THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF KENDO

IN THE UNITED STATES

b

Richard J. Schmidt

School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation

University of Nebraska

Lincoln, Nebraska 68588

U. S. A.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the historical . development of Kendo

in the. United States. The historical and empirical . , methods of research. were utilized. Data for this investigation were researched from primary and . secondary sources such as historical and current texts, documented kendo histories, as well as

personal interviews with selected members of the Board of Directors of the Kendo Federation of the United . States of America. The results indicated that the history

of kendo. in the United States could be generally. divided into three periods from

its initial introduction in 1860 to 1930, the pre-World War II years from 1930 to

1941, and the post-World War II years from 1945 to the present.

Kendo was initially introduced into the United States when the first Japanese

delegation arrived in 1860., Arami Bungonokami was sent : as the goodwill ambassador of the. Tokugawa Shogunate. The attendants who accompanied him demonstrated

kendo at the welcoming . celebrations held in New York , . Washington, D. C., and San Francisco. This was the first documented exhibition of kendo .outside of Japan.

The years from 1870. to 1930 saw a large number of Japanese emigrating to the

United States , with the largest percentage settling . on the West Coast. The estab-lishment of various religious and social organizations naturally flourished with the

influx of the Japanese. "In those days,, immigrant Japanese parents felt that the American-born Japanese youth were shiftless and were not disciplined. They needed a; way to instill upon the nisei a proper building of character . and felt that kendo would be the. best way." (Shibata Yoshimi,, personal communication).

Kendo dojo in the United States began to flourish on a very small scale. Around 1916, a dojo was established on the Shibata farm in California with about 25 students . Other dojo :locatios .were meeting halls, Japanese language houses, and vacant buil-dings-any place where canvas could be laid down (Shibata Yoshimi,.personal commu-nication) . The largest .dojo . were in the . country as the Japanese worked on the

farms or were sharecroppers. Very few owned farms as the California Alien Land

*Presented at the 14th Annual . Meeting of the Nippon Budo Gakkai, November 22-23, 1981, Tsukuba University, Ibaraki, Japan.

一1一

Law prevented the Japanese, from owning or renting any land. The spirit of early

United States kendo mimicked kendo as practiced in Japan during this same time.

Japanese parents felt that kendo instilled the kind of spirit, discipline, and attitude that all Japanese should have. It was different than the kind of kendo that exists

today. Everything went in the early days when taking punishment and to endure

hardships were very much a part of training. To lay the opponent down on the floor was permissible as well as unmasking your opponent under certain conditions.

In 1921, the San Pedro California Japanese Communities (approximately 3000

people) Seinen-Kai Group began kendo training with Toyama Noriyoshi Sensei from Iwate-Ken. The sudden death of Toyama Sensei ended the kendo activities for

several years. Kijima Sensei from Los Angeles came to San Pedro (Terminal

Island) to again start kendo training, but in a few months it terminated without

success. Then in about 1926-7, Dr. Fujii Toroku, with the cooperation of the local

Seinen-Kai, again started teaching kendo. 'This time kendo was gaining a more

established foothold. In 1929, Nakamura Tokichi Sensei (Godan) and Nakahara

Sensei (Yodan), with the assistance of Shibata Sensei, arrived in San Pedro. With

the cooperation of Fujii Sensei, Nakamura and Nakahara Sensei worked hard at

establishing kendo in the United States. At the start there were about 25 students

but within the year the membership increased to over 100, then new dojo were open

at Long Beach and Dominguez Hill, thus increasing membership to nearly ̀ 200.

Nakamura Sensei then went to central and northern California and to the states of

Oregon and Washington to establish more kendo dojo.

In April of 1931 the southern California kendo club was formed under the leader-

ship of Kubota Yutaka Sensei. The club organized dojo in the area with close

communication and monthly joint practices held among dojo for the purpose of

fostering nisei kendoists. As a result, the 'popularity of kendo rose among Japa-

nese families and the skill and the spirit of the kendoists advanced.

In an effort to officially transplant kendo in the United States, it was agreed at

the general meeting held at the Huntington Beach Dojo in January 1934, that a

close connection with the Kyoto Butokukai Headquarters should be made and it was

decided to make a branch of it in the United States. In March of .1934, Represen-

tative Hoki visited Japan and won the consent of Hanshi Kono Yasaburo and Mr.

Mizuhara, Ex-President of the Doshi-Kai, on this matter. The subsequent estab-

lishment of the Southern California Branch of the Dai Nippon Butokukai Hokubei

Nanka Shibu was applied for to the Kyoto Butokukai. The headquarters welcomed

the formation of the U. S. branch of the Butokukai and expected the branch would

act as a core to popularize Japanese culture in the United States. On February

21, 1935, the U. S. Branch of the Butokukai was approved. In August of 1935,

Kubota Yutaka Sensei arrived at the Butokukai headquarters in Kyoto as a U. S.

representative and obtained the written approval of Nishimoto : Director and the branch flag. For six years, until_ the outbreak of World • War II, this group tried

hard to operate the U. S. Branch to spread kendo in the United States. The

ultimate goals of the U. S. Branch of the Butokukai were. as follows : ( 1) Through

kendo, to produce model Japanese citizens with , healthy minds and bodies, . ( 2 ) Through kendo, the organization's purpose . was to spread and to better _develop

Japanese--U. S. relations, and ( 3 ) to obtain high morality through kendo practice

and to inspire the morale of the kendoists at the. Annual Butoku-Sai and demonstra-

tions.

The Kyoto Dai Nippon Butokukai . was established in 1895 by a group of dis-tinguished citizens, politicians, and police and military officers along with imperial

support. Its goals at that time were ( 1 ) . to preserve martial arts as represented by the traditional martial disciplines, (.2 ) to honor the older Budo practitioners who

had kept the tradition alive in the face of westernization and who - were the last

generation to have experienced true warrior society, (, 3 ) to promote and propagate the classical martial ways as an educational system to help instill Bushido in the

minds and bodies of the nation's youth (Watanabe, 1970). There is a slight

inference (SCAP Miscellaneous Papers) that some kendoists have had associations

with ultra-nationalist groups during this time in terms of furthering their Jingoistic

cause. The Kokuryukai and other ultra-nationalist organizations led by Toyama

Mitsuru and Uchida Ryohei did strongly support modern Budo organizations. Toyama

Mitsuru was quite active in encouraging kendo and sending loyal Japanese instructors

to the American communities of the west coast from 1935 on.

The original San Pedro, Long Beach and Dominguez Hill Dojo merged to from

the Hokubei Butokukai Nanka Renmei. The Hokubei . Butokukai became the largest

kendo organization in the U. S. by 1940. The membership was over 10,000, six

regional renmei, and over 60 dojo.

The dojo which belonged to the southern California . branch of the Butokukai

before World War II were : Albain, . Baldwin Park, Chochela, Chula Vista, Chuo

Gakuen, El Monte, El Centro, Gardena Gakuen, Gardena Gymnasium, Hosan, Hun-

tington Beach, Keaston, Los Angeles, Long Beach, Laguna Beach, Lomita, Melinore,

Oceanside, Pasadena, Pomeli, Riverside, Redondo Beach, Thortel, Seinan Dojo, Uwa-

machi, Watts, and Zenshu Dojo.

In 1937, Mori Torao (Noma Torao) Sensei came to Terminal Island and immedia-

tely began teaching kendo. His teaching made rapid progress in membership,

style, and skills. Mori and Fujii Sensei took about 16 Kenshi every summer to

visit all the dojo in central and northern California and into Oregon and Washington.

While kendo. was very popular among the Japanese people during this time, there

were very, very few blue-eyed kenshi (Eto Taro, personal communication). During

this time also, trips to Japan were organized for kendo matches. One of the most

extensive kendo team programs was that of the American team that travelled thoughout

Japan in 1940.

A. few years immediately preceding the outbreak of World War II was a subtle

deterioration of American-Japanese relations. Before World War II Kubota Yutaka

Sensei explained the purposes of kendo to the Southern California Federal Bureau

of Investigation Branch Office repeatedly and also invited Special Agent Grand (FBI)

to the kendo tournament at Koyosan Kaido. Kubota Sensei believed 'that these

connections' with the authorities put kendo in a more favorable perspective in view

of the tense international scene at that time. When the war began many of the

records were destroyed and Japanese who had martial arts training, such as kendo,

were detained by the FBI and put into close security. Everybody burned all their

equipment and records were destroyed.

During the war years all kendo, as well as other Japanese activies, in the U . S.

was forbidden. While some Japanese served in the U. S. army during World War

II, most of the Japanese-Americans were restricted to concentration camps in the

U. S. and underwent a most bitter experience.

At the close of World War II, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers

(SCAP), General Douglas 'MacArthur issued a directive banning the practice of most

Japanese martial arts and began a purge of many Butokukai officers. Prior to the

official surrender the officers of the Dai Nippon Butokukai attempted to restructure

their organization to give it a more democratic and less military flavor, but the S.

C. A. P. forces refused to recognize the changes and disbanded the organization,

claiming the official purpose of the organization had not changed, so far as its

charter revealed and these were to' promote "military arts and to contribute to the

training of the people" (The Supreme Allied Command Miscellaneous Papers, 1945,

Vol. 1). In a few years the ban was lifted' but Japan was forced by' S. C. A. P. to

adopt many aspects of western-style democracy. A lot of it was not in the best

interests of national stability. Niyahara Maki, member of the Board of Directors

of the Kendo Federation of the United States of America, stated that "something

happened that made Japanese parents concerned. Kids became disrespectful.

The fabric of society was unravelling" Miyahara feels that kendo seemed to provide

a symbolic vehicle to stop this plunge "and reinstill a sense of respect in the children"

(Shibata Yoshimi, personal communication) In 1951, Mori Torao Sensei came back to the United States. He immediately

entered the University of Wouthern California where he took up European fencing

and also helped to establish the Southern California Yudansha Club. Eventually,

in a few years he became the California State Champion. Later he joined the

Los Angeles Athletic Club as a master instructor and was also coach to the Japan

Olympic Fencing Team. During this time he began to urge former California

kendoists to practice kendo.

The first organized kendo practice in the United States after World War II began

in the fall 'of 1952 at the Buddhist church at Pine and Octavia Streets in San

Francisco, but the first group did not continue to practice for long. There is no

record of its members. Gordon Warner and Benjamin Hazard began the instruction

of kendo at the University of California-Berkely Campus in the spring of 1953.

Kendo was taught there as a regular class in the Physical Education Department for

some three years by one or the other of these instructors.

In the fall of 1953 the Oakland Kendo Dojo was established at Carollo's Judo

Dojo. The founding Yudansha were Umemoto Hiroshi, Miyata Yoshinari, Fujishima

Soichi, and Umemoto Seiichi, in addition to Gordon Warner and Benjamin Hazard.

This • dojo was moved to the West Tenth Street Jappanese Methodist Church at

Ninth and Jackson Streets in Oakland where its current senior instructors are Fujii

Shokichi, Miyata, and Iwamoto Hiroshi.

On October 5; 1955, the Hokka Kendo Yudansha-Kai was formed. This was the

predecessor of the current Northern California Kendo Federation. The founding

member were Matsumura Seiji, Nagaoku Minoru, Nakahara Wataru, Sugaya Masami,

Hatada Yoshiro, Kawamoto Kaoru, Hoshino Hisao, Umemoto Hiroshi, Motonari

Tadamichi, Miyata, Fujii, Hazard, Fujishima, and Umemoto Seiichi.

On October 31, 1955, the association was honored by a goodwill tournament with

the Tokyo Meiji University Kendo All-Stars at Kinmon Hall in San Francisco.

The Meiji University group was led by Toshioka Narito.

A series of North-South California Tournaments have been held annually since

the spring of 1956. The first was held in Los Angeles when Umemoto Hiroshi

was the only Northerner member to place. Tournaments thereafter alternated

between Los Angeles and San Francisco.

In November of 1956 an American kendo team under the leadership of Mori Torao

(Hachida.n) and Kubota Yutaka (Godan) left the United States with a sixteen-

member team on a goodwill tour of Japan. This was done in cooperation with

the All-Japan Kendo Federation. The team met Japanese teams in Tokyo, Yoko-

hama, Kyoto,: and Osaka. During this time, Mori Sensei completed the formation

of the Kendo Federation of the United States, with Mori Sensei as first President.

The San Francisco Dojo was established in the fall of 1957. One of its original

members was the late Julius Vosburg who was unique in being a yudansha in four

Japanese martial arts (kendo-sandan, judo, naginata, and iaido). Earlier in August

of 1957 a thirteen-man All-Japan University student kendo team was selected from

universities throughout Japan to tour the United States in a series of kendo matches

and to participate in a U. S.-Japan match at Long Beach State College on August

24th. The team was led by Maruyama. Giichi of the personnel division of Hosei

University, Inoue Masataka of the Osaka Municipal Government, and Sasamori Junzo,

Judan, Hanshi.

In 1960, four Shichidan kendoists from the All-Japan Kendo Federation-Ichibara,

Ogata, Oura, and Matsubara-visited various American kendo dojo and at Lond Beach

State College thrilled capacity audiences with their skill.

On' September. 8, 1963, kendo in Northern California was honored by the visit to

San Francisco 'of Oasa Yuji (judan, Hanshi), and Ozawa Takashi (Kyudan, Kyoshi).

A goodwill match was held with kendoka from the Maritime Self-Defense Force of

Japan on August 15, 1964, at Golden Gate Park in San Francisco.

After several years of informal practice the San Jose, State University Kendo Club

was organnized by the University in the fall of 1967. The founders , were Hazard,

Charles Chess, and Chaote Lin.

Mori Sensei had plans to extend kendo throughout the United States until his

untimely death in 1969. The New York and Chicago Kendo Dojo were just being

organized. In the following year, 1970, kendoists from sixteen countries gathered

in Tokyo to form the International Kendo Federation and the First I. K. F. Tourna-

ment was held. The I. K. F. tournaments have been held every three years ( i2E 2

in New York and Washington, D. C., in 1973 ; 3 in England in 1976 ; and 4 in

Sapporo in 1980) since then.

The Chicago Kendo Dojo was founded in 1964 with Nakamura Yoshimitsu as

chief instructor. As kendo grew in Chicago, stronger tournaments were held

between teams from Toronto, Michigan State University and Chicago. In 1974,

the Midwest Kendo Federation was formed. Nakabara Torataro became the second

president of the Kendo Federation of the United States. Nakabara Sensei led the

U. S. team to the first world championship in 1970 in Tokyo, Japan. In 1973 the

United States sponsored the 2nd World Championships in Los Angeles and San

Francisco.

Kendo in Texas began in Houston in 1970 when Yajima. Jutaro began teaching

kendo in a dojo operated by Darrell Craig, a martial arts teacher. Yajima Sensei

taught there for five years after which time Mr. Craig helped establish the Southern

United States Kendo and Iaido Federation, which subsequently j'oined the kendo

federation of the United States. In 1977, the dojo became affiliated with Chiba

Harutane, Kancho of the Hokushin Itto-Ryu. Mr. Bill Trevino, a resident of

Denton, Texas and a student of Mr. Craig's, travelled to Dallas to regularly teach

kendo. Yamaguchi Sensei (Yondan) was sent by the All-Japan Kendo Federation

to help teach kendo in Dallas. At the present time, Kijima Sensei, a recent All-

Japan Kendo Federation champion, is assisting Mr. Craig in teaching kendo in

Houston. Future plans include teaching kendo at the University . of Houston and

also in Austin, Texas.

In May , of 1975, Eto Taro, Secretary-Treasurer of the Kendo Federation of the United States, and Nakabara Sensei travelled to New York and met with Kan

Shunshin Sensei and asked if he would join the Kendo Federation of the United

States ; he agreed. Then, stopping in Chicago, they met with Matsumoto Sensei

and his kendo members regarding the same matter. They also agreed to join the

Federation.

Kendo in Nebraska began in September of 1975 when Ogata Yoshikazu (Nidan

from Miyazaki, Japan, Shintomi-Cho) and. Fujita. Yoshitsugu (Nidan from Saga,

Japan, and student of ,Yoshida Tornio and Shimizu Atsushi, Kyoshinkan Dojo) began

teaching kendo at the University of Nebraska in Lincoln. Within the following

year the University of Nebraska became affiliated with Umemoto Hiroshi (Nanadan, Kyoshi) and 'Iwakabe Hideki (Sandan) of ̀ the Rocky Mountain Kendo Federation

which has its headquarters in Denver, Colorado, at the Mountain States Budokan.

Following a one-year probationary period this University of Nebraska Kendo Club

became a recognized dojo of the Kendo Federation of the United States. Kendo

is currently taught under the sponsorship of the School of Health, Physical Education

and Recreation, for academic credit. The dojo also served an annual group of

Japanese Agricultural Trainees who attend the University on a three-month basis as

part of their agricultural training in the United States. In a few years the states

of Wyoming, Ohio, Maryland, Georgia, Connecticut, New Jersey and New Mexico

joined the Federation. The first U. S. Kendo Championship was held in Los 'Angeles in September of

1978. The Second U. S. Championship was held in Chicago in September of 1981.

Kendo today in the United States continues to steadily grow. The Kendo Fede-

ration of the United States today consists of over 2, 000 members in 7 regional

federations composed of 60 dojo in 16 states with a number of organizations making

inquiries regarding application. Despite an unfortunate interruption, kendo in the

United States remains strong and vigorous, with kendoists striving to reach the same

goals as their :predecessors. To quote one elderly nisei kenshi, "During my life I have overcome and ' endured... I spend half of my time helping others and to

encourage them when I see them falter. The personal confidence that kendo

builds in a person's character can never be taken away. I am forever grateful to

my parents for this." (Shibata Yoshimi, personal communication).

On the basis of these finding it was concluded that the establishment of the Meiji

Restoration and the subsequent emigration of a large number of Japanese, many of

whom practiced kendo, to the United States, serves as primary factors which gave

momentum to the flourishment of kendo in the United States.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Craig, Darrell, "Personal Communication," September 1981.

. .

. •

. .

Dann, Jeffrey Lewis, ."Kendo, in Japanese Martial Culture : Swordsmanship as Self-

.Cultivation," Ph. D. Dissertation, University. of Washington,

Draeger, Donn F. "Modern Bujutsu and Budo," John Weatherhill, Inc., New, York,

1974.

Taro, "Kendo History in the .United States," July 7, 1980. .

Kubota, . Yutaka, "The History of Kendo in the. U. S," Presented at the 15th Anni- versary of the Japanese Southern California Association.

Kubota, Yutaka, "Personal Communication," August 31, 1981. .

Manual of First United States Kendo Championships, "Revival of Kendo , in Northern California."

Manual of Second -United States Kendo Championships "Origins of Kendo."

"Miyahara, Maki : American Engineer and Japanese Swordsman," by Paul W. Kroll, Black Belt Magazine, July. 1976.. .

Sasamori, J.unzo and Warner, Gordon, "This is. ,Kendo-----. The Art, of Japanese

Fencing." Charles E. Tuttle Co : Rutland, Vermont, 1964.

Shibata, Yoshimi, "Personal Communication," August 31, 1981.

The Supreme Allied Command (SCAP) Miscellaneous Papers, 1945, Vol. 1, "History

of the Purge----The Dai Nihon Butokukai Phase."

Umemoto, Hiroshi, "Personal Communications." July 1981.

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