The human settlement of Central Iberia during MIS 2: New technological, chronological and...

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Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e21

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The human settlement of Central Iberia during MIS 2: Newtechnological, chronological and environmental data from theSolutrean workshop of Las Delicias (Manzanares River valley, Spain)

Manuel Alcaraz-Casta~no a, *, Mario L�opez-Recio b, Fernando Tapias c, Felipe Cuartero b,Javier Baena b, Blanca Ruiz-Zapata d, Jorge Morín c, Alfredo P�erez-Gonz�alez e,Manuel Santonja e

a �Area de Prehistoria, Universidad de Alcal�a, C/ Colegios 2, 28801, Alcal�a de Henares, Madrid, Spainb Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología, Universidad Aut�onoma de Madrid. Campus de Cantoblanco, 28049, Madrid, Spainc Departamento de Arqueología, Paleontología y Recursos Humanos, Auditores de Energía y Medioambiente, S.A. Calle Santorcaz 4, 28002, Madrid, Spaind Departamento de Geología, Universidad de Alcal�a. Edificio de Ciencias, Ctra. A-II, Km 33.600, 28871, Alcal�a de Henares, Madrid, Spaine Centro Nacional de Investigaci�on sobre la Evoluci�on Humana (CENIEH), Paseo Sierra de Atapuerca 3, 09002, Burgos, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Available online xxx

Keywords:SolutreanMIS 2Manzanares valleyCentral IberiaBifacial reduction

* Corresponding author.E-mail addresses: [email protected],

(M. Alcaraz-Casta~no).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.0691040-6182/© 2015 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights

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a b s t r a c t

The recent excavations (2008e2009) conducted at the open-air site of Las Delicias, located in theManzanares River valley (Madrid), have revealed new important data for the understanding of the hu-man settlement of Central Iberia during Solutrean times. In this paper, we present a geomorphologicaland taphonomic study of the Pleistocene deposits of Las Delicias, a technological analysis focused on thebifacial lithic reduction processes documented at the site, new Optically Stimulated Luminescence dates,and new palynological data. Together with the existence of numerous Solutrean lithic assemblages fromthe early 20th century excavations of the Manzanares terraces, these new data highlight the importanceof the Manzanares valley as a focus of Solutrean settlement, not only related to flint procurement but alsoto foraging activities. Moreover, they require reconsideration of Central Iberia as a virtually unpopulatedregion during the Late Pleniglacial (MIS 2), and of the associated idea of its cultural dependence on thecoastal areas of the Iberian Peninsula. We propose new avenues of research aimed at approaching thecentral region of Iberia in its own cultural and ecological terms.

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1. Introduction

The human settlement of Europe during the Late Pleistocene hasbeen described as a complex process of population movementsrelated to the environmental changes caused by the climatic fluc-tuations of the last glacial cycle (e.g. Terberger and Street, 2002; vanAndel and Davies, 2003; Gamble et al., 2004; Banks et al., 2008,2009; Conard and Bolus, 2008; Hublin and Roebroeks, 2009;Verpoorte, 2009; Bradtm€oller et al., 2012). Within this process, theIberian Peninsula, together with other regions of Southern Europe,has been usually depicted as an ecological refugium where humanpopulations moved from northern latitudes during the harshest

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periods of the glacial cycles (Jochim,1987; Gamble et al., 2004). Thispattern has been especially claimed for the Last Glacial Maximum(LGM), and more broadly for the Late Pleniglacial or MIS 2(27.8e14.7 ka cal BP). In this context, the Solutrean techno-complexof France and Iberia, traditionally linked to the LGM, has beeninterpreted as a subsistence system directly responding to thecontraction of the human range towards the southwestern Euro-pean refugiumas a consequence of a rapidworseningof climatic andenvironmental conditions (Straus, 1991, 2012; Straus et al., 2000).

This Iberian refugium model posits the coastal areas of thepeninsula as the only territories suitable for human occupationduring the Late Pleniglacial. In contrast, the interior lands of Spain,dominated by an upland plateau (the Meseta) divided in two by theCentral System range (Fig. 1), are considered a nearly depopulatedarea during most of the Upper Paleolithic. This interpretation,which is based on the scarce archaeological record for the EarlyUpper Palaeolithic and the Solutrean in Central Iberia (see Tiffagom,

an settlement of Central Iberia during MIS 2: New technological,p of Las Delicias (Manzanares River valley, Spain), Quaternary

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Fig. 1. Geographic setting of Las Delicias (+) and other Solutrean sites within the middle and lower Manzanares River valley and the Iberian Peninsula. Sites excavated in the early20th century subject to modern studies: 1: El Sotillo, 2: Santiago, 3: El Cojo, 4: Martínez, 5: Valdivia, 6: Nicasio Poyato. Recent excavations: 7: Puente de los Tres Ojos. OtherSolutrean sites in Central Iberia: 8: Valdocarros, 9: Pe~na Cap�on.

M. Alcaraz-Casta~no et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e212

2006; Banks et al., 2009; Cacho et al., 2010; Schmidt et al., 2012;Aubry and Almeida, 2013), has been common in the Spanish liter-ature since the beginnings of the 20th century (Breuil andObermaier, 1913; see Delibes and Díez, 2006 and Alcaraz-Casta~no

Please cite this article in press as: Alcaraz-Casta~no, M., et al., The humchronological and environmental data from the Solutrean workshoInternational (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.069

et al., 2013 for references). It has also been highlighted in recentsurveys and paleoclimate simulations (Burke et al., 2014).

One of the major shortcomings traditionally faced by this modelare the numerous Solutrean-like pieces that were collected at the


M. Alcaraz-Casta~no et al. / Quaternary International xxx (2015) 1e21 3

Manzanares River terraces (Madrid city center) (Fig. 1) at the be-ginnings of the 20th century (Baena and Carri�on, 2002; Santonjaet al., 2011). However, these collections were recovered withoutstratigraphic control and most of their sedimentary deposits weredestroyed during the city's expansion in the 1960s and 1970s. As aconsequence, references to a purported Solutrean occupation of theManzanares valley have been cautious in the last decades, evenbesides the existence of several modern reanalyses that confirmedthe Solutrean character of some assemblages, such as those from ElSotillo (Martínez de Merlo, 1984). In sum, although researcherscurrently recognize the existence of some Solutrean occurrences inCentral Iberia, these are usually interpreted as “occasional uses of orephemeral visits to the less oceanic parts of the Peninsula duringthe LGM in sensu lato” (Straus et al., 2000: 561; see also Straus,2012; Corch�on, 2002: 130; Corch�on et al., 2012; Burke et al.,2014: 44).

In this paper, we present the results obtained fromnew field andlaboratory works conducted at a classic site of the ManzanaresRiver valley: Las Delicias. We will argue that geomorphological,taphonomic, technological, functional, chronometric and environ-mental data gathered at this site demand the reconsideration ofCentral Iberia as a marginal area during MIS 2, including the LGM.We propose that a more permanent human occupation of this re-gion should be considered.

2. Las Delicias: a classic Palaeolithic site in the Manzanaresvalley

The archaeological site of Las Delicias is known since the exca-vation conducted at the location by H. Obermaier and P. Wernert inthe late 1917 (Obermaier and Wernert, 1918). It is found in the citycenter of Madrid (Central Spain), in the last stretch of the middleManzanares valley. The Manzanares River is a second order tribu-tary of the Tagus River, and the stretch where Las Delicias is locatedis in the central sector of the Madrid Neogene basin. The latter ispart of the Tagus basin (Fig. 1), and corresponds to the southernforeland basin of the Central System range, located to the north andnorthwest (P�erez-Gonz�alez, 1994).

Las Delicias has been one of the classical references for thePalaeolithic of the Madrid region, despite the diverse in-terpretations that have been proposed to explain its problematiclithic assemblage (Santonja et al., 2000, 2011; Alcaraz-Casta~noet al., 2012). Cultural attributions have ranged from “Final classicAcheulean” (Obermaier and Wernert, 1918) to “Mousterian of

Fig. 2. A: Piece from the 1910s excavations at Las Delicias first interpreted as “handaxe po(Obermaier, 1925: Fig. 92). B: The same piece, currently interpreted as Solutrean foliate poi


Acheulean tradition with Sbaikian influences” (Obermaier, 1925) or“Presolutrean” (Freund, 1952). A key point in this discussion hasbeen the significance of the bifacial pieces recovered at the site,whose characterization as handaxes has been usually granted froma typological viewpoint (Fig. 2). Thus, although at the turn of thecentury some researchers already pointed to a possible Solutreancharacter of Las Delicias lithic assemblage on the basis of sometechnological attributes (Baena and Carri�on, 2002), the mostaccepted interpretation still maintained a Middle or Lower Palae-olithic chronology (Gonz�alez-Echegaray and Freeman, 1998;Santonja et al., 2000).

In order to gain a better geoarchaeological understanding of thesite, and eventually to evaluate its implications for the discussionon the human occupation of Central Iberia during the Late Plen-iglacial (MIS 2), we devised a new research project that was initi-ated in December 2008. This project was centered in the excavationof part of the Quaternary deposits preserved at Las Delicias.

3. New excavations at Las Delicias: fieldwork methods

Due to the urban expansion of Madrid, most of the sites thatwere excavated in the Manzanares valley during the late 19thcentury and the beginnings of the 20th century are now destroyed.Thus, it is surprising that the topography of the area around LasDelicias has survived with little modification until the present day(Fig. 3). This has allowed the preservation of its Pleistocene de-posits, and hence our new excavations at the site.

We first conducted 12 mechanical test pits of 3 � 2 m along thearea. These allowed us both to evaluate the extent of the Pleisto-cene deposits and to obtain the first information on the stratig-raphy and site formation processes. Locating lithic industry in someof those test pits (numbers 2, 4, 5) justified extending them anddeveloping a systematic excavation project in two different areas(Sectors I and II) (Fig. 3). These works were carried out in threesuccessive seasons between December 2008 and July 2009.

In Sector I we opened an area of 10 square meters, reaching theNeogene clays at 1.25 m deep. Previously, anthropic fillings werelowered 0.65 m (level I) until we reached the Quaternary levels (IIa,IIb, IIc and IId) (Fig. 4). Sector II is located very close to the areaexcavated by Obermaier and Wernert in 1917, and thus can beconsidered an extension of it (Figs. 3 and 4). In this sector, weexcavated mechanically 0.8 m of contemporary (i.e. modern) re-mains, and other 0.8 m of Quaternary clayey silts corresponding tolevel 2 and part of level 3, where very few traces of lithic industry

int” (Obermaier and Wernert, 1918: Fig. 8), and later as “tenuifoliate sbaikian point”nt in advanced stage of reduction (modified from Baena and Carri�on, 2002: Fig. 4:36).


Fig. 3. Location of mechanical test pits and systematic excavations conducted at the Solutrean site of Las Delicias (Madrid) during 2008 and 2009. The horizontal distributions oflithic products located in Sectors I and II are represented.


were located. After obtaining an appropriate platform of 105 squaremeters, we proceeded to the manual excavation of the basal levels(3b and 4), in an area of 13 square meters in the first season, andsubsequently of 7.5 square meters more in a second season. Onlyaround 15 square meters shown archaeological material (Fig. 3),and we reached a maximum depth from the surface of 2.5 m.

Fieldwork methodology followed the excavation of naturallevels. Both these levels and every archaeological object larger than2 cm were three-dimensionally recorded using a Total Station(L�opez-Fraile et al., 2014). Orientation and dip of the lithic productswere also registered. All the sediment was screened with waterthrough 0.5 mm sieves to recover small flakes and debris.


4. Geomorphology, chronostratigraphy and site formationprocesses

Contrary to previous claims (Freeman, 1975: 693e694;Gonz�alez-Echegaray and Freeman, 1998: 54e55), Las Delicias de-posits do not belong to the terrace system of the Manzanares River.Instead, they are located in a small depressed semi-endorheic areaof around 6 ha, extending between the Manzanares alluvial plainand a NWeSE oriented structural surface of hard flint. This surfacedivides the drainage between the Manzanares River and the oldCarcav�on stream (Fig. 5), a tributary of the Abro~nigal streamcurrently buried by the urban expansion of Madrid (Royo et al.,


Fig. 4. Geological and stratigraphic profiles of the Solutrean site of Las Delicias (Madrid). It is shown the relative location of the two excavated sectors and the excavation conductedby Obermaier and Wernert in 1917. Location of pollen and OSL sampling is also shown.


1929). This semi-endorheic depression lies over a substratumcomposed of Miocene grayish-green and bluish clays, and is locatedat þ16/20 m over the current Manzanares River channel. It isdrained by rills or gullies that originated thin accumulations ofalluvial-colluvial sediments. The excavated sectors in Las Delicias(Fig. 3) are located in the periphery of this semi-endorheicdepression, being Sector I in a more external and higher topo-graphic position than Sector II (Figs. 4 and 5).

According to data coming both from old surveys (Royo et al.,1929) and some recent salvage test-pits (see Alcaraz-Casta~noet al., 2012), we have identified several flint and flint-carbonatesoutcrops within a range of 200 m to the north and northeast ofLas Delicias site. The nearest outcrop is 50 m north of Sector I(Fig. 5). Although the current urban situation of the site area andsurroundings (where no flint levels are currently accessible) makesit very difficult to obtain more direct data on this subject, it seemsreasonable to posit that Las Delicias knappers obtained their flintfrom one or several of these nearby outcrops. This could have been


done either by accessing directly to the outcrops, or just by col-lecting on the slopes the blocks eroded and dragged by the chan-nels draining water to the site.

In Sector I, below a first level containing contemporary remains(level I), we have documented a stratigraphic sequence consistingof several Quaternary levels and sublevels (Fig. 4). These reach amaximum depth of 0.6 m and are mainly composed of clayey silts,containing also a small percentage of sandy fraction and gravels.They also contain carbonate concretions of edaphic origin, whoserelative quantity allows distinguishing sublevels IIa and IIb. BelowIIb there is a thin matrix-supported fine gravel layer (IIc) that wasdeposited in an alluvial environment with a strong carbonatecementation (Fig. 8). Lastly, we have documented a sandy-siltsublevel (IId) with limited continuity. Sublevels IIc and IId displayan erosive contact with the Neogene greenish clayey substratum(level T). Although we have recorded lithic industry all along theQuaternary levels, most of the products come from sublevels IIband, especially, IIc.


Fig. 5. Geology and geomorphology of Las Delicias area. Legend of Geological units according to Goy et al. (1989) and Calvo et al. (1989). 38: Valley bottoms (Holocene). 35: Alluvialplains (Late PleistoceneeHolocene). 32: Colluvial deposits (Holocene). 31: Lower terraces (Late Pleistocene). 29: Semi-endorheic bottoms (Late PleistoceneeHolocene). 26: Alluvialfans (Late PleistoceneeHolocene). 20: Mantled pediments (i.e. Glacis) (Lower-Middle Pleistocene). 6: Green clays with levels of carbonates and flints (Middle Miocene). 4e6: Claysand arkosic sands with levels of carbonates and flints (transition from unit 4 to 6) (Middle Miocene). 4: Thick sands and arkosic sands (Middle Miocene). 3: Green and brown clays(Middle Miocene).


Sector II is adjacent to the area excavated by Obermaier andWernert in 1917. Here we have documented several stratigraphiclayers that can be directly correlated with those described by theaforementioned researchers (Alcaraz-Casta~no et al., 2012). Thestratigraphic depth of this sector ranges from 1.85 to 0.8 m in alength of 3 m. The basal levels lay out on a small stream thatdrained towards the Southwest (Fig. 4). Below a first level of an-thropic fillers (level 1), we find a first Quaternary unit consisting ofseveral clayey silts levels with carbonate concretions (2a, 2b and2d), and occasionally of thin layers of fine gravels with little con-tinuity (2c). A third unit is found below them, in which we havedistinguished a very clayey silt level (3a) and a clayey silt level (3b),with occasional fine gravel layers between and within them. Firstoccurrences of lithic industry occur in level 3b, which consists ofolive (5 Y 5/3) clayey silts with a few sandy fraction. This leveldisplays some degree of compaction and also some grooved frac-tures (slickensides).

At the base of the Quaternary sequence of Sector II occurs level4, which is 20e30 cm wide, and consists of matrix-supported fine


gravel layers mixed with a fine layer of silt (Fig. 4). This level dis-plays an erosive contact with the clayey substratum, and fills in thesouthwest -oriented small stream mentioned above. Similar tolevel IIc of Sector I, level 4 is composed of sediments with differentgranulometry and composition, which were transported in a smallalluvial fan environment. The fine gravel layers have a thicknessvarying from 7 to 13 cm, and are composed mostly of carbonates,and occasionally flint and granules of quartz between 0.2 and0.4 cm. There are also some larger pebbles, from 0.6 to 0.4 cm, withthe same compositions and percentages than the granules. Thematrix consists of gray-olive to brown clayey silts, and carbonatecements do not appear as in Sector I. It is in this level, and especiallyin the upper layer of fine-gravels, that most of the lithic productsare found (Fig. 4).

The lack of stratigraphic continuity between the two sectors ofLas Delicias, together with the significant topographic alterationthat this area has suffered due to human activity during the lastcentury, posits a problem for the morphostratigraphic under-standing of the site. However, considering the topographic and


Fig. 6. Fabric analysis and trampling signs of Las Delicias lithic assemblages. A: Orientation of lithic products from Sector I, showing total number of analyzed objects, mean vector (redline) and kernel density (n ¼ 464). B: Orientation of lithic products from Sector II, showing total number of analyzed objects, mean vector (red line) and kernel density (n ¼ 556). C:Percentages of orientation patterns of Sector I and II compared. D: Dips (total numbers) of lithic products from Sector I (n¼ 467). E: Dips (total numbers) of lithic products from Sector II(n ¼ 553). F: Stereogram showing dip patterns of Sector I (excluding the “0” values). G: Stereogram showing dip patterns of Sector II (excluding the “0” values). H: Normalized fre-quencies of dips from Sector I and II compared. I: Flake from Las Delicias Sector I showing pseudoretouches and microfractures interpreted as signs of trampling. *Sector I¼ Sector Ielevel IIc. Sector II ¼ Sector II e level 4. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)


Please cite this article in press as: Alcaraz-Casta~no, M., et al., The human settlement of Central Iberia during MIS 2: New technological,chronological and environmental data from the Solutrean workshop of Las Delicias (Manzanares River valley, Spain), QuaternaryInternational (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.069


compositional data obtained, we interpret that the sediments arearranged in two levels of stepped deposits with an altimetric dif-ference of 3 m (Fig. 4). Therefore, we can conclude that the upperlevels (Sector I) are older than the lower ones (Sector II). Thechronometric dating supports this interpretation.

Overall, the described sequences at Las Delicias correspond toalluvial facies that reached a semi-endorheic area from the plat-form that divided the Carcav�on stream and the Manzanares River.Therefore, the lithic assemblages contained in the deposits are notin primary position, but they were transported from their originallocation together with Miocene clays and flints eroded from theoutcrops located at the slopes and the top of the platform. Since thesediments of Sector II are further away from their probable area oforigin than those of Sector I, and also because they lay out on asmall stream, it is reasonable to expect slightly different deposi-tional conditions between the two sectors. In order to gain a morein-depth understanding of this sedimentation conditions, andeventually to know the formation processes of the archaeologicaldeposits of Las Delicias, we have conducted a taphonomic study ofthe lithic assemblages and their location within the sedimentarylevels. This study consists of a fabric analysis of the lithics, and anexamination of their surface alterations.

The fabric analysis was based in the recording of orientationsand dips of the lithic products found at Las Delicias. In doing so, weonly considered objects larger than 2 cm and with elongationvalues greater than 1.6 cm, as proposed by Lenoble and Bertran(2004; but see Domínguez-Rodrigo et al., 2014 for a discussion onthe convenience of increasing this index to 2 cm, at least for bones).In Sector I we measured 464 lithics, and in Sector II 556, being bothsamples large enough to be statistically valid (Lenoble and Bertran,2004: 458). Orientation and dip of the products were described inconsonance with the geographic North, using 5 values within 360�

for the orientation of the major axes (A-axis), and 12 values within360� for measuring dips (to which the value “0” was added forobjects lacking any dip). Results are presented bymeans of differentdiagrams in Fig. 6. According to them, we conclude that, inconsonancewith geomorphological data, Las Delicias deposits weredeposited under low-energy transport conditions that did notcaused important selections or disturbance of materials in theprocess of sedimentation. The high number of objects lacking anydip (i.e. lying flat on the stratification plane), both for Sector I(21.6%) and Sector II (35.8%) (Fig. 6: DeE) points to a relatively lowextent of post-depositional disturbance. Also, the low degree ofanisotropy recorded in both contexts (Fig. 6: AeC) shows that al-terations due to water flows were also limited. However, there aresome differences between the two sectors that demand furtherexplanations:

(1) Despite none of the orientation patterns show clearanisotropy, that of Sector II reflects a slightly more pro-nounced preferential (East-West) orientation (Fig. 6. B). This,

Table 1OSL dating results for Las Delicias sediment samples.

Lab reference Location e level (depth) Grain size (mm) Paleodose (Gy) Annual dose rate (mGy/year) OSL age (BP)

MAD-5566SDA Sector II e 3b (1.90 cm) 2e10 33.68 ± 1.94 2.80 12,028 ± 794MAD-5585SDA Sector I e IIb (1.10 cm) 2e10 45.44 ± 3.33 2.50 18,175 ± 1333

PlchIn

combined with the depositional conditions explained above,and a lower find density including a scarce presence of <2 cmitems in Sector II (see section 7), suggest that in this sectordisturbance during deposition was somewhat higher, and thatwater flow was at least capable of sorting small-size lithicproducts.

ease cite this article in press as: Alcaraz-Casta~no, M., et al., The humronological and environmental data from the Solutrean workshoternational (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.069

(2) Although dip patterns in both sectors does not show strikingdifferences (Fig. 6. FeH), the lower presence of objects lying flaton the stratification plane in Sector I (Fig. 6: DeE) could point toa higher degree of autochthonous disturbance due to post-depositional edaphic processes. This is also supported by thepresence in this sector of some surface alterations in the lithics.These alterations include, in most of the objects, a whitish pa-tina and a thin carbonate rind on one surface (Fig. 8). Also, insome products (16.5%) we have recorded abrupt and randompseudo-retouches and microfractures (Fig. 6. I), which can berelated to post-depositional processes such as trampling(McBrearty et al., 1998; Bird et al., 2007).

Lastly, it is important to note that, besides the pseudo-retouchesand microfractures recorded in Sector I, we have not documentedany important sign of water erosion, such as rounding, within thelithic assemblages. This strengthens our interpretation that,although depositional and post-depositional disturbance werepresent at both sectors of Las Delicias, they were produced underlow-energy conditions, and therefore did not caused significantalterations of the lithic assemblages.

5. OSL dating

Sediment samples for luminescence dating have been obtainedin the two excavated sectors of Las Delicias. They were processed atthe Laboratorio de Dataci�on y Radioquímica of the AutonomousUniversity of Madrid (UAM) using the fine-grain dating method(Zimmermann, 1971) for OSL (TL-DA-10 system). Samples weresubjected to a previous anomalous fading test which showed lossesof signal under 1%. Calculation of paleodoses and annual dose rateshas been based on the standard protocols proposed by Aitken(1985), Nambi and Aitken (1986) and Arribas et al. (1990).

Although we collected samples from all sedimentological layersof both sectors of Las Delicias, only two samples have been analyzedup to the present time. These correspond to levels consideredoptimal for OSL analysis according to their sedimentologicalcomposition andmorphology. Thus, none of the levels inwhich thispaper has focused (IIc of Sector I and 4 of Sector II) were analyzeddue to their high content of fine gravels and, in the case of level 4, itsexcessive thinness. Dates were obtained from layers IIb (Sector I)and 3b (Sector II), mostly composed of sandy and clayey silts (Fig. 4).

Therefore, although so far we have not been able to date themost significant Solutrean assemblages of Las Delicias (see section7), the obtained results come from levels directly overlying them, inwhich Solutrean industries have also been found. The dating resultsare 18.2 ± 1.3 BP for level IIb of Sector I, and 12 ± 0.8 ka BP for level3b of Sector II. These data are consistent with our geomorphologicalinterpretation of the site as a terraced deposit, since they confirmthat the upper levels (Sector I) are older than the lower ones (SectorII). Complete dating results are presented in Table 1.

These dates refer to the formation of the sedimentary de-posits where the lithic assemblages are contained, and not to theproduction or abandon of the knapping products. Taking intoaccount that lithic assemblages are not in primary position, theobvious conclusion is that they are older than the dates ob-tained. Although it is not easy to assess the exact lapse of time



between the production of the lithics and their sedimentarypreservation at each sector of Las Delicias, a number of factorscan be considered on this issue. Both the geomorphological,sedimentological and taphonomic characteristics of levels ofSector I, their proximity to the probable origin of the archaeo-logical materials (see Section 4), and also their higher finddensity compared to those of Sector 2 (see Section 7) point tothe hypothesis that sedimentation not only involved a lowerenergy process at this area, but also occurred in a shorter periodof time after the abandon of the lithics than in Sector 2.Therefore, the date obtained for Sector I must be closer to thereal age of the lithics contained in its deposits than the oneobtained for Sector II.

If we take into account these factors, the OSL dates obtained atLas Delicias, although still scarce, are consistent with our geo-archaeological interpretation of the site. Despite the fact that noneof these dates fall within the chronological limits of the IberianSolutrean (c. 21e17 ka 14C BP or 25e20 ka cal BP) (see references inBanks et al., 2009), they are acceptable, to different extents, asminimum ages for the Solutrean assemblages of Las Delicias.

6. Palynology

Sediment samples for palynological analysis were taken on thepreviously cleaned profiles at both sectors of Las Delicias (Fig. 4),using standardized techniques for archaeological sites (L�opez-S�aezet al., 2003). The pollen was extracted by chemical treatment withacids (HCI and HF) and alkalis (KOH), based on the standard pro-tocol proposed by Coûteaux (1977), Girard and Renault-Miskovsky(1969), and Moore et al. (1991), modified according to the specificrequirements of the lithology of each sample. The residue obtainedwas then subjected to enrichment techniques, concentrating thepollen grains by flotation in Thoulet dense liquor (Goeury andBeaulieu, 1979). The data obtained were statistically analyzed andplotted using the TILIA® and TILIA-GRAPH® software packages(Grimm, 1987). The pollen was zoned (only for Sector I) using adivisive classification with the CONISS software included in theTILIA® package.

As in the case of OSL dating, it is important to bear in mindthat the pollen found at the site relates to the formation of thesediments, and not to the production or abandon of the lithicproducts. Therefore, it is not possible to propose a direct corre-lation between the environmental and climatic informationderived from the pollen data and the human behaviors inferredfrom the Solutrean assemblages. However, the sequence of SectorI still falls within the MIS 2 chronological limits, and it is evenpossible, if we assume the positive error of the OSL date for sub-level IIc (i.e. circa 19.5 ka BP), that its basal layers could be relatedto the final stages of the Last Glacial Maximum, at around19 ka cal BP (S�anchez-Go~ni and Harrison, 2010: Table 2). Thesequence of Sector II is younger, and is therefore totally out of theSolutrean time range. According to the date obtained in level 3b,this sequence corresponds to the final phases of MIS 1, fallingwithin the limits of the Younger Dryas Event (Greenland Stadial1), which is currently dated between 12.8 and 11.5 ka cal BP(Muscheler et al., 2008).

6.1. Pollen of Sector I

Pollen data gathered at Sector I is especially relevant, as paly-nological information corresponding toMIS 2 is scarce in the wholeSpanish plateau (Ruiz-Zapata et al., 2010; Vegas et al., 2010;Martínez-Pillado et al., 2014), and totally unknown in the Madridbasin. Taxa identified in Sector I, and their relative quantity, arerepresented as a histogram in Fig. 7. The big picture shown in this


sequence is dominated by an open landscape composed by her-baceous taxa, both steppe (Asteraceae liguliflorae, Asteraceae tubu-liflorae and Poaceae) and xeric (Chenopodiaceae, Artemisia andEphedra), which suggest a cold environment. Moreover, the pres-ence of Pinus and Juniperus point to regional vegetation in conso-nance with a cold climate.

The alternation of taxa throughout the sequence, and resultsobtained in the correspondence analysis (Fig. 7), define thefollowing phases for Sector I:

Zone II: (Samples 1e3). Samples 1 and 3 are defined only bypresences, hence complicating their climatic interpretation. How-ever, the high values of Pinus, together with the presence of de-ciduous Quercus, Asteraceae liguliflorae and Chenopodiaceae, pointsto a probable cold and dry environment. In sample 2 there is anincrease in the values of pollen grains, showing a development ofthe local mixed forest (deciduous Quercus, evergreen Quercus,Corylus and Ulmus), which suggests a thermal improvement and anincrease in the availability of water. Nitrophilus taxa (Plantago andRumex) are developed together with the herbaceous plants char-acteristic of the whole sequence.

Zone I: it is characterized by high pollen values and the devel-opment of herbaceous taxa. According to the composition of forest,three sub-zones can be distinguished:

Subzone Ic (samples 4 and 5): It is defined by the presence ofPinus and Juniperus, the expansion of xeric and steppe taxa, and adecrease in diversity. These data suggest an intensification ofaridity and cold.

Subzone Ib (samples 6 and 7): The increase of local forests(Betula, Corylus, Fraxinus and Ericaceae), and the development ofaquatic plants suggest a climate amelioration. Under these condi-tions we observe an increase of nitrophilus taxa, and also ofcoprophilous and meso-eutrophic MNPs.

Subzone Ia (samples 8 and 9): The dominance of xeric andsteppe herbaceous taxa shows a progressive decrease in humidity.The development of evergreenQuercus andOleaceae points to a lowincrease in temperature values.

The presence throughout the sequence of the non-pollinicmicrofossil (NPM) Glomus fasciculatum indicates open landscapes.This has been documented in other areas of the Iberian plateauduring different periods of the Late Pleistocene (Lopez-Garcia et al.,2010; Ruiz-Zapata et al., 2012; Vegas et al., 2010; Arsuaga et al.,2012; Martínez-Pillado et al., 2014).

In sum, although still scarce, palynological data gathered at LasDelicias e Sector I entails a first approach for the palaeoecologicalreconstruction of the Manzanares valley during the second half ofMIS 2, probably including the final stages of the LGM. These datapoint to a general dry and cold period dominated by open land-scapes and steppe environments, which matches the generalcharacteristics of Mediterranean Europe during MIS 2 (Fletcher andS�anchez-Go~ni, 2008: 456e457).

6.2. Pollen of Sector II

Pollen quantity gathered at this area is very low and it shows alow degree of diversity. Due to this scarcity of data, we have chosento group together samples from the same stratigraphic levels (seeFig. 4). Graphic representation of data is not presented because itwould not be informative.

In general, data for Sector II showa predominance of Pinus as themain taxon of the regional forest, coupled with a local open forestconsisting of Oleaceae and deciduous Quercus. Together with thepresence of Chenopodiaceae and the NPM 3b (Pleospora sp.), thesedata point to the existence of a dry and typical Mediterraneanlandscape. Broadly, pollen from Sector II of Las Delicias points toless severe climatic and environmental conditions than those


Fig. 7. Pollen histogram corresponding to the sequence of Las Delicias e Sector I. * NPM ¼ “Non-pollinic” microfossils.

Table 2Total amount of lithic products found in every level of both sectors excavated at LasDelicias.

Levels >2 cm <2 cm Total (%)

Las Delicias e Sector IIIa 456 185 641 (27.4%)IIb 206 104 310 (13.3%)IIc 806 521 1327 (56.8%)IId 32 27 59 (2.5%)Total 1500 837 2337 (100%)Las Delicias e Sector II3b 164 59 223 (19.5%)4 749 173 922 (80.5%)Total 913 232 1145 (100%)


inferred from Sector I. From bottom to top, the sequence can beinterpreted as follows:

Level 4 (sample 1): The low values of deciduous Quercus suggestthe existence of an open landscape dominated by Chenopodiaceae.These conditions, together with the presence of the MNP 3b(Pleospora sp), suggest a relatively dry environment.

Level 3b (samples 2e6): The appearance of Oleaceae, togetherwith taxa present in the previous phase, points to a slight thermalimprovement. A regional Pinus forest is now detected.

Level 3a (samples 7e12): The increase of the Pinus forest, andthe consolidation of the local Mediterranean forest (deciduousQuercus and Oleaceae) together with Chenopodiaceae and Glomusfasciculatum, suggest the permanence of a dry and typical Medi-terranean landscape.

Level 2 (samples 13e17): The only detected taxa are Pinus andRosaceae, thus pointing to the disappearance of the local forest,probably as a consequence of a worsening in the climaticconditions.

These data, although scarcer than those of Sector I, are consistentwith the attribution of part of this sequence eat least levels 3a and3be to the Younger Dryas (YG). This event is also a cold and dryperiod dominated in Mediterranean Europe by a re-expansion ofsteppe environments, which were previously contracted in favor ofMediterranean forests at the beginnings of MIS 1. Comparison ofboth sequences of Las Delicias also confirms that the decline ofarboreal populationswasmuch lessmarked during the YG than thatoccurring during the LGM (Fletcher and S�anchez-Go~ni, 2008: 457).

7. Lithic technology

In both sectors of Las Delicias we have recovered an importantnumber of flint knapping products (Table 2). In Sector I, these arepresent all along level II (sublevels IIa, IIb, IIc, IId), being especiallyabundant in sub-level IIc (Figs. 4 and 8). In Sector II, some lithicproducts have been found in sub-level 3b, but most of them comefrom level 4 (Figs. 4 and 11).


Flint knapped products are the only archaeological remainspreserved in the sediments of both sectors. Although petrologicalstudies have not been carried out yet, a macroscopic inspection ofthe lithic objects has revealed that flints exploited at Sector I weredifferent than those exploited at Sector II, both in color and surfacealterations (Figs. 8e10 and Figs. 11e13). The most abundant lithicproducts in both sectors are raw (i.e. unretouched) flakes, whilecores and retouched blanks are very scarce (Tables 4 and 5).Therefore, typological approaches are virtually irrelevant for thestudy of these assemblages. In order to propose a chrono-culturalassignment for them, and ultimately to understand the culturalprocesses taking place at the site, the only decisive analyticalmethod implies studying techniques and methods of knappingwithin a theoretical framework based on operative chains (chaînesop�eratoires) and lithic reduction sequences (e.g. Inizan et al., 1999;Andrefsky, 2008).

Although there are some differences between the assemblagespreserved at both sectors of Las Delicias, all of them exhibit a sig-nificant number of flakes that show specific attributes and stigmatatypically found in the context of bifacial reduction technologiesaimed at the production of foliate points. The identification of these



thinning flakes or bifacial reduction flakes has been the mostrelevant feature in the characterization of these assemblages as theproduct of Solutrean bifacial technologies. In order to strictlyidentify these flakes, we have established a number of technolog-ical and technical attributes that have to be fulfilled in a givenproduct so that it can be defined as belonging to a bifacial reductionprocess. Technical attributes are basically related to the use oforganic soft hammers (antler or wood), while technological onesrespond to the bifacial knapping method employed and the specificshaping of foliates.

These attributes, shown in Table 3, have been systematicallyrecognized in several Solutrean workshops of Southwest Europe(Aubry et al., 1998; Tiffagom, 2006: 48, 51) and also in a significantnumber of Paleo-Indian sites in America (e.g. Pelegrin andChauchat, 1993; Klaric, 2012). Furthermore, they have beendescribed as typical of the middle and final phases of bifacialreduction processes through experimental knapping (Pelegrin andChauchat, 1993; Baena, 1998; Callahan, 2000; Apel, 2001; Aubryet al., 2008). In our study, we have considered that a product canbe securely defined as a ‘bifacial reduction flake’ when it shows atleast 3 among the most relevant of these attributes (Table 3).

Fig. 8. Las Delicias e Sector I. a: Sublevel IIc in the process of excavation. b: Detail of knasublevels IIa, IIb and IIc.

Table 3Technical and technological attributes considered in this study to identify a lithicproduct as a ‘bifacial reduction flake’. At least 3 of the attributes highlighted in boldmust be fulfilled.

Technical attributes and stigmata Technological attributes

Platform edge grinding Facetted or dihedral platformsLipped platforms Oval morphologiesAbsent or diffused bulbs Interior platform (flaking)

angles close to 90�

Thin products: Ratiothickness/width lessthan 0.20

More than 3 negatives in thedorsal face, especially ifshowing opposite directions.


The established requirements to identify bifacial reduction flakesare only fulfilled in the products belonging to the middle and finalphases of the reduction process (i.e. thinning flakes). Therefore,flakes corresponding to the initial phases, probably obtained throughdirect percussionwith hard hammers, are very likely to bemissed inour classification, and thus fall into the non-diagnostic flakes cate-gory (Tables 4 and 5). As in the studied assemblages we have iden-tified other (although minority) knapping processes besides bifacialreduction (flakes and blades productions), in the absence of refittingstudies we are not able to securely classify these products as part ofthe bifacial reduction or any other operative chain.

Furthermore, in both sectors of Las Delicias we have found someproducts that can be characterized as blanks for the production ofbifacial pieces abandoned in different stages of the reduction pro-cess. Although only few of these pieces clearly resemble typicalSolutrean foliate points, most of them can be placed within theprocess of bifacial reduction aimed at their configuration. There-fore, these products have been considered as preforms (e.g.Callahan, 2000) of Solutrean foliates.

Our study has shown that all sub-levels from level II in Sector I,and also sublevel 3b and level 4 of Sector II, can be securely relatedto Solutrean knapping processes. We have also found that lithicsexhibit a high degree of technological homogeneity in each sector.Therefore, in this paper we will focus on the results obtained in thetechnological analysis of the most significant assemblages of eachof the two excavated areas at Las Delicias: those coming from sub-level IIc of Sector I and level 4 of Sector II. These two assemblagescan be taken as representatives of each of the two archaeologicalcontexts found at the site.

7.1. Sub-level IIc of Sector I

In the 10 m2 excavated in Sector I (see Section 3), we haverecorded a total number of 1327 flint products in sub-level IIc. Only546 of them are complete, while 778 present fractures. Cortex is

pping products and carbonates in level IIc. c: Vertical distribution of lithic findings in



found in 239 objects. The surface conditions include, in most of theproducts, a whitish patina and a thin carbonate rind on one surface(Fig. 8). In some pieces (16.5%) we have recorded abrupt andrandom pseudo-retouches and microfractures, which can berelated to post-depositional processes such as trampling(McBrearty et al., 1998; Bird et al., 2007) (Fig. 6. I). Find density,fracture index, cortical index, and mean size of flakes larger than20 mm are presented in Table 4.

Sub-level IIc lithic assemblage is dominated by raw flakes andflake fragments, which altogether sum 90.3% (n ¼ 1198) of thetotal amount of products. We have identified 109 bifacialreduction flakes, 21 of which are smaller than 20 mm. Taking intoaccount only the objects larger than 20 mm, flakes than can besecurely related to the middle and final stages of the reductionprocess make up 10.9% of the assemblage (Table 4). Attributesand stigmata typical of the use of soft hammers are clearlyrecognizable in most of these pieces (Fig. 9: 5, 6, 7; Video 1, 3DPDF 1).

Table 4Technological categories and main indexes for Las Delicias Sector I, level IIc.

Technological categories (Sector I) Number % % >2 cm

Natural flint fragments 13 1% 1.6%Non-diagnostic flakesa 616 46.4% 76.4%Highly cortical (100-66% cortex) 28Cortical (66-33% cortex) 20Partially cortical (33-10% cortex) 61Cortical flake fragments 93Non-cortical flakes 159Non-cortical flake fragments 255

Bifacial reduction flakes 88 (21 broken) 6.6% 10.9%Bifacial pieces 7 (all broken) 0.5% 0.9%Initial preform 3Preform (middle stages) 2Preform (final stages) 2

Blades 27 2% 3.3%Partially cortical (33-10% cortex) 3Cortical blade fragments 1Non-cortical blades 7Non-cortical blade fragments 16

Cores & by-products 4 0.3% 0.5%Expedient flake cores 2Blade core 1Rejuvenation flake (semi-tablet) 1

Retouched blanks 5 0.4% 0.6%Retouched flakes 5 (4 broken)

Chunks 46 3.5% 5.7%<2 cm products (D�ebris) 521 39.3% e

<2 cm flakes 129<2 cm flake fragments 344<2 cm bifacial reduction flakes 21 (7 broken) 1.6%Splinters 27

Total 1327 (806 >2 cm) 100% 100%

Flakes mean sizeb

36.7 � 37.3 � 9.7 mm

Preforms mean sizec

80.5 � 54.4 � 18.8 mm

Cortical index

29.7%

Fracture index

58.6%

Find density

132.7/square meter

a Non-diagnostic in terms of bifacial reduction.b Mean size (length � width � thickness) of complete flakes larger than 20 mm.c Preforms mean size includes broken pieces.


Supplementary data related to this article can be found online athttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.069.

In this level we have documented 7 products that have beeninterpreted as preforms of bifacial Solutrean pieces. Blanks forthese pieces were flakes in 5 cases, except for 1 slab and 1 tabularfragment. Their mean size is shown in Table 4. Five of them wereabandoned, due to different knapping accidents, in the initial ormiddle stages of the reduction process (Fig. 10: 3, 4; Video 2), whiletwo others were discarded in more advanced phases (Fig. 10: 1, 2;Videos 3, 4). Even one of the latter can be classified, althoughbroken and unfinished, as a laurel leaf point (Fig. 10: 1; Video 3; 3DPDF 2).


Only a very limited number of products point to the presence ofother operative schemes besides the bifacial reduction. These arerepresented by 27 blades (3.3% of the products larger than 20 mm)and 1 unidirectional prismatic-like blade core (Fig. 9: 1, 2 & 3).Finally, retouched blanks are very few (0.4% of the total products),expedient in nature, and limited to 2 notches and 3 flakes withdiscontinuous retouches.

7.2. Level 4 of Sector II

In the 15 m2 with knapped lithic remains in this level, we haverecovered 922 objects (Fig. 11). 476 are complete and 446 showfractures. Cortex is found in 348 products. None show relevantmacroscopic signs of natural or mechanical alterations. Find den-sity, fracture index, cortical index, and mean size of flakes largerthan 20 mm are presented in Table 5.

As in Sector I, raw flakes and flake fragments are the dominantcategories in the lithic assemblage of level 4. They sum 821products, which is 89% of the total amount of objects. Amongthem, we have classified as bifacial reduction flakes a total numberof 36 pieces, 5 of which are smaller than 20 mm. Therefore, flakeslarger than 20 mm that can be securely related to Solutreanbifacial knapping processes (Table 3) are proportionally lower inthis level, making up only 4.1% of the total (Table 5). Moreover, inthese flakes significant stigmata produced by organic percussion,such as lipped platforms, are not so marked as in Sector I (Fig. 12:5e8; Video 5).


In this level we have recorded 5 pieces classified as Solutreanbifacial preforms, 4 of them configured on flakes and 1 on a wideblade. Their mean size is shown in Table 5. None of these preformswere knapped up to advances stages of the reduction sequence, asit was the casewith some pieces in Sector I. Threewere discarded inthe middle stages (Fig. 13: 2; Video 6), while 2 were rejected in avery initial stage of the process (Fig. 13: 1; Video 7).


Regarding knapping processes other than the bifacial reduc-tion, compared to Sector I in this level there is a higher variety ofcores and by-products related to blade and especially flake pro-ductions (Table 5), including a Levallois-like core (Fig. 12: 1).However, these pieces also show expedient strategies and there-fore can be related to opportunistic tasks. Blades (Fig. 12: 2e3)sum up to 4.1% of the products larger than 20 mm. Finally,retouched blanks are slightly higher than in Sector I, making up1.7% of products >20 mm. Besides flakes with continuous ordiscontinuous retouches (n ¼ 8), we found 2 notches, 2 end-scrapers, and 1 backed blade. None are curated artifacts, but arebest characterized as expedient tools, and typologically unstan-dardized (Fig. 12: 3 & 4).






Fig. 9. Lithic products from Las Delicias e Sector I, level IIc. 1 & 2: Blades. 3: Unidirectional blade core. 4: Non-diagnostic flake probably related to the first stages or the bifacialreduction sequence. 5. Bifacial reduction flake showing platform edge grinding, lipped platform, absence of bulb, thin profile, oval morphology, right flaking angle and 9 negativesshowing opposite directions. 6: Bifacial reduction flake showing platform edge grinding, absent bulb, thin profile, right flaking angle and 10 negatives showing opposite directions.7: Bifacial reduction flake showing platform edge grinding, absence of bulb, thin profile, oval morphology and right flaking angle.

Table 5Technological categories and main indexes for Las Delicias Sector II, level 4.

Technological categories (Sector II) Number % % >2 cm

Natural flint fragments 18 2% 2.4%Non-diagnostic flakesa 621 67.3% 82.9%Highly cortical (100-66% cortex) 33Cortical (66-33% cortex) 50Partially cortical (33-10% cortex) 98Cortical flake fragments 117Non-cortical flakes 194Non-cortical flake fragments 129

Bifacial reduction flakes 31 (12 broken) 3.4% 4.1%Bifacial pieces 5 0.5% 0.7%Initial preform 2 (1 broken)Preform (middle stages) 3 (all broken)

Blades 31 3.4% 4.1%Partially cortical (33-10% cortex) 2Cortical blade fragments 7Non-cortical blades 5Non-cortical blade fragments 17

Cores & by-products 11 1.2% 1.5%Expedient flake cores 5Expedient flake cores on flake 3 (1 broken)Expedient blade core 1Levallois-like core 1Crested blade 1

Retouched blanks 13 1.4% 1.7%Retouched flakes 10 (3 broken)Retouched blades 3

Table 5 (continued )

Technological categories (Sector II) Number % % >2 cm

Chunks 19 2.1% 2.5%<2 cm products (D�ebris) 173 18.8% -<2 cm flakes 33<2 cm flake fragments 131<2 cm bifacial reduction flakes 5 0.5%Splinters 4

Total 922 (749 > 2 cm) 100% 100%

Flakes mean sizeb

41.1 � 37.6 � 11.8 mm

Preforms mean sizec

79.1 � 66 � 23.7 mm

Cortical index

46.5%

Fracture index

48.4%

Find density

61.5/square meter

a Nondiagnostic in terms of bifacial reduction.b Mean size (length � width � thickness) of complete flakes larger than 20 mm.c Preforms mean size includes broken pieces.



Fig. 10. Bifacial preforms from Las Delicias e Sector I, level IIc. 1. Laurel leaf point in advanced stage of reduction abandoned due to a double fracture. 2: Small point in advancedstage of reduction abandoned due to hinged removals and a double fracture. 3. Flake in initial-middle stage of reduction abandoned due to excessively thin edges and a medialfracture. 4. Large flake in a middle stage of reduction abandoned due to excessively thick and sinuous edges.


Fig. 11. Las Delicias e Sector II. a: Level 4 in the process of excavation (2009-1 campaign); dashed line separates sterile sediments to the West from those yielding lithic remains tothe East. b. Level 4 in the process of excavation (2009-2 campaign). C. Detail of knapping products in level 4.


7.3. Discussion on the Solutrean lithic assemblages

On the basis of both the significant number of bifacial reductionflakes and the several bifacial preforms documented in the twolithic assemblages presented in this paper, we can conclude that theknapping processes that took place in these two levels of LasDelicias correspond to Solutrean technologies. This interpretation isalso strengthened by the OSL dates obtained at the site. However,considering that these dates have to be taken asminimum ages, andalso considering the scarcity of finished retouched tools recoveredat the site, it is difficult to propose a concise chrono-cultural defi-nition for Las Delicias Solutrean assemblages. Nonetheless, thepresence of a laurel leaf point in level II of Sector I (Fig. 10.1.)suggests that it can be related to either the Middle or Upper Solu-trean, since these points were absent in prior Protosolutrean andLower Solutrean stages (e. g. Banks et al., 2009). Therefore, levels ofSector II, even less typologically informative, must correspond atleast to the Middle or, most probably, Upper Solutrean.

As we have explained elsewhere (Alcaraz-Casta~no et al., 2012:445e446), our interpretation of Las Delicias occupations asbelonging to the Solutrean contradicts those proposed in severalpapers by Obermaier and Wernert, who related level 4 of Sector IIfirst to the Acheulean, and subsequently to the Mousterian. In ourview, those interpretations were biased by a static and essentialisttypological perspective that understood every single archaeological


lithic object as a final product conceived as such by the Palaeolithicknappers. A more dynamic technological approach has revealedthat pieces previously interpreted as handaxes (Fig. 2) are unfin-ished and discarded foliate preforms, and thus typologically non-diagnostic.

As the presence in both sectors of products securely related toblade and flake production is marginal in number (especially inSector I) and expedient in nature, it is fair to conclude that most ofthe non-diagnostic flakes classified as such in Tables 4 and 5, belongto the initial and middle phases of bifacial reduction processes.These products, in some cases similar to the backed flakesdescribed in Discoid or Levallois contexts, have been related to theinitial phases of Solutrean reduction schemes in several sites(Tiffagom, 2006: 51). Future refitting studies will be of paramountimportance to test this hypothesis.

We therefore interpret both sectors of Las Delicias as showingthe existence of catchment and knapping areas specialized in theproduction of foliate pieces during Solutrean times. Although thepresence of natural flint blocks is scarce in both sectors (Tables 4and 5), this fact can be explained by the fact that both lithic as-semblages are not in primary position. Thus, it was probably at anyof the flint outcrops located no more than 200 m to the north(Fig. 5), where the catchment and knapping activities took place. Ascan be attested inmost of the bifacial preform pieces of both sectors(Fig. 10: 2e4 and Fig. 13: 1e2), blanks for their production are



mostly large flakes. On these flakes, the reduction sequence startswith the preparation of striking platforms aimed at the reduction ofone face in a first stage, and then the other face in subsequentphases (e.g. Callahan, 2000).

However, as it is shown in Tables 4 and 5, there are some rele-vant differences between the lithic assemblages of the 2 sectorsthat demand further discussion. These differences can be explainedalong 2 lines of evidence: (1) the site formation processes and (2)the technological processes taking place at the site.

Concerning the first, wemust note that sediments of Sector I arecloser to the platform where they were originated than those ofSector II (Fig. 5). Moreover, level 4 of Sector II lies along a smallstream, which shows that transport energy in this area was prob-ably higher than in Sector I, as is also suggested by the fabricanalysis. These geomorphological differences could influence thehigher density of findings in Sector I, its higher amount of debrisand, to some extent, its lower mean size of flakes larger than20 mm.

Concerning the second, although both lithic assemblages canbe securely related to Solutrean technologies, there are somedifferences in their lithological and technological composition.Besides the fact that the flints exploited in the two sectors aredifferent, in Sector I a number of features show that the Solutreanknappers reached the advanced stages of the bifacial operativechain, while in Sector II only the initial and middle phases werecarried out. This functional difference is supported by the higherpresence of bifacial reduction flakes and debris in Sector I, itshigher find density, its lower flake mean size (but see Marwick,2008: 1193), its lower cortical index (Tables 4 and 5) and, espe-cially, the presence in this sector of 2 bifacial pieces in anadvanced stage of reduction. However, since no pressure tech-nique has been attested in any of these pieces, and none of themcan be classified as totally configured, we cannot certificate thatthe very final steps of thinning and retouching (e.g. Callahan,2000) were carried out at the site. The lower presence of stig-mata related to organic percussion in Sector II also strengthensthis interpretation, and points to a more sporadic use of organichammers in contrast to Sector I.

In sum, although slightly influenced by depositional and post-depositional processes, archaeological data collected at both sec-tors of Las Delicias inform us on how hunter-gatherers groupsexploited flint outcrops in the Manzanares valley and developedbifacial technologies during Solutrean times. Level IIc of Sector Ishows knapping processes which include all stages of the reductionsequence except the very final ones. However, Level 4 of Sector IIpoints to a strategy in which the main objective is probably limitedto the configuration of middle-staged bifacial preforms. Our inter-pretation is that both the unfinished preforms of Sector II, and themore advanced of Sector I, served as reserves of foliate tools, whichwere later finished and used once they were taken to the nearbyresidence and hunting camps. This behavior has been described forother open-air flint workshops in France, such as Cantalouette 2(Dordogne) (Bourguignon et al., 2012) and the well-known site ofLes Maîtreaux (Indre-et-Loire) (Aubry et al., 1998, 2008). Althoughthere are no strong signs of consumption activities at any sector ofLas Delicias, theminority presence of retouched tools could point toa secondary use of the site as a residential area, which in any casewould be subject to the main use of Las Delicias as a flint pro-curement and lithic workshop (see Aubry et al., 1998; Ríos-Garaizar

Fig. 12. Lithic products from Las Delicias e Sector II, level 4. 1: Levallois-like flake core. 2:Bifacial reduction flake showing a hinged removal, platform edge grinding, lipped platform, a6: Bifacial reduction flake showing platform edge grinding, absence of bulb, thin profile, righflake showing absence of bulb, thin profile, oval morphology, right flaking angle and 4 dorsedge grinding, diffused bulb, thin profile, right flaking angle and 7 dorsal negatives showin


and Ortega, 2014 for discussions on the functional variability ofsites focused on knapping activities).

8. Discussion: the Solutrean settlement of Central Iberia

Data presented in this paper confirms Las Delicias as the firstSolutrean site in the Manzanares River valley excavated withmodern methods, in secure stratigraphic position, and yieldingchronometric and palaeoenvironmental data. Both sectors of LasDelicias are multilayered archaeological deposits, both show mostof the phases of the bifacial operative chain including procurement,and both present high find densities, especially level IIc of Sector I.These traits are not typical of sites just responding to ephemeralvisits or used occasionally, but they denote some degree of intenseand recurrent use of the territory.

Therefore, Las Delicias can be taken as important evidence ofan organized settlement of this area of Central Iberia duringSolutrean times. Indirectly, this should also highlight theimportance of the bifacial assemblages recovered in the non-systematic excavations of the Manzanares terraces during theearly 20th century, most of which have been demonstrated asundoubtedly Solutrean (Fig. 14). According to modern studies ofold collections (Martínez de Merlo, 1984; Baena and Carri�on,2002) and new rescue excavations (Tapias et al., 2012), at leastseven other Solutrean sites (and probably more) can be currentlyrecognized in the middle and lower stretches of the Manzanaresvalley, in an area of around 5.5 km2 (Fig. 1). Another site in thenearby Jarama River valley has to be added (Fig. 1), where a laurelleaf point has been described among the lithics from a late 19thcentury excavation (Baena and Carri�on, 2002). As is the case withLas Delicias, most of these sites are interpreted as focused onprocurement and knapping activities, and hence can be consid-ered lithic workshops (Baena and Carri�on, 2002). However, insome of them, such as El Sotillo (located 1.3 km from Las Deli-cias), Nicasio Poyato, Martínez, or El Cojo, the existence of anumber of retouched tools (Fig. 14) reveals that foraging andconsumption activities were also taking place at this area duringSolutrean times. Put together, these data suggest that the Man-zanares valley functioned as an organized territory for humanactivity during the Solutrean. This valley was a rich ecosystemthat harbored both abiotic and biotic resources during thewarmest periods of the Middle and Late Pleistocene (Conde et al.,2000; Ses�e et al., 2011; Panera et al., 2014). Although subject tocolder and drier environments, as shown by pollen of LasDelicias-Sector I, current data suggest that the Manzanares valleywas also a habitable area during MIS 2, including at least the lastpart of the LGM.

This picture is not consistent with the depiction of Central Iberiaas a regionwhere only occasional uses or ephemeral visits occurredduring Solutrean times, as proposed in the classic and still widelyaccepted models (Straus et al., 2000), now also supported on thebasis of paleoclimate simulations (Burke et al., 2014). On the con-trary, current data, although still scarce, is strong enough to pro-pose new avenues of research aimed at testing the hypothesis ofCentral Iberia as a more populated area than previously thought,and not necessarily a subsidiary region of the coastal areas of theIberian Peninsula. Recent research on the Sorbe River valley (Gua-dalajara province), close to the south-eastern foothills of the Cen-tral System Range and belonging to the Upper Tagus Basin, also

Blade. 3: Notch on blade. 4: Expedient endscraper on large cortical flake fragment. 5:bsence of bulb, thin profile, oval morphology, right flaking angle and 5 dorsal negatives.t flaking angle and 6 dorsal negatives showing opposite directions. 7: Bifacial reductional negatives showing opposite directions. 8: Bifacial reduction flake showing platformg opposite directions.


Fig. 13. Bifacial preforms from Las Delicias e Sector II, level 4. 1. Large flake in initial stage of reduction (i.e. tested blank) abandoned due to sinuous and excessively thick edges. 2:Flake in a middle stage of reduction abandoned due to a medial fracture.



Fig. 14. Solutrean industries from different sites of the Manzanares River valley. El Sotillo (modified after Martínez de Merlo, 1984: Figs. 9 and 11): 1, 2 and 5: endscrapers, 3 and 4:backed bladelets, 6: broken laurel leaf point, probably finished. Nicasio Poyato (modified after Baena and Carri�on, 2002: Figs. 4.21 and 4.23): 7: bifacial point, broken by overshot, 8:endscraper. Martínez (modified after Conde et al., 2000: Fig. 1 and L�amina I): 9 and 10: finished laurel leaf points. El Cojo (modified after Baena and Carri�on, 2002: Figs. 4.14 and4.26): 11: broken laurel leaf point, finished, 12: broken willow leaf point, finished, 13: Bladelet core/endscraper. Puente de los Tres Ojos (modified after Tapias et al., 2012: Fig. 7):14: broken laurel leaf point. All pieces come from non-systematic excavations carried out in the early 20th century, except number 14.


strengthens the importance of the Solutrean settlement of at leastsome regions of Central Iberia. Here, the rock shelter of Pe~na Cap�on(Fig. 1) has revealed a prolonged sequence of human settlementduring MIS 2, comprising at least Protosolutrean, Middle Solutrean,Upper Solutrean, and probably Gravettian occupations (Alcaraz-Casta~no et al., 2013).

9. Conclusions

Although historically underestimated and subject to preser-vation problems typical of open-air sites located at current urbanareas, the middle and lower stretches of the Manzanares valleycurrently show data suggesting the existence of an importantfocus of human settlement in Central Iberia during Solutreantimes. For the first time in the history of Spanish Palaeolithicresearch, Las Delicias has shown solid data supporting the hu-man occupation of the Manzanares valley during MIS 2,including the LGM. These data demand the reconsideration ofCentral Iberia as a mere crossing-area during the coldest stagesof the Upper Palaeolithic, and point towards approaching thisregion in its own cultural and ecological terms. If Iberia func-tioned as a human refugium during the LGM, this refugium wasnot limited to the coastal areas of the peninsula. At least some


territories of the upland regions of the plateau were also part ofit, despite their less favorable environmental and climaticconditions.

However, cultural data, and especially chronometric andpalaeoecological data from Central Iberia, are still insufficient tobuild specific models on humaneenvironment interactions at thelocal and regional levels. Therefore, further research on this andother regions of Central Iberia are very much needed in order todevelop new perspectives on population dynamics during MIS 2 inthe Iberian Peninsula and Southwest Europe.

Acknowledgements

The archaeological excavations conducted at Las Delicias wereauthorized and funded by the Direcci�on General de PatrimonioHist�orico de la Comunidad de Madrid. We are very much grateful toall students from University of Alcal�a and Autonomous Universityof Madrid who participated in field and laboratory works. Fran-cisco-Jos�e L�opez-Fraile developed the 3D-scans videos presentedin this paper. We also appreciate the work of Dr. BienvenidoMartiínez-Navarro, and comments made by 2 anonymous re-viewers, which contributed to improving the scientific quality ofthis article.



Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.06.069.

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