The Indus River System

Observing the fate of the Indus River can assist restoration practitioners worldwide. Because it is fed primarily from glacier melt, the Indus will be unduly influenced and altered by the impacts of climate change (Oxley, 2011). Though the river has been used for agriculture for thousands of years, modern developments have rendered it ecologically damaged and prone to devastating floods. The river no longer reaches the ocean due to excessive withdrawals and damming, and affected citizens are organizing politically to restore flows in the river and ensure that it provides for all users (IUCN, n.d.; Gopal, n.d.; Guriro, 2010). The basin also

serves as an example in transboundary river management. Pakistan, India, and China share the basin despite a history of conflict between both nations and states within the nations (Ray, 2010). The outcomes

of decisions facing Indus River managers and stakeholders will provide lessons for us all as we confront climate change and face the potential of increased water scarcity.

Physical Characteristics

The Indus River originates in the Gangdise Mountains, a range that runs parallel to the Himalayas in what was once Tibet, but is now Chinese territory. Its waters flow 1,980 miles from its headwaters and through the arid plains of Pakistan and India before depositing rich silt in the ecologically valuable delta that has taken form where the river meets the Arabian Sea (Inam et al., 2007).

Overall, the river boasts a drainage area of 450,000 square miles and an average discharge of 6,000 cubic meters/second. As in New Mexico, the flow varies with the monsoons, with minimum discharge in winter and

maximum discharge during the rainy season that runs between July and September (Inam et al., 2007).

The river flows rapidly from the mountain until it reaches the Tarbela Dam and enters the Punjab Plain, where it grows larger as five tributaries join it. Here, the river flows more slowly, and silt deposits accumulate on its bed. Then the Indus branches into distributaries that form its at the Arabian Sea. The flow is at its maximum where tributaries receive waters in the hilly part of upper catchments. Evaporation and seepage considerably reduce flow volume on the plains (Kalabagh, n.d.).

The Indus has high erosive rates, periodic flooding, and a steep gradient. Slope

failures have wholly or partially blocked the river, even leading to catastrophic dam-failure floods downstream. The Indus deepens its course at the rapid pace of between 2 and 12 mm year in the gorge section near Nanga Parbat (Inam et al., 2007).

Political Characteristics

Pakistan was carved out of India in 1947, and the Indus River Basin was also divided between the countries. This has created some conflict over water rights (amongst both countries and between states within

Figure  1.  Satellite  View,  NASA  

Figure  2.  Mount  Kailash,  Ondrej  Zvacek  

Figure  4.  Indus  River,  Stock  Photo  Figure  3.  Indus  River  Map,  U.S.  Senate  Report  

those countries) in a region that has been a scene of warfare and uprising since the controversial partition. Furthermore, there is conflict over the ownership of Kashmir, and multiple tributaries flow through this area (Ray, 2010).

The World Bank brokered the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty to resolve transnational water rights in the basin. The two nations work with the International Court of Justice to determine the appropriate course of action in tricky situations. Both nations have received millions of dollars in international development aid to implement large-scale infrastructure projects (many of which are now being contested by the poor, disenfranchised rural citizens who were affected by the results; Ray, 2010).

The Indus is currently Pakistan’s principal water source. The nation is arid and deficient and rainfall. Its high evaporation rate is leading to a freshwater crisis. The Indus at southern Pakistan barely carries any freshwater at this point. This is troubling for a nation whose economy is dominated by agriculture. Pakistan uses irrigation to meet 90% of its agricultural needs. So, there is political tension within the country about water use. Southern citizens perceive that most water is used to irrigate richer northern crop-growing provinces. The country is heavily indebted, and 85% of the population lives below the international poverty line. On top of this, the country is experiencing ethnic divisions, religious violence, economic conflicts, and a strong fundamentalist presence in this military-bureaucratic oligarchy. Pakistan has a 52% share of the basin (Ray, 2010).

India was granted the rights to the river’s three Eastern tributaries, including its headwaters. In 1948, India shut off water flow to Pakistan, and many aspects of the river’s infrastructure have been designed with military strategy in mind. The Indus also assists with irrigated agriculture in India’s Punjab region, one of the most fertile areas on the planet. India has a 26% share of the basin (Ray, 2010).

China holds an 11% share of the basin (due to its Tibetan invasion), but makes no claims to the water. A change in position could radically alter management of the river in the future (Ray, 2010).

Ecological Characteristics

The climate of the Indus valley ranges from dry semidesert to high mountain. Temperatures range from below freezing in the mountains to summer highs of 100 degrees Fahrenheit in the lower Sindh and Punjab provinces. Annual precipitation in the basin ranges between 5 and 20 inches, and flood season from July through September enlarges the river (Kalabagh, n.d.).

The Indus flows through an ecosystem of temperate forests, plains, and countryside. There are desert conditions in Sindh on the lower

Indus. The bank is primarily sand with poor grass cover. Thorn forests of open acacia and bush and undergrowth of poppies, vetch,

thistles, and chickweed grown in the Indus Plain, with tall grasses, tamarisk trees, and dense shrubs near the river. Coniferous trees grow in the mountainous upper Indus (Kalabagh, n.d.).

The river is rich in fish like hilsa and supports many fishing centers. The creeks and shallow sea water near the river’s mouth are full of marine fish, like pomfrets and prawns (Kalabagh, n.d.). The blind Indus River dolphin is a dolphin subspecies found only in the Indus River. However, it is one of the most threatened cetaceans, with only about 1,000 still in existence (World Wildlife Fund Global, 2010).

The Indus is also sediment-rich. The lower reaches of the Indus carry four times as much silt as the Nile and twice as much as the Missouri (Ray, 2010). The Indus

Figure  5.  Indus  River,  Stock  Photo  

Figure  6.  Indus  River  Dolphin,  Renee  Silvana

submarine fan is the second largest sediment body on the earth, with around 5 million cubic kilometers of material eroded from the mountain. Its delta has been recognized by conservationists as one of the world’s most important ecological regions. It is also one of the few world rivers to exhibit a tidal bore (Inam et al., n.d.).

There are concerns that deforestation, industrial pollution, and global warming are affecting the vegetation and wildlife of the Indus delta, while affecting agricultural production as well. Near the river’s mouth, temperatures are rising four times faster than other areas in China, and the Tibetan glaciers are retreating at a higher speed than in any other part of the world. In the short-term, there is concern about floods and mudflows. In the long-term, there is concern about water scarcity in India and Pakistan, massive migration, or death (Inam et al., n.d.; Memon, 2005).

Development and Land Use Patterns

The waters of the Indus have been used for six millennia through multiple historical regimes, and water managers have been using large-scale management of the system since the last half of the 20th century. 60% of its water is used for irrigation and supplies about 80% of Pakistan’s agricultural needs. (Inam et al., 2007)

The Indus River supports fishing and agriculture as it flows through China, Pakistan, and India. The river has been shifting its course for 4,000 years. It plays an important part in the

traditional economy and way of life: “Dark-skinned men float pitchers of buffalo milk from its reedy islands and cultivate melons on its muddy shores.” And the river has been important during times of war: “When India was

partitioned, blood and bodies floated south on the river current” (Fairley, 1975).

Watershed Management & Impacts on System

The river has been engineered to provide irrigation through flood irrigation or canal irrigation in the state of Sindh. Overgrazing and felling timber for fuel (wood is one of Pakistan’s main energy sources) have destroyed much of the natural vegetation. Anthropogenic interference with natural drainage and deforestation in the Himalayan foothills has also contributed to a drop in groundwater and further vegetation loss (Kalabagh, n.d.; Oxley, 2011).

Several large dams have been built on the Indus, in large part supported by multilateral aid and influenced by a politically and financially powerful dam lobby. Still, financing tends to get dispersed through bribes and corruption. So, although many dams have failed to meet their objectives, there is still support for the powerful dam industry (Ray, 2010). Dams have caused controversy among the tribal indigenous people who depend on the river for support. Many have been displaced because of dam projects. Their numbers are typically underreported, and many are offered mere pittances to relocate from ancestral lands to urban slums (Ray, 2010). Dams also create a point of tension between Pakistan and India, as Pakistan fears India

will manage the flow in a way that causes harm to Pakistan (as, indeed, India did when it stopped downstream flow in 1948; Ray, 2010).

Dams also alter the flood regime. At one time, people in India prayed for floods, seeing them as sources of fertility. Now, people in India fear floods, which have been causing devastation to a river that has been channelized and developed. The 2010 Pakistan flood displaced hundreds of thousands of villagers and submerged hundreds of villages. Extreme flood events are expected to increase

Figure  7.  Gateway  at  Harrapa,  Crystal  Links  

Figure  8.  Indus  River  Dams,  Forum  Pakistan  

with climate change. It is essential that the Indus’ water managers prepare for this potential future (Oxley, 2011).

Two of the main dams (the Tarbela Dam and Mangla Dam) are known as the Indus Basin Project. They are some of the largest rolled earth-fill dams in the world and produce hydropower for the region. The Mangla Reservoir has become a fishing center, tourist attraction, and health resort. Still, many projects have been a matter of dispute under the 1960 Indus Waters Treaty, and the two countries have gone to the International Court of Justice for arbitration on several projects (Ray,

2010).

Link canals are also popular in the watershed. The Chashma-Jhelum Link diverts water from the western rivers to water-scarce areas in East

Pakistan. The Haveli Canal and Trimmu-Sidhnai-  Mailsi-Bahawal Link Canal systems provide irrigation to lower Punjab. Other canals provide irrigation for sugarcane, wheat, food crops, and fruit orchards.

These non-traditional crops were largely introduced in the region after the Green Revolution, which imported Western technologies, including herbicides and pesticides, to farmers in the region (Memon, 2005).

But while these projects have greatly increased cultivation, there is concern about sustainability of production in this region. Many attempts at canal irrigation have actually damaged cultivated land, as water in unlined canals seeps through the soil and raises the water table, so that soil becomes waterlogged and useless for cultivation. As

canal irrigation has expanded along the Indus and its tributaries, in some areas groundwater has risen above the surface to form shallow lakes. In other places, water has evaporated in the intense summer heat, leaving

behind layers of salt that make crop production impossible. Engineers are considering creating adequate drainage systems that might avoid waterlogging and salt buildup (Inam et al., 2007.

Irrigation has been used in the Indus Valley “since time immemorial,” with British engineers beginning to construct modern irrigation systems around 1850. At this time, the British modernized old canals and channels. Withdrawing water for irrigation has decreased in-stream flows, and this scarcity of water has contributed to political unrest among downstream users in Pakistan (Memon, 2005; Ray, 2010).

Until about 1880, the river was used for navigation. After the construction of irrigation projects, all but the “small craft that ply the lower Indus in Sindh” have been eliminated from the river (Kalabagh, n.d.).

River flows have decreased over the years due to the construction of barrages and canals. Barrages, dams, and link canals have reduced the annual freshwater downstream flow from 150 billion cubic meters to less than 45 billion cubic meters. (Inam et al., 2007) The combined impact of lower flows due to extensive irrigation and physical blocks due to the construction of dams have contributed to the decline in population and habitat for the unique Indus River dolphin (World Wildlife Fund Global, 2010).

A network of drainage canals was constructed to drain

groundwater directly to the Arabian Sea to circumvent the

Figure  9.  Tarbela  Dam,  Pakistan  Government  

Figure  10.  Thal  Canal,  Khalil  Mahmood

Figure  11.  Woman  on  Banks  of  Indus,  IE  

potential of rising groundwater and associated problems of waterlogging and salinity. This drainage system is not very effective because of the flat topography and has actually led to sea water intrusion to about 80 km upstream. This intrusion increases during the monsoon (Inam et al., 2007). This increase in salinity has in turn reduced the ability to cultivate red rice, produce exotic fruit, or raise livestock on the river delta. The mangrove ecosystem is being degraded, and the fish that rely on the mangroves for habitat are suffering as well. This is in an area where ¾ of the population relies directly or indirectly on fishing for their main source of income and where commercial marine fisheries operate.

The River also suffers poor water quality, as municipal sewage and industrial wastewater are discharged directly into the system without treatment. Agricultural herbicides and pesticides have also contributed to a decline in human and marine health in the region. The Indus lacks regulatory oversight or proper wastewater treatment technology and processes (Inam et al., 2007; Memon, 2005).

Restoration Activities

Reforestation efforts in the 1980s and the 1990s in the Thal area have been successful. The World Wildlife Fund hopes that these efforts will help restore habitat and increase the numbers of the endangered river dolphin, and mangrove reforestation continues to progress along the river (World Wildlife Fund Global, 2010).

Now a coalition of environmentalists, water experts, fishermen, and civil society activists are campaigning for a larger release of water so that ecosystems can be restored. Trust for Conservation of Coastal Resource has planned a mega event in which women dressed in traditional attires would carry pitchers filled with river water and offer special prayers for the restoration of rivers (Guriro, 2010).

“We have started a movement demanding the federal government to cancel all proposed dams and restore the Indus River. We are celebrating the day by pouring fresh water into the sea as a symbol that the sea

would survive with fresh water,” said Trust for Conservation of Coastal Resource Director Zubeda Birwani (Guriro, 2010).

The Pakistan government has not followed through on a 1990s compact that included an agreement to maintain environmental flows, and many activists from the Pakistan Fishermen Forum have been tortured, killed, or otherwise detained for their campaign to encourage the government to release water steadily in the river (Gopal, n.d.).

Restoration Potential

After the devastating 2010 flood, area water managers have been focusing efforts on renovating or maintaining river infrastructure so that it functions properly and provides adequate drainage for the system. Heavy sediment loads have blocked channels and are interfering with gates in canals and

dams. Managers are also planning to strengthen river banks that collapsed during the recent flood (The News International, 2012).

Restoration Constraints

340 Large Rivers

L1

Pakistan, from 32 billion m3 year!1 to 62. Next year it declined to 50 billion, equivalent to 38 % of the surface water diversion. Engineering structures across the river have also reduced the sediment load travelling down the Indus. The annual sediment load of the pre-engineered Indus varied between 270 and 600 million t (Milliman et al., 1984). It is a fraction of that at present.

Most of the lower Indus basin is fl at and the natural drainage fl ow is gradual allowing a rise in the water table. The prevalent canal irrigation system has resulted in large-scale problems of water logging and salinity. Approxi-mately 60 % of the aquifer underlying the IBIS is of marginal to brackish quality.

To mitigate the menace of rising groundwater and the associated problem of waterlogging and salinity, a network of drainage canals was constructed within the Indus Basin to drain groundwater directly to the Arabian Sea. The drainage system has been less effective due to low gradi-ent of the fl at topography and has in fact resulted in the intrusion of sea water to about 80 km upstream (Panhwar, 1999). Sea water intrusion is much worse during the south-west monsoon (Figure 16.5).

The increase in salinity due to depleting fresh water contribution by the Indus River has reduced the suitability of the delta for the cultivation of red rice, the production of exotic fruit, and raising of livestock. The mangrove ecosystem is being degraded, and the mangroves are now virtually monospecifi c and comparatively stunted with losses of about 2 % year!1. Degradation of the mangroves is due to a combination of water fl ow reductions and direct human destruction and over use. The major changes in river fl ow below Kotri have affected the ecology in the

Table 16.1 Major dams and barrages on the Indus River

Structure Year of Maximum discharge construction capacity (m3 s!1)

Tarbela Dam 1976 18 386Mangla Dam 1967 24 630Ghazi Barotha 2004 500 000 Hydropower

projectJinnah Barrage 1946 950 000Chashma Barrage 1971 1 100 000Taunsa Barrage 1959 750 000Guddu Barrage 1962 1 200 000Sukkur Barrage 1932 1 500 000Kotri Barrage 1955 875 000

Modifi ed after Pakistan Water Gateway (2003).

Figure 16.5 One of the drainage canals in the Indus deltaic area of Keti Bandar where the sea water is entering irrigated land through a defective gate

c16.indd 340c16.indd 340 8/9/2007 5:17:48 PM8/9/2007 5:17:48 PM

Figure  12.  Blocked  Dam  Gate,  Iman  et  al.

Figure  11.  Mangrove  Reforestation,  WWF  

Restoration is limited by poor management practices and a lack of technical information about water flows and quality. Stakeholder relationships are tense and contribute to a sense of secrecy around studying the river (IUCN, n.d.; Ray, 2010).

Conclusion

The Indus is a politically contested river that is running dry and experiencing devastating flooding and habitat loss due to mismanagement and poor engineering. Because it is glacier-fed, the river will be heavily impacted by climate change. India, Pakistan, and China share the basin and cooperate with multinational agencies to manage it and fund projects. These nations will need to create regulatory mechanisms and implement monitoring programs to ensure the health of their respective tributaries.

References

Fairley, Jean. (1975). The lion river. S.I. Gilliano: Lahore.

Gopal, B. (n.d.) State of degradation and approaches to restoration of floodplain rivers in India. FAO Corporate Document Repository.

Guriro, A. (March 13, 2010). Experts demand restoration of Indus ecosystem. Pakistan Daily Times.

Inam, A., Clift, P.D., Giosan, L., Tabrez, A.R., Tahir, M., Rabbani, M., & Danish, M. (2007). The geographic, geological, and oceanographic setting of the Indus River. Large Rivers, Chapter 16.

IUCN. (n.d.) The lower Indus River: Balancing development and maintenance of wetland ecosystems and dependant livelihoods.

Kalabagh. (n.d.). Physical features of the Indus. Retrieved from http://www.kalabagh.comoj.com/1_18_Physical-Features.html

Memon, A. (May 2005). Devastation of the Indus River Delta. Proceedings, World Water & Environmental Resources Congress 2005, American Society of Civil Engineers, Environmental and Water Resources Institute, Anchorage, Alaska.

Oxley, M. (May 2011). Field note from Pakistan floods: Preventing future flood disasters. Journal of Disaster Risk Studies, 3.2.

Ray, B. (2010). Water: The looming crisis in India. Lexington Books, UK.

The News International. (March 29, 2012) Call to strengthen River Indus banks.

World Wildlife Fund Global. (2010). River dolphins & people: Shared rivers, shared future.