The Impact of Sea Level Rise on Maritime Boundaries

253© Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften e.V., to be exercised by Max-Planck-Institut für ausländisches öffentliches Recht und Völkerrecht, Heidelberg 2019 E. Blitza, Auswirkungen des Meeresspiegelanstiegs auf maritime Grenzen, Beiträge zum ausländischen öffentlichen Recht und Völkerrecht 279, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-58344-9

The Impact of Sea Level Rise on Maritime Boundaries

The global sea level is changing. From a geological perspective, this is unspectacu-lar, as changes in sea level have been the rule rather than the exception in Earth’s history. Whereas during the last glacial maximum 12,000–20,000 years ago sea le-vel was around 100 m lower than today, 120,000 years ago it was 2–5 m above to-day’s level.

What is new about the recent changes in sea level is the pace at which they occur. Whereas prior to industrialization the sea level had remained rather stable for al-most 2000 years, since then it has risen not only constantly but at an increasing rate. The reasons for changes in sea level are manifold. Short-term changes are e.g. cau-sed by tides, wind, waves, barometric variations or the influx of rivers. Long term changes – which are of particular relevance for this study – may either be of an isostatic or eustatic nature. Isostatic changes in sea level can be explained by uplift and subsidence of the outer shell of the solid Earth that occur due to the ongoing reallocation of ice and water in the aftermath of the last glacial period. On a regional level, the phenomenon of glacial isostatic adjustment may – depending on the area under consideration – either amount to the uplift or the subsidence of land. It can thus impede or accelerate global sea level rise. Eustatic sea level changes are caused by variations in the mass (increase or decrease of continental ice sheets, hydrologi-cal redistribution) and/or the volume (particularly through density variations as a result of changing water temperatures) of the oceans. Following from that, it beco-mes clear that sea level rise is dependent on the global temperature development. As the latter increases due to the accumulation of greenhouse gases in the Earth’s atmo-sphere, the rise of sea level will continue. The projections of the IPCC (Fifth Assess-ment Report) suggest – depending on the success of global climate policy – a rise between 0.4 m (0.26–0.55 m) and 0.74 m (0.52–0.98 m) by 2100. This will lead to enhanced erosion of coasts, temporary or permanent inundation of coastlines and islands as well as the destruction of ecosystems due to salinisation.

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Taking this factual background as a starting point, the study seeks to provide ans-wers to one of the many legal problems sea level rise entails: its effects on maritime boundaries. It examines if and to what extent changes to coastlines can be reflected in the various lines at sea. In doing so, it initially focuses on unilaterally drawn li-mits. Those encompass not only the limits of the spatial regime of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), but similarly the limits of safety zo-nes, traffic separation lines, marine protected areas or areas restricted due to military activities or danger to navigation. The study starts off by analyzing the effects of sea level rise on the spatial regime of UNCLOS. It does so as most of the other limits are dependent on coastal State’s jurisdiction and thus arguably share their fate. The outer limits of the territorial sea, the contiguous zone, the EEZ and the default continental shelf are all defined by two variables: the (claimed) breadth of the respective zone and the position of the baseline. Following from that, the crucial issue posed above essentially relies on the definition of the baseline which separates land and sea.

The normal baseline for measuring the breadth of the territorial sea is defined in Art. 5 UNCLOS as the low-water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts officially recognized by the coastal State. Though apparently straight for-ward, the provision’s complexity arises when confronted with the phenomenon of sea level rise: What happens if the low water line shifts? Does the normal baseline remain static as the consequence of the qualifier “as marked on large-scale charts” or is it ambulatory in nature?

As the views in literature and State practice differ on this issue, Chap. 3 addres-ses it with an in-depth interpretation of the provision. Prior to that, the study seeks to address the question from a wider angle. Discussing the history of the law of the sea, it argues that the law of the sea is first and foremost based on the freedom of the seas. Exceptions to that rule are permitted only in accordance with international law. The right of coastal States to claim a territorial sea, an EEZ or to have a continental shelf are exceptions to that rule. If, however, the preconditions for those exceptions cease – e.g. by exceeding the maximal extent of those zones due to changes in the baseline – the waters concerned are returned to their original status. Following from that, it is not the common phrase “the land dominates the sea” which explains the ambulatory nature of the baseline, but rather the overarching principle of the free-dom of the seas.

The interpretation of Art. 5 UNCLOS confirms that UNCLOS has not deviated from this rule. The French wording, contextual arguments and the provision’s object and purpose – the latter particularly when taking its history into account – all support an understanding according to which the normal baseline is the low-water line based on the chart datum chosen by the coastal State. Art. 5 UNCLOS defines the normal baseline as an abstractum. As the consequence, the charted line on a large- scale map officially recognized by the coastal State only represents the normal baseline as long as it reflects the actual low water line. Subsequent practice so far has not changed this result, as it – recognizing its partially treaty modifying capability – requires con-sensus as to one or the other reading. Such consent, however, does not exist. Whe-reas some States amend their baselines in line with the physical changes that have occurred, others implicitly or recently even explicitly refrain from doing so.


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Straight baselines are equally ambulatory. Given their characteristic as lines which do not follow all sinuosities of the coast but run partly detached through open water, this may not seem obvious. However, even straight baselines are generally dependent on land. If sea level rise leads to the permanent inundation of start, end or other constitutive basepoints of the straight baseline system, the affected base-points may no longer be used. Essentially the same applies when such basepoints are merely temporary submerged, because low-tide elevations may only serve as basepoints in exceptional circumstances (Arts. 7 and 47 UNCLOS). Moreover, as Art. 7 (2) UNCLOS equally only allows for the temporary stabilization of submer-ged basepoints, the regime of straight baselines similarly reveals States’ reluctance to allow for exclusive rights over maritime zones in the absence of terra firma.

Shifting baselines may affect the position of seaward limits. This however, pre-supposes that the respective seaward limit is in fact dependent on the baseline and that the baseline’s movement reaches a certain extent. The letter requirement fol-lows from Art. 4 UNCLOS. According to that provision, the outer limit of the terri-torial sea is the line every point of which is at a distance from the nearest point of the baseline equal to the breadth of the territorial sea. The limit of the territorial sea is therefore not a trace parallèle of the baseline, but its modified image. Viewed from offshore, Art. 4 UNCLOS only ascribes relevance to the nearest basepoint. Shifts in the baseline thus only reflect the limit of the territorial sea, if basepoints submerge which are in fact constitutive for the territorial sea’s outer limit. A limit’s dependence on the baseline is thus only the necessary but not a sufficient require-ment for possible shifts. The method laid down in Art. 4 UNCLOS applies by way of analogy to all other limits which are measured from the baseline. As the number of constitutive basepoints decreases with an increasing distance from shore, the following rule of thumb may be established: the closer a maritime limit runs in re-lation to the baseline, the more susceptible it is to change as a consequence of sea level rise. Whereas the limit of the EEZ thus appears relatively stable, maritime li-mits which run landwards of the territorial sea limit (e.g. EU Water Framework Directive or national fishery limits) are in contrast highly susceptible to change.

The outer limit of the continental shelf is also measured from the baseline. While this dependence suggests – in line with the limits of the territorial sea and the EEZ – its ambulatory nature, it follows from Art. 76 (9) UNCLOS that this is not necessa-rily the case. Art. 76 (9) UNCLOS obliges coastal States to deposit charts and rele-vant information, including geodetic data, permanently describing the outer limits of its continental shelf with the Secretary-General of the United Nations. The reason for allowing the limit of the continental shelf to remain stable despite potential shifts in the baseline can be traced back to States’ interest to provide potential in-vestors with a maximum of legal certainty. Because constructions in and on the sea bed are extremely coast-intensive, the area of the continental shelf and its limits should not be exposed to the risk of subsequent changes in jurisdiction. Despite the wording of Art. 76 UNCLOS, which appears to indicate the contrary, the decision to render the continental shelf limits permanent is not confined to the extended continental shelf; it also applies to the default shelf. Evidence as to a special treat-ment or privilege of the extended continental shelf does not exist. In contrast, the


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provision’s history reveals strong arguments that both limits were supposed to be permanent. It may thus be concluded that the baseline is less crucial for the conti-nental shelf; it is necessary for the claim, but in comparison to the limits of the ter-ritorial sea, contiguous zone or EEZ not continuously constitutive.

Coastal States are obliged to adapt their charts when faced with changes to their low water lines. The fact that Art. 5 UNCLOS defines the normal baseline with re-ference to a chart datum and thus as an abstractum does not contradict this finding. Even though it may be argued that, due to the absence of an obligation to publish the normal baseline, similarly there exists no duty to adapt it, such an understanding ignores the intentions of States to ensure that the baseline is discernible. It is thus more convincing to ascribe a double function to Art. 5 UNCLOS: Its primarily ob-jective is to define the normal baseline in an abstract manner. In addition to that, however, it obliges coastal State to make it discernible to seaman through either publication or recognition of up to date charts. The duty to maintain charts is not absolute though, for the intention to provide for legal certainty operates not only as a justification of the obligation but equally as its limitation. A new chart is only re-quired if the physical changes reach an extent which is noticeable on charts of a large scale (Art. 5 UNCLOS).

Shifting baselines may also affect treaty based maritime boundaries. In contrast to boundary treaties separating terra firma, maritime boundary treaties de facto pos-sess a less distinctive stability. Generally speaking, third parties are only obliged to respect the status created by a treaty if the parties to the treaty have the exclusive power to conclude and uphold it. When this precondition is fulfilled, the status esta-blished by the treaty applies erga omnes partes. Whether it is indeed fulfilled is determined on the basis on the relevant provisions of the law of the sea; as those reflect States’ consensus on what maritime areas may – as an exception to the free-dom of the seas – be exclusively claimed. If the shifting of the baseline leads to a situation in which a maritime boundary no longer complies with the international law of the sea, third party States are no longer bound to respect it. The maritime boundary itself becomes illegal, but not void. The parties to the treaty remain bound but are – depending on the situation at hand – obligated to terminate or modify it. If the shifting of a maritime boundary established by treaty only affects the rights of the parties involved – for example in a semi-enclosed sea or in a strait- an unequal recede of the baseline does not entitle the disadvantaged party to terminate the treaty. This applies irrespective of the nature of the treaty, i.e. it does not matter if it separates territorial sea, EEZ or continental shelf.

Sea level rise will not only threaten coastal regions, lead to inundation of islands and main land, but also deprive existing claims over maritime zones of their legal foundation. As a consequence particularly small island States which are economi-cally dependent on their maritime zones are faced with financial hardship in addi-tion to the loss of terra firma. From a global perspective, ambulatory limits and boundaries enhance the potential for conflicts. In order to prevent this from happe-ning, the pertinent lines at sea should be stabilized. Based on the current law such an undertaking appears unfeasible. Whereas the stabilization-proposals of masterly inactivity, an extensive interpretation of Art. 7 (2) UNCLOS, the conclusion of


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boundary treaties or new historic waters face legal concerns, the ideas of downgra-ding the chart datum or simply enhanced coastal protection seem inept from a prac-tical point of view. Only a change in law may prevent that the law itself does not make the effects of sea level rise worse. There are essentially three ways to stabilize the baseline legally: It may be achieved through an amendment of the UNCLOS (Arts. 312, 313 UNCLOS), inter-partes modification or the development of new customary international law. Due to the fact that not all States necessarily benefit from static baselines, the advantage of the first solution (legal certainty and univer-sality) may equally be its greatest burden: Land-locked and geographical disadvan-tages States might disapprove a fixing of the baseline as it precludes the potential increase of the High Seas, or they may demand compensation; coastal States on the other hand seem – at this point of time – rather reluctant to accept a comprehensive “unpacking the package”. The opposing interests of States and the general require-ment of consensus laid down in Arts. 312, 313 UNCLOS may thus possibly prevent the most feasible solution. A lack of consensus may be overcome by an inter-se stabilization of baselines. Such a course of action would be in line with the UN-CLOS – particularly its Art. 311. However, it appears less favourable as it doubles the duties of participating States. Thus, if consensus to modify the UNCLOS cannot be reached, the development of new rule of customary international law seems to be the only solution. This, however, implies a violation of the UNCLOS and potenti-ally phases of legal uncertainty. The identified perils justify the risk. A stabilization of the maritime limits and boundaries would have a peacemaking effect and would reduce the risk of States losing their economically important maritime zones.



Rechtsprechungsübersicht

Internationale Gerichte

Internationaler Gerichtshof

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Reservations to the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Advisory Opinion of 28 May 1951, ICJ Report (1951), 15

Fisheries Case (United Kingdom v. Norway), Judgment of 18 December 1951, ICJ Reports (1951), 116

Case Concerning the Temple of Preah Vihear (Cambodia v. Thailand), Judgment of 15 June 1962, ICJ Reports (1962), 6

North Sea Continental Shelf Cases (Federal Republic of Germany/Denmark; Fede-ral Republic of Germany/Netherlands), Judgment of 20 February 1969, ICJ Re-ports (1969), 3

Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Nami-bia (South West Africa) Nonwithstanding Security Coundcil Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion of 21 Juni 1971, ICJ Reports (1971), 16

Fisheries Jurisdiction Case (United Kingdom v. Iceland), Merits, Judgment of 25 July 1974, ICJ Report (1974), 3

Nuclear Tests (New Zealand v. France), Judgment of 20 December 1974, ICJ Re-ports (1974), 457

Aegean Sea Continental Shelf (Greece v. Turkey), Jurisdiction of the Court, Jud-gment of 19 December 1978, ICJ Reports (1978), 3

Continental Shelf (Tunesia/Libyan Arab Jamahiriya), Judgment of 24 February 1982, ICJ Reports (1982), 61

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Case Concerning Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary in the Gulf of Maine Area (Canada/United States of America), Judgment of 12 October 1984, ICJ Reports (1984), 246

Case Concerning the Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judgment of 3 February 1994, ICJ Reports (1994), 6

Gabčíkovo-Nagymaros Project (Hungary v. Slovakia), Judgment of 25 September 1997, ICJ Reports (1997), 7

Kasikili/Sedudu Island (Botswana/Namibia), Judgment of 13 December 1999, ICJ Reports (1999), 1045

LaGrand (Germany v. United States of America), Judgment of 27 June 2001, ICJ Reports (2001), 466

Case Concerning the Maritime Delimitation and Territorial Questions between Qa-tar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bahrain), Merits, Judgment of 16 March 2001, ICJ Reports (2001), 40

Case Concerning Oil Platforms (Iran v. United States of America), Judgment of 6 November 2003, ICJ Reports (2003), 161

Legality of Use of Force (Serbia and Montenegro v. Canada), Judgment of 15 De-cember 2004, ICJ Reports (2004), 429

Case Concerning Territorial and Maritime Dispute Between Nicaragua and Hon-duras in the Caribbean Sea (Nicaragua v. Honduras), Judgment of 8 October 2007, ICJ Reports (2007), 659

Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Preliminary Objections, Judgment of 13 December 2007, ICJ Reports (2007), 832

Maritime Delimitation in the Black Sea (Romania v. Ukraine), Judgment of 3 Fe-bruary 2009, ICJ Reports (2009), 61

Territorial and Maritime Dispute (Nicaragua v. Colombia), Judgment of 19 Novem-ber 2012, ICJ Report (2012), 624

Internationaler Seegerichtshof

The „Monte Confurco“ Case (Seychelles v. France), Prompt Release, Judgment of 18 December 2000, ITLOS Reports (2000), 4

Case Concerning Land Reclamation by Singapore in and around the Straits of Johor (Malaysia v. Singapore), Order of 8 October 2003, ITLOS Reports (2003), 10

The Ara Libertad Case (Argentina v. Ghana), Order of 15 December 2012

Ständiger Internationaler Gerichtshof

Competence of the ILO in Regard to International Regulation of the Conditions of the Persons Employed in Agriculture, Advisory Opinion of 12 August 1922, PCIJ Ser B No 2 (1922), 23


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Article 3, Paragraph 2, of the Treaty of Lausanne (Frontier between Turkey and Iraq), Advisory Opinion of 21st November 1925, PCIJ Reports (1925), Series B, No. 12

Case Concerning the Payment of Various Serbian Loans Issued in France, Jud-gment of 12 July 1929, PCIJ Series A, No. 20 (1929), 5

Diversion of Water from the River Meuse, PCIJ Series A, No. 70 (1937), 21

Entscheidungen von Schiedsgerichten

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II, 829Georges Pinson (France) v. United Mexican States, Decision No. 1 of 19 October

1928, RIAA V, 327Dispute Between Argentina and Chile Concerning the Beagle Channel, 18 February

1977, RIAA XXI, 53Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary between Guinea and Guinea-Bissau, Award

of 14 February 1985, RIAA XIX, 149Case Concerning the Arbitral Award of 31 July 1989 (Guinea-Bissau v.Senegal),

ILR 83 (1990), 1/ RIAA XX, 119Award of the Arbitral Tribunal in the Second State of the Proceedings – Maritime

Delimitation, 17 December 1999, ILM 40 (2001), 983Dispute Concerning Access to Information under Article 9 of the OSPAR Conven-

tion (Ireland v. United Kingdom), Final Award of 2 July 2003, ILM 42 (2003), 1118

Award in the Arbitration regarding the Delimitation of the Maritime Boundary bet-ween Guyana and Suriname, Award of 17 September 2007, ILM 47 (2008), 166

Pope & Talbot Inc v. Canada, Award on the Merits, 10 April 2011, ILM 41, 1347Indus Waters Kishenganga Arbitration (Pakistan v. India), Order of 23 September

2011Bay of Bengal Maritime Boundary Arbitration between Bangadesh and India,

Award of 7 July 2014South China Sea Arbitration (Philippines v. China), Award of 12 July 2016

sonstige Gerichte/Spruchkörper

EGMR, Golder v. United Kingdom, 4451/70, Judgment of 21 Februar 1975, Series A, vol. 18, 17

Iran – US Claims Tribunal, 2 Iran – USCTR (1983), 157WTO, EC: Measures concerning Meat and Meat Products (hormones), 16 January

1998, Report of the Appellate Body, WT/DS-26/AB/RWTO, United States: Import Prohibition of certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, 12

October 1998, Reports of the Appellate Body, WT/DS58/AB/R


262

Nationale Gerichte

Twee Gebroeders, 3 C.Rob. 162; 165 E.R. 422Durham v. Lamphere, 3 GRAY, 268 (1855)Oberprisengericht Berlin, Urteil vom 18. Mai 1915, zitiert nach: Zeitschrift für Völ-

kerrecht IX (1916), 109US v. Florida, US 363, 121US v. Louisana 394 US 11, 47Supreme Court of Norway, Public Prosecutor v. Haraldsson an Others, 7 May

1996, ILR 140 (2011), 559Rechtbank Amsterdam, 29. Juni 2007, 13/501817-05



Verzeichnis der verwendeten Verträge

Convention for Defining and Regulating the Limits of the Exclusive Right of the Oyster and Other Fishery on the Coast of Great Britain and of France vom 2. August 1839, BFSP Band 27, 983

Charta der Vereinten Nationen vom 26. Juni 1945, BGBl. 1973 II, 431Statut des Internationalen Gerichtshof vom 26. Juni 1945, BGBl. 1973 II, 505Übereinkommen über die Hohe See vom 29. April 1958, BGBl. 1972 II, 1091Übereinkommen über das Küstenmeer und die Anschlusszone vom 29. April 1958,

516 UNTS 205Übereinkommen über den Festlandsockel vom 29. April 1958, 499 UNTS, 311Übereinkommen über die Fischerei und die Erhaltung der biologischen Reichtümer

auf der Hohen See vom 29. April 1958, 559 UNTS 285(Wiener) Übereinkommen über das Recht der Verträge vom 23. Mai 1969, BGBl.

1985 II, 927Internationales Übereinkommen zum Schutz des menschlichen Lebens auf See vom

1. November 1974, BGBl. 1979 II, 141Internationalen Übereinkommen zur Verhütung der Meeresverschmutzung durch

Schiffe vom 2. November 1973, BGBl. 1982 II, 4; Protokoll vom 17. Februar 1978, BGBl. 1984 II, 230

(Wiener) Übereinkommen über die Staatennachfolge in Verträge vom 23 August 1978, 1946 UNTS 3

Seerechtsübereinkommen der Vereinten Nationen vom 10. Dezember 1982, BGBl. 1994 II, 1799

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Dokumentenverzeichnis

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ILC

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ILC, Report of the International Law Commission covering the Work of Its Third Session, 16 May–27 July 1951, GAOR 6th Session, Supplement 9, zitiert nach: ILC Yearbook, (1951), vol. II, 123

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ILC, Summary Records of the Seventh Session: 2 May–8 July 1955, ILC Yearbook (1955), vol. I

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267

ILC, Report of the International Law Commission on the Work of Its Thirty-Second Session: 5 May–25 July 1980, ILC Yearbook (1980), vol. II, 1

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UNCLOS I

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First Committee UNCLOS I, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ire-land: Proposal, UN Doc. A/CONF.13/C.1/L.62 (1958), OR III, 227

First Committee UNCLOS I, United States of America: Proposal, UN Doc. A/CONF.13/C.1/L.87 (1958), OR III, 236

First Committee UNCLOS I, Norway: Proposal, UN Doc. A/CONF.13/C.1/L.97 (1958), OR III, 239

First Committee UNCLOS I, Mexico: Proposal, UN Doc. A/CONF.13/C.1/L.99 (1958), OR III, 239

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Doc. A/CONF. 13/38 (1958), OR II, 69First Committee UNCLOS I, Summary Records of Meetings and Annexes, UN

Doc. A/CONF.13/39 (1958), OR III


268

International Sea-Bed Committee

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Bindungswirkung 212Aneignungsverbot

Gebiet 59Hohe 188, 246

Anschlusszone 44Kontrollrecht, küstenstaatliches 129

Archipel 101Archipelbasislinie 101

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Archipelstaat 101Ästuar 113aWZ 44

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BBasislinie 18

Archipelbasislinie 101Flussabschlusslinie 113

Grenzlinie, unabhängige 140Hinterlegungs- und

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Stichwortverzeichnis

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-58344-9

292

Cclausula rebus sic stantibus 182, 199, 213

Funktionshoheitsraum 183Grenzvertrag 182

communio primaeva 29conference on the law of treaties 185critical date 241

Ddecisive catalytic effect 242Deichbau 166

Niederlande 219Tuvalu 220Zulässigkeit 220 (Siehe auch Küstenschutz)

Delta 14, 221de Sassoferrato, Bartolus de 35Durchfahrt, friedliche 19, 55, 101, 130, 219

EElida-Entscheidung 210Erbe der Menschheit, gemeinsames 58Erdoberflächentemperatur 11Erhebung, trockenfallende 93

Aufwertung zur Insel 169Effekt, geltungserhaltender 95Leuchttürme oder ähnliche Anlagen 97

Erosion 2, 12, 220Erosionsresilienz 13Estoppel-Grundsatz 208EU-Wasserrahmenrichtlinie 126

FFanafuti 220Felsen 154

Begriff 154Eigenleben, wirtschaftliches 157für menschliche Besiedlung geeignet 156Staatenpraxis 161Verhältnis Tatbestandsvoraussetzung 159

Festlandsockel 57default 57erweiterter 57Rechte 57Rücksichtsnahmepflicht 128

Festlandsockelgrenze 57Beständigkeit 58, 122

Finalität von Abgrenzungsverträgen 179fisheries

case 92, 98, 133, 192, 210, 211jurisdiction case 239

Freiheit der MeereAntike, vorklassische 25Dum Diversas 37Edikt „Inter caeterra“ 38Elisabeth I. 39Freundschaftslinie 39Friedensvertrag von

Cateau-Cambrésis 39im römischen Zeitalter 29jurisdictio 34, 36Mittelalter 33Oceanus Britannicus 40Selden, John 41Vertrag von Tordesillas 38Zeitalter der Entdeckungen 37

GGA-Resolution 242Gewässer, historisches 202, 223

Ausnahmecharakter 203Duldungsakte, legitimierende 208Entwicklung 205neues 206, 224

Gewässer, inneresSouveränität, küstenstaatliche 131

Gezeitenmarke 52, 53GPS 231Grenze, maritime 17Grenzlinie, veränderungsresistente 148Grenzstabilisierung, rechtliche 228

Änderung des Seerechtsübereinkommens 233

Einfrieren der aWZ 228Einfrieren der Basislinie 229Gewohnheitsrecht 238inter-se-Abkommen 234Wegfall Landmasse 231

Grenzvertragde facto-Auswirkung 198erga omnes 189, 196inter-se-Abweichung 180Nichtigkeit 191Rechtswidrigkeit 196Respektierungspflicht 189Stabilität, äußere 188Stabilität, innere 177Stabilitätsprinzip 89, 199„ungleich“ oder „unbillig“ 178Unmöglichkeit der Erfüllung,

unmögliche 185Urteil oder Schiedsspruch 201Vollzug 187


293

Grenzvertrag FestlandsockelPermanenzanordnung 172

Grisbådarna Case 87Grotius, Hugo 24, 40Grundsatz der Freiheit 119

HHaager Kodifikationskonferenz 71Hochseefischerei 233Hochwasserlinie 76–77

IIHO 218ILA Baseline Committee 82ILC 74

Expertenkomittee 77IMO 144

General Provisions on Ships‘ Routeing 146

Marine Scientific Committee 146informal single negotiating text 80, 220Insel

Erhöhung, künstliche 220künstliche 166Küstenschutz 166Verlust des Inselstatus 150Zulässigkeit physischer

Schutzmaßnahmen 165Integration, systematische 84IPCC 11island of palmas case 189ius cogens 193

Abgrenzungsvorschrift 181Hohe 193

KKompass 37Korallenriff 220Kreisbogenmethode 119

Abbild der Basislinie, modifiziertes 120

Analogie 121Boggs, S. Whittemore 120Nähe zur Kanonenschussregel 120tracé parallèle 120

Küstenmeer 19Breite 44Drei-Meilen-Grenze 43, 89Souveränität 130Souveränität, küstenstaatliche 19

Küstenmeergrenze 130, 135, 142Pflicht zur Anpassung 139

Küstenschutz 219Statusverlust 220Zulässigkeit 220

Lthe land dominates the sea 23, 164

Doktrin 23, 47, 164, 168, 226, 230, 231Lapradelle, Albert Geouffre 184LAT 218. Siehe auch lowest astronomical tideLeuchtturmklausel 102Lex-posterior-Grundsatz 238, 240Lex-specialis-Grundsatz 240low-elevation coastal zones 12lowest astronomical tide 218

MMangroven 13Marcian 29Mare Clausum 43MARPOL 146Meeresschutzgebiet

Ausweisung 142Internationalisierung 144Zulässigkeit, zonenübergreifende 143

Meeresspiegelanstiegabsoluter 10Ausmaß, prognostiziertes 10aWZ entsteht 176Grenzlinie, bi- und multilateral

vereinbarte 171Hohe entsteht 176Küste, flach abfallende 218relativer 10Vergrößerung aWZ 174Vergrößerung Küstenmeer 174

Meeresspiegelschwankung 8eustatische 9isostatische 8

Mittellinie 21, 172, 178mutatis mutandis 150

NNaturrechtslehre 29Niedrigwasserdatum 72Niedrigwasserlinie 22, 63, 70, 136Niedrigwassermarke 63Normkonflikt 240north atlantic fisheries case 203


294

OOkinotorishima-Atoll 219Ölplattform 148, 184

Ppackage deal 233pacta sunt servanda 181pacta tertiis nec nocent nec prosunt 189Pardo, Arvid 60, 80, 153preah vihar temple case 85principle of stability 85Progradation 14

Rrepresentative concentration pathways

(RCPs) 11res communes omnia 30, 33, 70, 204

Charakter der Meere 88, 89, 96, 246Lehre 36, 39, 70

SSchifffahrtsweg 143Sea-Bed Committee 61, 80Sedimentfluss, natürlicher 220Seekarte

elektronische 218Neukartierung 136Rechtswirkung, prima facie 90SOLAS 138veraltete 127

Seekartendatum 64Seekartennull 217Seerecht, internationales

Anwendungsbereich 181, Seerechtskonferenz 60, 783, Seerechtskonferenz 80Sicherheitszone 148

Sichtbarkeitskritierium 231SOLAS 217

ships‘ routeing systems 145South-China-Sea-Schiedsspruch 159, 224special areas 145Staat, geografisch benachteiligter 227Staatsservitute 184

TTemperaturentwicklung 1, 10, 13Thalassokratie 26Treibhausgaskonzentration 11trockenfallende Erhebung, trockenfallende

Effekt, ausbeulender 95Truman Declaration 74

UUN-Generalsekretär 58, 122Unmöglichkeit der Erfüllung,

nachträgliche 185Unerlässlichkeitskriterium 186, 200

uti-possidetis-Doktrin 88

Vvan Bynkershoek, Cornelius 43Verfassung der Meere 3, 21Verkehrstrennungsgebiet 141Verlust des Inselstatus

Permanenzanordnung des Art. 76 SRÜ 163Versalzung 12–13Vertragsauflösungsrecht 185

Partei, benachteiligte 185Völkergewohnheitsrecht 241

WWindkraftanlage 149


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The Impact of Sea Level Rise on Maritime Boundaries

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