. ISBN 0802077919. .[57] Leenaars, Antoon A.; Michael J. Kral, Ronald J. Dyck (1998). Suicide in Canada (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=spGsTJFoMTAC&

printsec=frontcover#PPA198,M1). University of Toronto Press. p. 198. ISBN 0802077919. .[58] Inuit Women: Their Powerful Spirit in a Century of Change (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=8M8aihnBACwC& pg=PA64&

lpg=PA64& dq=inuit+ infanticide& source=web& ots=Gr1djRu8yL& sig=quPfEmRFgaVP4T86FdT0_5WO1N0& hl=en& sa=X&oi=book_result& resnum=7& ct=result) By Janet Mancini Billson

[59] "Female infanticide: northern exposure - Intuit may have killed one out of every five female babies between 1880 and 1940" (http:/ /findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_m1200/ is_n22_v146/ ai_15952600/ pg_1?tag=artBody;col1). Findarticles.com. 1994-11-26. . Retrieved2011-01-24.

[60] Balikci, Asen (1970). The Netsilik Eskimo. Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-05766-0.[61] Freeman, Milton M. R. (October 1971). "A Social and Ecologic Analysis of Systematic Female Infanticide among the Netsilik Eskimo"

(http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/ 672815). American Anthropologist 73 (5): 1011–8. doi:10.1525/aa.1971.73.5.02a00020. .[62] Riches, David. (October 1974). "The Netsilik Eskimo: A Special Case of Selective Female Infanticide" (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ pss/

3773051). Ethnology 13 (4): 351–61. doi:10.2307/3773051. .[63] "Remembering Kikkik" (http:/ / www. nunatsiaq. com/ archives/ nunavut020621/ news/ features/ 20621_1. html). Nunatsiaq.com.

2002-06-21. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[64] "Kikkik, When Justice Was Done" (http:/ / www. mysteriesofcanada. com/ Nunavut/ kikkik. htm). Mysteriesofcanada.com. . Retrieved

2011-01-24.[65] Hess, Bill (2003). Gift of the Whale: The Inupiat Bowhead Hunt, A Sacred Tradition. Sasquatch Books. ISBN 1570613826.[66] "Barrow Visitors Guide 2006" (http:/ / www. echonsb. org/ docs/ BarrowVisitorsGuide2006. pdf) (PDF). Touch Alaska. .[67] "Dear Young Girl" (http:/ / www. mnh. si. edu/ arctic/ html/ dear_young_girl. html). .[68] Information from "Inuit: Glimpses of an Arctic Past" by Morrison and Germain[69] "Tirigusuusiit, Piqujait and Maligait: Inuit Perspectives on Traditional Law" (http:/ / nac. nu. ca/ OnlineBookSite/ vol2/ introduction. html).

Nunavut Arctic College. . Retrieved 2007-10-17.[70] "Tirigusuusiit and Maligait" (http:/ / www. tradition-orale. ca/ english/ tirigusuusiit-and-maligait-58. html). Listening to our past. . Retrieved

2007-10-17.[71] Eileen, Travers (2003-01-01). "When Survival Means Preserving Oral Traditions" (http:/ / voices-unabridged. net/ format/ creat_ss_format.

php?id_ss_article=14). voices-unabridged.org. . Retrieved 2007-10-17.[72] "Aurora borealis observation journal of Sir George Back" (http:/ / www. mccord-museum. qc. ca/ en/ collection/ artifacts/ M2634?Lang=1&

accessnumber=M2634). Mccord-museum.qc.ca. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[73] "The Canadian Association of Aboriginal Entrepreneurship" (http:/ / www. aurora-inn. mb. ca/ borealis. html). Aurora-inn.mb.ca. .

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pg=PA6& lpg=PA6& dq=aurora+ borealis+ Inuit& source=bl& ots=fnfF-fYzNw& sig=EUE-uXeQQcqvFtV_BtGkzlqeoFo& hl=en&ei=qqzuSpXuHMaXtgfguOE6& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=7& ved=0CB0Q6AEwBjgK#v=onepage& q=aurora borealisInuit& f=false). Books.google.ca. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.

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[85] "Broken Promises" (http:/ / www. nutaaq. com/ productions/ brokenpromises. html). Nutaaq.com. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.[86] Parker 1996:32[87] Mitchell 1996:118[88] "Committee for Original Peoples Entitlement (COPE)" (http:/ / www. connexions. org/ CxLibrary/ CX2830. htm). Connexions.org.

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Code1=62& Geo2=PR& Code2=01& Data=Count& SearchText=Nunavut& SearchType=Begins& SearchPR=01& B1=All& Custom=All).2.statcan.ca. 2003-01-21. . Retrieved 2011-01-24.

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[101] Penney, Christopher; Senecal S, Guimond E, Bobet E, Uppal S. (27 June 2008). "Suicide in Inuit Nunaat:An analysis of suicide rates andthe effect of Community-level factors" (http:/ / old. nrf. is/ Open Meetings/ Anchorage/ Position Papers/Penney_Senécal_Guimond_Bobet_and_Uppal_5thNRF_position_paper_session2. pdf). Position paper for the 5th NRF open assembly.INAC. . Retrieved 2009-11-05.

[102] "Short-sightedness may be tied to refined diet" (http:/ / www. newscientist. com/ article. ns?id=dn2120). Newscientist.com. . Retrieved2011-01-24.

[103] Morgan RW, Speakman JS, Grimshaw SE (March 1975). "Inuit myopia: an environmentally induced "epidemic"?" (http:/ / www.pubmedcentral. nih. gov/ articlerender. fcgi?tool=pmcentrez& artid=1956268). Can Med Assoc J 112 (5): 575–7. PMID 1116086.PMC 1956268.

[104] Bernard Gilmartin; Mark Rosenfield (1998). Myopia and nearwork (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=mNT577S8uywC& pg=PA21&lpg=PA21& dq=myopia+ inuit). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. p. 21. ISBN 0-7506-3784-6. .

References• Briggs, Jean L. (1971). Never in Anger: Portrait of an Eskimo Family (http:/ / books. google. ca/

books?id=A9QuJjQbh7MC& lpg=PP1& dq=Never in Anger: Portrait of an Eskimo Family&pg=PP1#v=onepage& q& f=true). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-60828-3.

• Forman, Werner; Burch, Ernest S. (1988). The Eskimos (http:/ / books. google. ca/ books?id=BUDUvjJpnzUC&lpg=PA7& dq=The Eskimos& pg=PP1#v=onepage& q& f=true). Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.ISBN 0-8061-2126-2.

• De Poncins, Gontran. Kabloona. St. Paul, MN: Graywolf Press, 1996 (originally 1941). ISBN 1-55597-249-7• Hessell, Ingo. (2006). Arctic Spirit: The Albrecht Collection of Inuit Art at the Heard Museum. Vancouver:

Douglas & McIntyre. ISBN 1-55365-189-8.• McGrath, Melanie. (2007). The long exile: a tale of Inuit betrayal and survival in the high Arctic. New York:

Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 1-4000-4047-7.

Inuit 19

• Paver, Michelle. (2008). Chronicles of Ancient Darkness Omnibus Edition (Volume 1, 2, and 3). London: Orion.ISBN 1-84255-705-X.

• Ruesch, Hans. (1986). Top of the World. New York: Pocket. ISBN 950-637-164-4. ( Hebrew version (http:/ /www. webcitation. org/ query?url=http:/ / www. geocities. com/ proppentrecker/ ernenek-00. html&date=2009-10-26+ 01:03:35))

• Walk, Ansgar. (1999). Kenojuak: the life story of an Inuit artist. Manotick, Ontario: Penumbra Press.ISBN 0-921254-95-4.

External links• Inuit (http:/ / www. dmoz. org/ Society/ Ethnicity/ The_Americas/ Indigenous/ Inuit/ ) at the Open Directory

Project

Article Sources and Contributors 20

Article Sources and ContributorsInuit  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=412880282  Contributors: (jarbarf), .:Ajvol:., 0, 16@r, 2D, 3centsoap, 5 albert square, 5021Lab9, A little insignificant, A930913, ABF,AJR, ARUNKUMAR P.R, Academic Challenger, Acather96, AceTygra, Acetic Acid, Aceya, Acroterion, Adashiel, Addshore, AdjustShift, Aeon1006, Afluent Rider, Ahhhh911, Ahmed ismanchester united, Aillema, Airplaneman, Alan Millar, Alansohn, Ale jrb, Alex Shih, AlexWaelde, Alexius08, AlexiusHoratius, Alexjohnc3, Algkalv, AlimanRuna, Allstarecho, Alphax, Amog,Analexploration, Andre Engels, AndreNatas, Anetheron589, Anlace, Anonymous Dissident, Anonymous anonymous, Anonymous101, Ansgar Walk, Ant3223-weapons, Ante Aikio, Anthon.Eff,Apokryltaros, Aqwis, Arakunem, Arb, Arctic Night, ArglebargleIV, Aristophanes68, Armaced, Arwel Parry, Asocall, Asybaris01, Atif.t2, Avoided, Avono, Ayla, B4hand, BD2412, Badagnani,Baiji, Barliner, Barnabas Brown, Bart133, Bassbonerocks, BatteryIncluded, Bearcat, Belovedfreak, Bengl, Betsys99, Big Adamsky, Biker Biker, Bilby, Black and White, Blake-, Blanchardb,Blaueva52h7jk, Bleh999, Bless sins, Blue520, Bob f it, Bobblehead, Bobblewik, Bobing2, Bobo192, Bonadea, BrainyBabe, Brogan115, Brunton, Bsadowski1, Bthomd, Bubba hotep,BullRangifer, Bullock4444, CJLL Wright, CQJ, CSWarren, CWii, Caiyu, Caknuck, Calmer Waters, CambridgeBayWeather, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Canadian Rockies, CanadianCaesar,CanadianLinuxUser, Canley, Capricorn42, Carcharoth, Catagraph, Cbustapeck, Cdmckay, Cenarium, CesarB, Cgingold, Chamal N, Champ m, Charlesdrakew, CharlotteWebb, Chaser1009,Chrislk02, Chzz, Cielomobile, Cjrs 79, Cjwright79, ClamDip, Closedmouth, Clump4br, Cmichael, Cody574, Coffee, Cokeboy, Contributor777, Conversion script, Coredesat, Corpx,Corruptcopper, Courcelles, Cpl Syx, Craigismiboy1, Cratylus3, Crazycomputers, Credema, Crimeandpunishment, Crocodile Punter, Crzrussian, Cuchullain, Cupcake98, D3dtn01, DARTHSIDIOUS 2, DJ Clayworth, DJAYSCRAPPY, DMAJohnson, DMacks, Da monster under your bed, Dadude3320, Dale Arnett, DanMS, Daniel5127, Dannielle.p, Danogo, Dark Tichondrias,DarkAudit, DarkDave66, Darth Panda, Davewild, Daveydweeb, David Schaich, David spector, Davlet, Dawn Bard, DeadEyeArrow, Debresser, Deconstructhis, Dedalus275, Delaraha, Delldot,Denaje, Denni, Deor, DerHexer, Deviator13, DiabloAngelus, Diamondprincesslol, Diannaa, Diderot, Dina, Dinnyfm, Discospinster, DocWatson42, DoubleBlue, Dougweller, Dr. Blofeld,Drewebe, Dserralker, Dumbo1, Durova, Dwo, Dzubint, EJF, EPIC r0FlwAfFlE, ESkog, Eastlaw, Ed Poor, Eequor, EhJJ, ElKevbo, Elassint, Elias Enoc, Eloquence, Emersoni, Emijrp,Emptyenvelope, EncMstr, Enviroboy, Epbr123, Er Komandante, Ergative rlt, Erich Schmidt, Espetkov, Estar4000, EvanProdromou, Everyking, Evil Monkey, Excirial, Ezhiki, FT2, Fabrictramp,Fadesga, Falcon Kirtaran, Falcon8765, Fama Clamosa, Fang 23, FayssalF, Feinoha, Fingerz, Floyd Davidson, Fly by Night, Flying Canuck, Fordmadoxfraud, Franamax, FrancescoMazzucotelli,FrankCostanza, Free Bear, FreplySpang, Friginator, Fritzpoll, Frymaster, Fullstop, Funvanessa103, Gabe83, Gail, Gaius Cornelius, Gandhi Dancer, Gary King, Gbabe66, Gcapp1959, Gdr,Geometricks, George Drummond, Gilliam, Gimboid13, Gloryburst, Gmm1993, Gobbleswoggler, Gobonobo, Godlord2, Gogo Dodo, Google kwerty, Goran.S2, GraemeL, Graham87, GrahamN,GrandfatherJoe, Green Giant, Greenchilefrog, Gringo300, Grochim, Grstain, Guehene, Guermantes, Gunch77, Gurch, Gzkn, HJKeats, HK-90, Halsteadk, Hamstermage, Hans-Friedrich Tamke,Harmil, Hashy66, Hello Control, Henry Flower, Hephaestos, Hiddekel, Hiddenfromview, Hihi619, Hippophaë, Hmains, Hottentot, Howcheng, Hu, Hut 8.5, I dream of horses, IGeMiNix, IIMusLiM HyBRiD II, IJA, IRP, IW.HG, Ianbron, Icanandibill, Igoldste, Ilja lorek, Illnab1024, Imstahl, Indefatigable, IndulgentReader, Ingaert, Io Katai, Iridescent, IrishPete, Irishm,IronGargoyle, Ironholds, Isis, Ivirivi00, J-stan, J.delanoy, JAJUANSIMON, JBsupreme, JForget, JLaTondre, JLucBernier, JM.Beaubourg, JRHorse, JSpung, JaGa, Jackfork, JackofOz, Jackol,Jacob Lundberg, James Crippen, JamesAM, JamesR, Jamoche, Jan1nad, Jannex, Jay Litman, Jaydec, Jayron32, Jaysweet, Jcferggy, Jclemens, Jeepday, Jeff G., Jeff1988, Jengod, Jennavecia,Jeroen, Jerry teps, JettaMann, Jfitzg, Jiang, JillandJack, Jimfbleak, Jimmy Bergmark, Jj137, Jmlk17, JoJan, John Hill, John Reaves, John254, Johndarrington, Johnfos, Jonadab, Jonathan Hall,Jonnakeke, JorisvS, Joseph B, Josh Cherry, Jossi, Joy4inuits, Joyous!, Jruta, Juliancolton, Jusjih, Jwalte04, KGasso, Kaisershatner, Kalelbegins, Kaori, Karl-Henner, Katalaveno,KathrynLybarger, Kbdank71, Kchishol1970, Keep your fork, there's pie, Keeper76, Keilana, Khoikhoi, Khukri, KillerChihuahua, King Toadsworth, Kmoksy, Kmsiever, KnowledgeOfSelf,Koryakov Yuri, Koven.rm, KrakatoaKatie, Krenakarore, Krisma12234, Kuldip1, Kurieeto, Kurykh, Kuyabribri, KyraVixen, L Kensington, LFaraone, LOL, Labongo, Ladiesman2215,LadyofShalott, Law, Lazylaces, LeaveSleaves, LenBudney, Leoboudv, Leotolstoy, LibLord, Lightmouse, Lights, Lilac Soul, Lithoderm, Little Mountain 5, Liz de Quebec, Llb9977, Lmiall, LoewGalitz, Logan, Lolalily216, Longhair, Look2See1, LoopholeG2s, Lotje, Lucas the scot, Lucky number 49, Lucyb111, M.nelson, M1ss1ontomars2k4, MC MasterChef, MER-C, MONGO, MPerel,MacGyverMagic, Maclyn611, Macy, Madmagic, ManuelGR, Marek69, MarkSutton, Martin451, Matt Deres, Mattb112885, Mattbr, Maxis ftw, Mbrown04, Mcervari, Mcorazao, Mealy58,Meekywiki, Menchi, Mentifisto, Merope, Mewizkuit, Miaiswierd, Mich97, MickWest, Midgrid, Mikanmomoko, Mike9e92, Mild Bill Hiccup, Miss Madeline, Miss sutyatra, Misscutie27,Missymel999, MisterSheik, Mjt123, Mmm-kkk, Mmxx, Moez, Montrealais, Moosemoosemc, Moreschi, Moritz1994, Moxy, Mschel, Munchkyn, Mustino, Mygerardromance, Mzajac, N-k,NHRHS2010, Nadirali, Nagy, Nakon, NawlinWiki, Neptune5000, Neverquick, Nihiltres, Nikai, Nimur, Nirvana2013, Nmajdan, Noanator10, Node ue, NotAnonymous0, Notheruser, Nowhither,Nsaa, Nuno Tavares, O RLY?, Ocatecir, Oceanflynn, Octovus, OdaDorothea, Olivier, OllieFury, Omicronpersei8, Onerheim, Optichan, Oreo Priest, OverlordQ, OwenX, Oxymoron83, Ozkaplan,PGWG, PM800, Paiev, Paintballer108, Parkwells, Patman, Paul Erik, Paul foord, Paxsimius, Peanutcactus, Pedro, Peruvianllama, Peter Winnberg, Peterlewis, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy),Pewwer42, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Phil-hong, Philip Trueman, Physis, Piano non troppo, Pigman, Pinethicket, Pinkadelica, Piperh, Pitomba, Plasticanimal, Poisonredapple, Pol430, Ponyo,Possum, Postdlf, Pradiptaray, Prashanthns, Professor marginalia, Proxima Centauri, Ptcamn, Putgeminmouth, QuartierLatin1968, Que-Can, Quintus314, Qxz, RDBrown, RJaguar3, RadRafe,Radh, RadioFan, Radon210, RajlGT, Randy Johnston, Ranveig, RaseaC, Raven in Orbit, Razorflame, Rdsmith4, RebaFan1996, Reinoutr, Reinyday, RexNL, Rgoodermote, Rhrad, Richard Meloda Silva, Richerman, RickDC, Rioku1844, Rjensen, Rjwilmsi, Rlax, Rmhermen, Rmosler2100, Robchurch, Rocket71048576, Rory096, Rosiestep, RoyBoy, Ruakh, RyanGerbil10, S14jduma,SD6-Agent, SDY, SJP, Sam Dunham, Samivel, Sander123, Sango123, SarekOfVulcan, Sborsody, Scapegoat4242, Scentoni, Sceptre, Schumi555, Schzmo, Scienceman123, Scjessey, Sebastienz,Semperf, Seraphimblade, ShakingSpirit, Shanel, Shanes, Shawnvd, ShelfSkewed, Sherrold, Silsor, Silvergoat, SimonP, Sintaku, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Sir Vicious, SirIsaacBrock,Skookum1, Skunkboy74, Skysmith, SlimVirgin, Slon02, Slrubenstein, Smobri, Snowolf, SoCalSuperEagle, SoLando, Some jerk on the Internet, Someguy1221, SonicAD, Sonjaaa,Sophiebristow, SpaceFlight89, Spencer, Squarepants123456789, Staffwaterboy, StaticVision, Stbalbach, Steel, Stephenchou0722, Steveguy, Stroppolo, Styrofoam1994, Suffusion of Yellow,Sunborn, Sunray, Sweetman2244, Sysy, TCrEoLe89, THobern, TUF-KAT, Tad Lincoln, Talkingcow, Tamabat45, Taqqiapik, Taraborn, Tawker, TeaDrinker, Teak the Kiwi, Techman224,Tedder, Tempodivalse, The Evil Spartan, The High Fin Sperm Whale, The Rambling Man, The Thing That Should Not Be, The Tom, The undertow, Theda, Thefumi, Thelemonzip,Themightyquill, Themodelcitizen, Thingg, Thomas419ca, Thriller stephen, Tiddly Tom, Tide rolls, Tim1357, Timo Honkasalo, Tivedshambo, Tlogmer, Tmkeesey, Tofutwitch11,Tohd8BohaithuGh1, TomasBat, Tomchiukc, Tommy2010, Tonurics, Travelbird, Treasurehouse, Trevor MacInnis, Trex422, Trusilver, Trzmm5, Tstockma, Tsunamishadow, Twang,TwistOfCain, UberScienceNerd, Unotom, Uri7, Utcursch, Uyvsdi, Vanished User 1004, Vegetator, Venu62, Versus22, Vicksburg360, Victoriaedwards, Vijay100, Voyagerfan5761, Vrenator,Vsmith, WHOXXAREXXYOUXXANDXXWHATXXDOXXYOUXXWANT, WODUP, Walter Humala, Wareh, Washburnmav, Wayne Slam, Wdflake, Webman25, Webmaster McCord,Werdan7, WereSpielChequers, Wereon, Werwerwer, Westermarck, White Shadows, Wiglaf, WikHead, Wiki alf, Wikiscribe, Wikitopian, Wikitumnus, Wimt, Wiskus, Wknight94, Wolfkeeper,Wolfrock, Woohookitty, WookieInHeat, Woonar, Wyatt90111, Wysprgr2005, Xero-7, Xp54321, Yamaguchi先生, Yamamoto Ichiro, Yksin, Yonatan, Ysharifai, Yysquared, Zackubus, Zanimum,Zero Gravitas, Zhile, Zouavman Le Zouave, Уральский Кот, 2595 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Qamutik 1 1999-04-01.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Qamutik_1_1999-04-01.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:Ansgar WalkImage:Artic-cultures-900-1500.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Artic-cultures-900-1500.png  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors:MasaeImage:Inuktitut dialect map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inuktitut_dialect_map.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:Asybaris01Image:Inuitbasket.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inuitbasket.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors: User:DurovaFile:Inuit man by Curtis - Noatak AK.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inuit_man_by_Curtis_-_Noatak_AK.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:CambridgeBayWeather, DieBuche, Howcheng, Ibn Battuta, KürschnerFile:Social housing in Ilulissat, Greenland.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Social_housing_in_Ilulissat,_Greenland.jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Vincent van ZeijstImage:igloo.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Igloo.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Nojhan, Saperaud, 2 anonymous editsFile:Early 20th Century Inuit parka (UBC).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Early_20th_Century_Inuit_parka_(UBC).jpg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:LeoboudvFile:Angulalik and his family. Perry River.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Angulalik_and_his_family._Perry_River.jpg  License: Attribution  Contributors: S.J.Bailey / Library and Archives Canada / PA-175729Image:Inuit women 1907.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Inuit_women_1907.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lomen Bros., NomeFile:Edward S. Curtis Collection People 005.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Edward_S._Curtis_Collection_People_005.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:Aurevilly, Bohème, CambridgeBayWeather, Frank C. Müller, Infrogmation, Kuerschner, Kürschner, Lupo, Makthorpe, Marku1988, Red devil 666, TFCforever, XhienneFile:Polarlicht.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Polarlicht.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: United States Air Force photo by Senior Airman Joshua StrangImage:HBC-Upper Savage Islands-Hudson Strait.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:HBC-Upper_Savage_Islands-Hudson_Strait.jpg  License: Public Domain Contributors: Hood, Robert (1795/6 - 1821/10/20)

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 21

Image:Femmes Nain.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Femmes_Nain.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5  Contributors: CambridgeBayWeather, Perrona

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unportedhttp:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/