The ecohydrological

transfers, interactions and degradation arising from high-

intensity storm events

Kumulative Habilitationsschrift zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades doctor rerum naturalium habilitatus (Dr. rer. nat. habil.) vorgelegt der Mathematisch‐Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät der Universität Potsdam

von

Eva Nora Müller geboren am 19.06.1975 in Karlsruhe

Institut für Erd- und Umweltwissenschaften Emmy-Noether Gruppe ECHO: Ecohydrological Feedbacks Universität Potsdam

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Preface:

This habilitation thesis is a cumulative one and consists of ten research articles which have been published over the last six years or are in the process of being published. The major part of this research was carried out within two DFG projects (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, German research association): the SESAM (Sediment export from semi-arid region: Monitoring and Modelling, 2005-2013) project, which was formed by a multi-national research consortium from the University of Potsdam, the Geoforschungszentrum and collaborating partners from the University of Lleida (Spain) and Fortaleza (Brazil); and the ECHO (Feedbacks between ecohydrological feedbacks, 2009-2014) project, which was composed of an Emmy-Noether independent research group on ecohydrology at the University of Potsdam with collaborating partners from the University of Sheffield and Durham (UK) and Cuiaba (Mato Grosso, Brazil).

A significant part of the more conceptual work of this thesis was assembled in a Springer book publication of 2014: ‘Patterns of land degradation in drylands. Understanding self-organised ecogeomorphic systems’ edited by myself, John Wainwright, Tony Parsons and Laura Turnbull. In editing the book, we approached the boundary of ecohydrology as a discipline to study land degradation through water erosion in drylands, and identified the need to define a new science field, i.e. changing the perspective from ecohydrology to ecogeomorphology.

I would like to thank my two key mentors: Prof. Axel Bronstert, who gave me all support and help

which I required throughout my postdoctoral research time, and Prof. John Wainwright, who supported my work, my ideas and approaches from the beginning of my research life.

During my time at Potsdam, I very much appreciated help and advice from Annegret Thieken, Boris Schröder, Britta Tietjen, Dagmar Haase, Daniela Brucher, Fred Hattermann, Isa Linda Müller, Jose Carlos de Araujo, Loes van Schaik, Melanie Marker, Nicole Rudolph, Peter Zeilhofer, Philip Hunke, Ramon Batalla, Saskia Förster, Simon Mudd, Stephan Jacobi and Tony Parsons (alphabetic order of first names). I also would like to thank my parents for their unconditional, on-going support during the last 10 years.

My very special thanks go to my partner Bruce and my three daughters Abigal, Lucy and Bella for

their love and immeasurable motivation.

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Abstract: Storm events are primary hydrological phenomena that redistribute water and soil resources,

reforming landscapes and frequently damaging land use and infrastructure. This work focuses on extreme storm events of very short duration and high intensity and the overland flow, erosion and the transfer of nutrients, sediments and contaminants from the micro- to meso-scale that result.

Extreme storms differ in their duration, areal extent, intensity and frequency. Storm events with high intensities over several hours or days have been extensively studied with regard to flooding, whereas to date shorter storm events with very high intensities over short periods (< 10 minutes) have received comparatively little attention. However, this type of storms may become more prevalent in the near future as current climate change projections predict a rise in the frequency and magnitude of meteorological extremes, not only for the tropics or dryland regions, but also for more temperate zones, both in urban and rural areas.

It is established that soil erosion by water and the transfer of matter associated with high-intensity storms are closely coupled with vegetation cover, type, land-use and its management. It follows that the most effective impact assessment of such storm events can only be carried out on an interdisciplinary basis and that describes the ecohydrological mechanisms that result in ecosystem stabilisation or degradation due to storm events and transfer processes.

The aim of this habilitation thesis is to evaluate the impacts of land-use change of agricultural fields on the ecohydrological functioning, interactions and transfer processes resulting in water and soil degradation within meso-scale catchments. Thematic emphasis is placed on the ecohydrological aspects of land-use change and land degradation of three very different landscape systems, which have been studied in regard to their underlying ecohydrological controls and processes after being subjected to man-made land-use change which has led to either ecosystem stabilisation or ecosystem degradation: 1) in the Pre-Pyrenees within the north-eastern part of Spain, ecosystem stabilisation had occurred after land abandonment and extensive reforestation programme over the last 50-70 years; 2) in the south-western part of the United States (New Mexico), a significant vegetation change from productive grassland to shrubland accompanied with severe land degradation and desertification occurred within the past 150 years due to excessive overgrazing and 3) the Cerrado biome in central-western part of Brazil has experienced a rapid land-use change from natural forest savannah to croplands and pastures in South America over the last 30 years and has lost half of the original extent of 2 million square kilometres for agricultural land-use.

Methodological emphasis is placed on the development of numerical, (semi)-process-based models for simulation of vegetation, water and sediment dynamics from the hillslope to meso-scale that either implicitly include feedbacks between ecological and hydrological state variables or work with a model cascade approach to reproduce intrinsic ecohydrological interactions. Further emphasis includes integrated field studies (looking at both water and soil degradation) and the conceptual advancement in the understanding of patterns using complexity science approaches.

The semi-process-based WASA-SED model was developed for water and sediment transport in large dryland catchments: it simulates the runoff and erosion processes at the hillslope scale, the transport and retention processes of suspended and bedload fluxes in the river reaches and the retention and remobilisation processes of sediments in reservoirs. The modelling tool enabled the evaluation of management options both for sustainable land-use change scenarios to reduce erosion in the headwater catchments as well as adequate reservoir management options to lessen sedimentation in large reservoirs and reservoir networks in the Spanish research areas.

An ecohydrological, process-based model, Mahleran-EcoHyD, was developed to further the understanding of the complex linkages between abiotic and biotic drivers and processes of degradation in drylands. The coupled model was used to investigate soil-vegetation-transfer feedback mechanisms within grassland-shrubland transition zones in the Chihuahuan shrub desert by modelling the ecohydrological feedbacks caused by different vegetation dynamic scenarios.

The thesis concludes with a critical discussion on ecohydrology as a discipline to study land degradation through water erosion in drylands. It was shown that the focus of future land-degradation studies may need to shift from ecohydrology as an integrative science, to ecogeomorphology in which soil-hydraulic conditions, soil formation, actions of wind, fire, animals and bioturbation and management aspects are all accounted for.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface

Summary

Part I: Introduction 5

1 Aim and objectives 6

2 Increasing occurrence of high-intensity rainstorm events relevant for the generation of soil erosion in a temperate lowland region in Central Europe 16

Part II: Modelling ecohydrological responses and feedbacks of land degradation 17

3 Modelling sediment export, retention and reservoir sedimentation in drylands with the WASA-SED Model 18

4 Ecohydrological modelling of land degradation in drylands: feedbacks between water, erosion, vegetation and soil 19

5 Approaches to modelling ecogeomorphic systems 20

Part III: Ecohydrological responses resulting in ecosystem stabilisation and degradation 21

6 Modelling the effects of land-use change on runoff and sediment yield for a meso-scale catchment in the Southern Pyrenees 22

7 Modelling bedload rates from fine grain-size patches during small floods in a gravel-bed river 23

8 The Brazilian Cerrado: Assessment of water and soil degradation in catchments under intensive agricultural use 24

9 Quantification of soil and water degradation as a result of rapid land-use change in a mesoscale catchment in the Cerrado of Mato Grosso, Brazil 25

Part IV: Key Challenges and Conclusion 26

10 Scales, topics, feedbacks and key challenges of ecohydrological research from a German perspective (in German) 27

11 Land degradation in drylands: reёvaluating pattern-process interrelationships and the role of ecogeomorphology 28

12 Conclusion 29

References

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Part I: Introduction

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1 Aim and objectives

The aim of this habilitation is to evaluate the impacts of land-use change of agricultural fields on the ecohydrological functioning, interactions and transfer processes resulting in water and soil degradation within meso-scale catchments. After a short opening on how ecohydrology had emerged as a new science field over the last two decades, the significance of land-use change for ecosystem degradation is given for mountainous dryland settings in the Pre-Pyrenees of Spain, shrubland-grassland transition zones in New Mexico in the US and heavily modified Cerrado regions in Mato Grosso, Brazil. The importance of high-intensity rain storms and the concepts of ecohydrological modelling to assess ecohydrological responses and feedback dynamics of land degradation are introduced, followed by the definition of ten key objectives at the end of the chapter.

1.1 An introduction to ecohydrology

Ecohydrology carries out research at the interface between abiotic, hydrological and biotic processes (flora, fauna, biogeochemistry) and deals in specific with the interactions and feedback processes between hydrological and ecological state variables. In the widest sense, ecohydrology aims to integrate the hydrological and ecological comprehension to establish a base for a sustainable soil, land-use and water resource management in aquatic and terrestic ecosystems.

In the international as well as in the German research community, the term ecohydrology frequently created some confusion within the last decade: in Anglo-American communities, the term was mainly associated with soil-plant interactions in (semi-) deserts (Baird und Wilby, 1999; D'Odorico und Porporato, 2006), whereas in Europe, the focus of research was put mainly on nutrient-transport and groundwater–surface-water interactions in wetlands and rivers (van Diggelen et al. 1991 & 1995; Grootjans et al., 1993; Wassen & Grootjans, 1996; Brunke & Gonser, 1997; Olde Veterink &Wassen, 1997; Krause et al., 2011).

Since then, a vast amount of publications dealt with the various sub-sections of ecohydrology, e.g. the UNESCO International Hydrologiy Programme IHP-V (Zalewski et al., 1997, Fohrer und Schmalz, 2012), in the comprehensive books on ecohydrology by Wood et al. (2008), Harper et al. (2008), Baird und Wilby (1999), in review articles (e.g. Hannah et al., 2004 & 2007, McClain et al., 2012) und special issues (e.g. Krause et al., 2011); Furthermore, the new journal Ecohydrolgy (Smetten, 2008) was set up.

However, up to now, no consistent categorisation of the various thematic topics or systematic approaches of ecohydrological research exists. Ecohydrological research is rather carried out along the entire interface between vegetation, the terrestic and aquatic habitats, surface water-bodies, the atmosphere, the unsaturated soil zones and the groundwater. According to McClain et al. (2012), ecohydrological studies may be grouped into the four focal areas (Figure 1):

1) the flora-fauna-soil-systems on the land surface without a direct connection to the river system, 2) the meso-scale landscape systems or catchments and their river networks including their above-

ground and below-ground runoff, transport, turnover and growth processes, 3) the lake systems and 4) the coastal regions and estuaries including saltwater groundwater fluxes and marshlands

Dryland regions like semi-arid shrub deserts and savannahs are of specific interest in

ecohydrological research (Asbjornsen et al., 2011, Newmann et al., 2006, D'Odorico und Porporato, 2006): plant growth and vegetation survival is in this over large parts of the year highly limited systems controlled by sporadic water availability, often in the form of short high-intensity rain storms that frequently generate in overland flow and erosion. The resulting vegetation patterns and species composition then again influences the spatial distribution of overland flow, infiltration pattern and soil moisture. These interactions are often reinforced by intensive land-use, e.g. through overgrazing, which may lead to accelerated land degradation.

This habilitation thesis focuses specifically on ecohydrological research that deals with the

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interactions of high-intensity storms, runoff, erosion and vegetation and land-use change in drylands and savannah regions.

Figure 1: Schematic drawing of ecohydrological spheres and associated environmental impacts (adapted after McClain et al., 2012)

1.2 The role of land-use and vegetation change on erosion and land degradation for heavily modified landscapes in Spain, New Mexico and Brazil

Three different landscape systems have been studied in regard to their underlying ecohydrolocial controls and processes after being subjected to man-made land-use change which has led to either ecosystem stabilisation (Pre-Pyrenees) or ecosystem degradation (New Mexico, Cerrado):

1. In the Pre-Pyrenees within the north-eastern part of Spain, ecosystem stabilisation had occurred after

land abandonment and extensive reforestation programme over the last 50-70 years. 2. In the south-western part of the United States (New Mexico), a significant vegetation change from

productive grassland to shrubland accompanied with severe land degradation and desertification occurred within the past 150 years due to excessive overgrazing and other autogenic factors.

3. The Cerrado biome in central-western part of Brazil has experienced a rapid land-use change from natural forest savannah to croplands and pastures in South America over the last three decades and has lost half of the original extent of 2 million square kilometres for agricultural land-use. Figure 2 presents some illustrative photographs of the three land-use changes; the following sections

summarises the different histories that have led to the presented land-use changes and gives some key climatic, hydrological and geological information on the three study sites.

Flora-Fauna-Soil-Systems

Water redirection Diffuse pollution Overgrazing, drought Land degradation Soil erosion

Rivers & Catchm.

Water pollution Water management Eutrophication Habitat change Yield drop Flooding Sedimentation

Lakes

��

�

Water polution Eutrophication Habitat change Fishing Local recreation

Coast

Sea plution Flooding Fishing Hatchery change

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Pre-Pyrenees,

Spain

Intense agriculture

Afforestation

New Mexico

Grassland

Shrubland

Mato Grosso, Brazil

Natural Cerrado

Intense agriculture

Figure 2: Photographs of the investigated land-use changes in Spain, New Mexico and Brazil (photographs of Brazil from P. Hunke)

1.2.1 Mediterranean dryland setting in north-eastern Spain

Substantial parts of the Pre-Pyrenees in the north-eastern part of Spain have experienced an extensive land-use change over the second half of the 20th century owing to the reduction of agricultural activities towards the formation of a more natural landscape (Lasanta-Martinez et al. 2005, Garcia-Ruiz et al. 1996). Traditionally, the area was characterised by intensive agricultural use even on very steep hillslopes that led to severe soil erosion. Due to a demographic change and socio-economic change, the migration of the rural population and consequent depopulation of the region (Ortigosa et al. 1990, Garcia-Ruiz and Valero-Garces 1998), many cultivated fields were abandoned, especially the terraced fields on the slopes while in the valley bottoms agriculture has been intensified. Abandoned fields have either been affected by a natural process of plant re-colonisation by mostly shrubs, or have been reforested with conifers.

The fast abandonment of traditional agricultural practices and the large extent of the areas affected by vegetation recovery make the Pyrenees a good example for assessing the impact of land-use change on the hydrological response and sediment delivery dynamics (Chapter 6 and 7, Gallart and Llorens 2004, Lopez-Moreno et al. 2006). Afforestation is reported to have changed the hydrological behaviour of headwater catchments of the Ebro basin by modifying surface runoff and by reducing the peak flow, soil erosion and sediment export. According to Garcia-Ruiz et al. (1996) and Ortigosa and Garcia-Ruiz

70 years

150 years

30 years

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(2000), some of the most important rivers in the region and their alluvial fans have recently stabilised their sedimentary structures, caused by plant re-establishment in the channels and on the riverbanks. Lopez-Moreno et al. (2006) analysed the evolution of floods in the central Spanish Pyrenees during the period 1955-1995 and detected a general negative trend in flood intensity, an increase in the importance of low flows in the total annual contribution against a stable frequency distribution of precipitation events. They linked a decrease in the siltation rates in the Pyrenean reservoirs (with a consequential increase in their expected life-span) with a decrease in the torrentiality of Pyrenean rivers. Land-use and plant-cover changes were estimated to be responsible for the loss of up to 30% of the average annual discharge from the 1950s until present (Begueria et al. 2003).

Land-use change from agricultural use (mostly crop cultivation) to afforestation is examined in a headwater catchment of the Ribera Salada, a typical Pre-Pyrenean, mountainous river, tributary of the Segre River, in turn the major tributary of the Ebro. The area has a typical Mediterranean mountainous climate, where rivers never dry up, although flows are very low during the summer. Mean annual precipitation and evaporation varies between 500-800 mm and 700-750 mm respectively. Snowmelt plays only a secondary role and most floods are due to autumn and winter thunderstorms. The altitude ranges between 460 m a.s.l. in the southwest and 2400 m a.s.l. in the northeast of the entire Ribera Salada Catchment. The geology in the headwaters of the catchment is dominated by folded Triassic to Ecocene limestones, marls and some evaporites (gypsum and salts), whereas the central and lower parts of the basin are comprised by an extensive deformed Eocene-Oligocene molassic sequence at the bottom of a folded thrust. The catchment is mostly on conglomerate supporting, sandy-loamy soils; the erosion processes being rather limited under normal precipitation. The current vegetation includes evergreen oaks and pines in the valley bottoms and deciduous oaks in the upper areas.

1.2.2 Chihuahuan shrub desert in New Mexico, USA

Desertification and land degradation in the south-western part of the United States have led to a significant vegetation change from productive grassland to desert shrubland within the past 150 years (Buffington and Herbel 1965). The degradation process continues even when external environmental stresses, such as heavy overgrazing, are removed (Whitford 2002, Rango et al. 2002, Laycock 1991); a fact which suggests that the ecosystem stability has been disturbed profoundly. The persistence and on-going propagation of desert shrubs has been related by Schlesinger et al. (1990) to the redistribution of water and nutrient resources at the plant-interspace scale. There is some suggestion in the results of Schlesinger et al. that redistribution at this scale leads to further redistributions at landscape scale (> 5 km2), and this idea is reinforced by feedbacks observed in the transfer of water and sediment and the consequent reorganization of the land surface as observed by Abrahams et al. 1995, Parsons et al., 1996 and Wainwright et al., 2000. Peters and Havstad (2005) have outlined the need to use a multi-scale approach to understand the drivers of land degradation in these areas, taking into consideration variations at patch-mosaic and vegetation-association scales as well as the plant interspace.

Ecohydrological feedbacks are investigated in Chapter 4 using the extensive data by Turnbull et al. (2010 a, b) for mixed grassland-shrubland plots within a transition zone at the Sevilleta Long-Term Ecological Research site in central New Mexico, USA, which lies on the northern margin of the Chihuahuan desert (34°190N, 106°420W). The region has an average of 256 mm of rainfall per year, of which 55% typically falls during the summer monsoon rainfall season (July–September) (Dahm and Moore, 1994). The climate is semi-arid with an annual average temperature of 13.2 °C. Dominant vegetation types in the study area are black grama (Bouteloua eriopoda) grassland and creosotebush (Larrea tridentata) shrubland.

1.2.3 Heavily modified Cerrado regions of Mato Grosso, Brazil

The Cerrado biome has experienced a rapid land-use change from natural forest savannah to croplands and pastures in South America over the last three decades and has lost half of the original extent of 2 million square kilometres for agricultural land-use. For the years 2008-2010, deforestation rates in the Cerrado were twice as large as the one for the Amazon Basin (Lambin et al. 2013) and the Cerrado is currently considered as the most threatened biome of Brazil (Marris 2005, Sano et al. 2010). Especially the federal state of Mato Grosso is affected by landscape scale conversion as the state shows the highest deforestation rates in Brazil for pastures and cash crop production (Sano et al. 2010). Despite

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the rapid and enourmous extent of the land-use change, there is only little information available about how the land use intensification in concert with enormous soil correction measures such as liming and fertilizer application has altered the biogeochemistry of soil and water resources of meso-scale catchments. In the last two decades there was a trend from extensive pasture to land-uses such as soybean, maize, cotton and sugarcane, frequently in a double-cropping cultivation system (Redo et al. 2012) and by today the Cerrado is among the world’s top regions for cash crop production. Since the revision of Forest Code (Law No 12.727) of 2012, it is even easier to implement further conversions of native vegetation outside of Legal Amazon (Marris 2005, Sparovek et al. 2012). Consequently, future land-use projection predicts further land use intensification (Lapola et al. 2014) with serious concerns that the entire original Cerrado vegetation will be extinguished by the year 2030 (Hopkins 2004, Machado et al. 2004).

The heavily modified land-use change of the Cerrado is reviewed in Chapter 8 using a meta-analysis of soil and water quality studies and the degree of soil and water degradation as an indicator of ecohydrological change was assessed in Chapter 9 for a study site within the Tenente Amaral Catchment in the state Mato Grosso. The Tenente Amaral Catchment is a typical Cerrado catchment that underwent significant land-use change from natural Cerrado to pasture and cropland over the last 20-30 years. It is situated ca. 120 km southeast of the capital Cuiabá in Mato Grosso on the southern edge of the Brazilian Planalto which is part of the Brazilian Shield (Marques et al. 2004). The water of the catchment drains into the São Lourenço River which is a major feeder of the Pantanal floodplains. The study catchment has an extent of ca. 865 km² with elevation ranging from 225 to 800 m a.s.l.. The climate type is classified as Aw according to the Köppen classification with a distinctive dry season between May and September. The mean annual precipitation is 1500 mm, of which about 80% falls in the time period from October to April as heavy rainfalls. The long term (1995-2007) mean annual runoff of the Tenente Amaral stream is about 8 m³/s, with a maximum of 17 m³ s-1 in the rainy season and a minimum of 5.8 m³ s-1 in the dry season, thus indicating a large seasonal variability. About 70% of the catchment is under intensive cash crop production of mainly sugarcane and soybean in rotation with maize and cotton. The agricultural production is primarily carried out on Ferralsol soil. Several sub-watersheds (covering about 18 % of the catchment) are used for cattle (Rio Brilhante and parts of the Rio Verde tributaries). The small remaining part of the catchment is for natural protection areas on mainly sandy Arenosols.

1.3 The importance of high-intensity storms

An extreme storm is a precipitation event that exhibits large rainfall intensity in relation to its duration. For flood events, intensities which occur over several hours or days are relevant and are studied using extreme value statistics; for drainage systems smaller durations of about 15 minutes up to several hours are more suitable (De Toffol et al. 2009). For the analysis of soil erosion by water, storm events of very short durations (< 5 minutes) with very high intensities are of relevance.

High-intensity rainstorm events of short durations frequently occur in dryland regions and result in an exceedance of maximal infiltration rate, generation of overland flow and the occurrence of soil erosion (Figure 3). The detachment of soil particles from the soil is to a large extent driven by raindrop impact through the detaching power of raindrops striking the soil surface, frequently called rain splash detachment, leading to the splashing of soil particles into the air and a consequential compaction of the soil surface.

Surprisingly little is known about any potential climate-change driven change of high-intensity rainstorm events. Focus of most previous studies on extreme storm events was placed on the temporal or spatial analysis of storm events that generate floods or are relevant for urban drainage patterns (Borga et al. 2010, Osborn and Hulme 2002). Trend analysis for daily rainfall time series are available for almost the entire globe and show a varying degree of change with both substantial increase and decrease of daily rainfall amount which has been related to global warming by the recent IPCC report (2007). For the Central-Europe / western Germany region, trend analysis of daily hydro-meteorological time series (period 1950s-2000), for example, signifies a general increase of extreme events for the winter, spring and autumn periods and a decrease of rainfall for the summer period due to global warming (Hundecha and Bardossy, 2005, Zolina et al. 2008). Rainfall time series with higher temporal resolution (15 minutes to 24 hours for the period 1930-2000) exhibit according to Pfister and Verworn (2002) for the Emscher-Lippe region in central western Germany no significant changes in their rainfall statistics and

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intensity-duration frequency curves. For the alpine region Tyrol, De Toffol et al. (2009) analysed storm events relevant for drainage and found not significant trends for time series of short durations (15-60 minutes for the period 1950s-2000), however they detected an increase in the number of extreme events of shorter durations.

Figure 3: Overland-flow event in a shrubland of New Mexcio after a high-intensity storm of 10 minutes

Analysis of storm events with even shorter duration (« 15 minutes) have hardly been carried out, both regionally and globally as their damages are often not as obvious as the ones of longer duration causing flooding. Adamowski and Bougadis (2003) detected for storm events with duration of 5 minutes both increasing and decreasing statistically significant trends for 44 stations in Ontario, Canada (for the time periods 1970s to 1990s). Only one study has been recently published that analyses the extreme value statistics of 1-min time series of rainfall: the study by Paulson (2010) examines for Great Britain the relationship between outages of telecommunication equipment and heavy rainfall and showed that over the last 20 years storm events of one minute duration and high intensities (of 36 mm/h) have increased significantly.

Besides the study of Paulson, the analysis of storm events with very short durations has been to this point neglected due to mainly three reasons: 1) rainfall time series covering several decades and a temporal resolution of 1 or 5 minutes are globally very rare; 2) large uncertainties exist in regard to the reliability and precision of the analogue recording techniques used in rain gauges; and 3) the applicability of extreme value statistics on the rainfall regime is limited as it is difficult to track changes in the commonly employed intensity-duration curves for short time series and a small number of events. To evaluate potentially climate-change driven alterations of high-intensity rainstorm events, a trend analysis of high-resolution rainfall data was required and was carried out within the scope of this thesis for two meso-scale catchment areas in central western Germany (Emscher-Lippe in North Rhine-Westphalia), as described in Chapter 2.

1.4 Ecohydrological modelling approaches of transfer processes and interactions in drylands

Ecohydrological models may, as any other numerical model, be used to forecast future conditions, to manage current resources or to understand the functioning of a system (hypothesis-driven modelling) by using past time series that contain the drivers and change of state variables of a system under study. A wide range of ecohydrological models exists that simulate individual compartments of the environmental systems (as plotted in Figure 1), for example: processes in the unsaturated soil zone in combination with macropores due to earthworms (van Schaik et al., 2013), water quality modelling of the Elbe catchment using the SWIM model (Hesse et al., 2012), interaction of river habitat and water quality (Schmalz et al. 2012), modelling of nutrient fluxes within the hyporheic zone (Mutz et al., 2013), the groundwater-lake

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or groundwater-coast interface or modelling of degradation dynamics due overgrazing or other over-use in agriculturally used landscapes. In this habilitation, model development and application focus on the later: the modelling of ecosystem degradation or stabilisation by studying the interactions of vegetation, soil-hydrology, overland flow dynamics and river transport processes from the plot- to meso-scale.

Numerical, ecohydrological models may be categorised according to their temporal or spatial extent and resolution and their degree of incorporating relevant processes and feedback mechanisms between abiotic and biotic components of the system. The spatial and temporal domains of an ecohydrological model will depend largely on the purpose of modelling: hillslope-scale processes at the timescale of rainfall-runoff events may be modelled to understand underlying process mechanisms, which are difficult to obtain through field observations; meso-scale processes may be simulated to obtain management scenarios under environmental change.

Three different complexity levels of modelling may be defined, which differ in the degree on how hydrological and ecological processes are integrated at the ecohydrological interface (Figure 4): 1. Ecohydrological reactions, which are uni-directional effects of biotic processes on the abiota or

vice versa. Typical examples are the effects of vegetation change on runoff processes or the uni-directional quantification of nutrient export from agricultural fields into the river system;

2. Ecohydrological cascades are compared to the reactions more complicated causality chains, as for example the effects of vegetation change on sedimentation of large reservoirs with interposed processes of increased runoff, erosion and sediment-transport in the river system. As the reactions, cascades work only in one direction; they do not contain feedbacks.

3. Fully dynamics, ecohydrological feedbacks exist when the abiotic state variables change the biotic state variables which in turn affect the abiotic state (and vice versa). One can distinguish between simple and complex feedbacks as pictured in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Schematic drawing of ecohydrological reactions, causal cascade and feedback with an example interface vegetation-runoff

A key issue facing the development of ecohydrological feedback models, is whether or not the focus should be on making the most of existing resources by coupling existing models that each simulate an isolated components of the system, or if the focus should be on developing new integrated models that do not suffer from the constraints (conceptual and technical) imposed by utilizing existing models. There are many different ways in which models can be coupled, ranging from loose coupling to tight coupling (Brandmeyer et al., 2000, Turnbull et al., 2014). Loosely coupled models share a common interface, which controls data transfer between the coupled models, whereas in tightly coupled models, one model may be embedded inside another, or two or more (sub-) models may run in parallel. If models are to be meaningfully coupled or integrated, it is essential that differences in their spatial and temporal extents and scales are reconciled (Brandmeyer et al., 2000, see chapter 5 for a detailed discussion).

In the last ten years, I have worked on the development of two very different modelling tools: the MAHLERAN-EcoHyD model and the WASA-SED model. The WASA-SED model is a meso-scale, semi-process-based, semi-distributed model and simulates the runoff and erosion processes at the hillslope scale, the transport and retention processes of suspended and bedload fluxes in the river reaches and the retention and remobilisation processes of sediments in reservoirs. WASA-SED follows a cascade conceptualisation (Figure 4) and enables the evaluation of management options both for sustainable land-use change scenarios to reduce erosion in the headwater catchments as well as adequate reservoir management options to lessen sedimentation in large reservoirs and reservoir networks (Chapter 3). MAHLERAN-EcoHyD is a plot- to hillslope-scale process-based, raster-based model that implicitly includes complex ecohydrological feedback dynamics between vegetation growth and overland flow and erosion dynamics. It is employed to further the understanding of the complex linkages between abiotic and biotic drivers and processes of degradation in drylands (Chapter 4)

Reaction

Vegetation change

Runoff

Cascade

Vegetation change

Runoff Sedimen-

tation

Simple feedback

Root growth

Infiltration

Complex feedback

Plant Erosion Substrate

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Chapters 3 and 4 contain the two model descriptions and their applications, whereas Chapter 5 goes beyond merely ecohydrological interactions: it reviews and discusses the need to develop ecogeomorphic models that also include e.g. aeolian processes and use other types of modelling approaches to land degradation such as stochastic models and rule-based approaches (e.g. cellular automata).

1.5 Aim, objectives and key questions

The aim of this habilitation is to evaluate the impacts of land-use change of agricultural fields on the ecohydrological functioning, interactions and transfer processes resulting in water and soil degradation within meso-scale catchments.

Thematic emphasis is placed on the ecohydrological aspects of land-use change and land

degradation in drylands (New Mexico and north-east Spain) and the tropics (Mato Grosso, Brazil) in regard to changes in soil-hydrological functioning, erosion and sediment-transport in the river system. Doing so, the investigation of the trends and effects of high-intensity storms plays a crucial part as drivers of soil erosion and environmental change. Methodological emphasis is placed on the development and application of numerical, (semi-)process-based models for simulation of vegetation, water and sediment dynamics from the hillslope to meso-scale. Further emphasis includes integrated field studies (looking at both water and soil degradation) and the conceptual advancement in the understanding of patterns using complexity science approaches.

The previous sections introduced ecohydrology as a science discipline to study land degradation and

derived the need to comprehend the hydrological and ecological interactions of high-intensity storms, overland flow, soil erosion and vegetation that may lead to excessive land degradation after land-use change. They also stated the lack of analysis for high-intensity storms and current limitations of ecohydrological models to implement complex feedback dynamics.

In order to fulfil the aim of this thesis and to tackle the specific research aspects as presented in the

preceding sub-sections, the objectives of this work have been identified as follows: Objective 1: Trend analysis in the occurrence of high-intensity storms relevant for the generation of soil erosion.

An increase of rainstorms relevant for the generation of soil erosion may have several negative effects on regional land and water resources. Due to the impact of rainsplash, the top soil layer may become disturbed and possibly degraded, followed by a transfer or depletion of soil nutrients and contaminants by wind or water transport into surface water bodies. To evaluate changes in the rainfall regime of erosion-relevant rainstorm events, the following analysis was carried out: 1) a trend analysis of erosion-relevant storm events of very short duration and high intensity for two meso-scale catchment areas in central western Germany (Emscher-Lippe in North Rhine-Westphalia), 2) a seasonal analysis of rainstorms to evaluate if these storm events are more pronounced in some seasons than others and 3) a trend analysis of related climate time series such as temperature, number of thunderstorms, air pressure and humidity to assess and discuss parallel changes in the climate regime relevant for generating high-intensity storm events (Chapter 2). Objective 2: Development of a meso-scale model for sediment export, retention and reservoir sedimentation from erosion hotspots in drylands.

Current meso-scale erosion models fail to enable the quantification of sediment transfer from erosion hotspots. These hotspots are small hillslope segments that contribute a vast amount to the total sediment export out of a catchment but at the same time cover only a rather small part of the total area, such as badland hillslopes or highly degraded slopes which are often found in dryland settings. To enable regional land and water management with regard to sediment export in dryland settings, a model was required that would: 1) incorporate an appropriate scaling scheme for the spatial representation of hillslope characteristics to retain characteristic hillslope properties and at the same time is applicable to large regions (hundreds to thousands of km2); 2) integrate sediment retention, transient storage and re-

14

mobilisation descriptions for the river network and large reservoirs and reservoir networks with the specific requirements of water demand and sedimentation problems of dryland regions; 3) include reservoir management options to calculate the life expectancy of reservoirs for different management practises; and 4) is computationally efficient to cope with large spatial and temporal extent of model applications. For this purpose, the WASA-SED (Water Availability in Semi-Arid environments – SEDiments) model has been developed and its structure, functioning and application is presented here. (Chapter 3) Objective 3: Development of an ecohydrological model of land degradation in drylands that implicitly contains feedbacks between water, erosion, vegetation and soil.

The aim of this study is to further the understanding of the complex linkages between abiotic and biotic drivers and processes of land degradation through water erosion in drylands by linking two existing models, which have been shown to reproduce successfully the abiotic and biotic parts of shrubland ecosystems in drylands: the erosion model MAHLERAN (Model for Assessing Hillslope-Landscape Erosion, Runoff And Nutrients) which simulates overland flow and sediment detachment, transport and deposition based upon particle-travel distance for individual rainstorms (Wainwright et al. 2008a) and the two-part model after Tietjen et al. (2009 and 2010): the HydroVeg model that simulates soil moisture in two upper soil layers and the EcoHyD model, which reproduces vegetation dynamics with a coarser temporal resolution to ensure long-term assessment of environmental change. The study evaluates how well the coupled model can be tested with currently available measured water and sediment fluxes and soil moisture rates for a grassland-shrubland transition zone for individual rainstorm events of two rainy seasons and discusses current gaps and short-comings of interdisciplinary data sets for multi-disciplinary modelling studies. Then capabilities of the model are presented for three set-ups: first, the impact of individual high-intensity storms was scaled up to assess annual variations of rainfall, water and sediment fluxes, and soil-moisture conditions in the upper and lower soil layer over two decades. Second, the model was used to assess the impact of vegetation composition on spatial changes in surface soil texture due to soil erosion by water and how these changes might affect our understanding of degradation processes. Third, the ways in which long-term changes in vegetation affect and feedback with abiotic processes were assessed by quantifying the changes in water fluxes and erosion rates for static vegetation, dynamic vegetation and two stress scenarios (drought and overgrazing) (Chapter 4). Objective 4: Review and conceptual discussion of current ecohydrological and ecogeomorphic modelling approaches In this study, different modelling approaches of land degradation are reviewed including both stochastic and deterministic models of pattern formation. It also reviews and discusses the extent to which different ecological, hydrological and geomorphic processes should be included in environmental models of land degradation and explores different options in the degree of linking and coupling models (Chapter 5). Objective 5: Quantification of the effects of land-use change on runoff and sediment yield for a meso-scale catchment in the Southern Pyrenees

The Pre-Pyrenees in north-east Spain experienced an extensive land-use change over the last 70 years (see section 1.2.1). Only a limited amount of quantitative data on the hydrological response and sediment delivery is available for the Pyrenean region to assess the effects of past and future land-use changes related to land abandonment, intensification and/or afforestation. Therefore, in order to evaluate the impacts of environmental change on a meso-scale dryland basin, a modelling study was carried out for the Canalda catchment of the Ribera Salada River in the Southern Pyrenees using a process-based water and sediment transport model (the WASA-SED model). The model was used to simulate the effects of land abandonment and afforestation between 1957 and 1993 on runoff and sediment export out of the meso-scale catchment. To get an insight in the relative importance of environmental change on sediment export, the model was furthermore applied to evaluate the relative importance of land-use change scenarios in comparison with the potential effects of climate change scenarios on sediment budgets (Chapter 6). Objective 6: Quantification of bedload-rates from fine grain-size patches during small floods in a gravel-bed river experiencing land-use change

The quantification of the bedload transport rates generated during frequent events is thought to be an

15

important step to understand landuse-related environmental changes and water quality issues. Bedload transport plays an important role on invertebrate drift. Therefore, quantification and modelling of bedload under such particular conditions is fundamental to understand flow-sediment-animal interactions in mountain streams and, in addition, can inform river restoration practices. This study explores how bedload formula for gravel-bed rivers can be parameterised and test to derive daily to annual bedload rates for a study catchment in the Pre-Pyrenees of north-east Spain (Chapter 7).

Objective 7: Meta-analysis of water and soil degradation in heavily modified catchment in the Brazilian Cerrado.

The Brazilian Cerrado, the second-largest biome in South America, has experienced an excessive and continuous human-induced expansion of agriculture over the last 20 to 30 years whereby the natural savannah has been replaced by monocultures of soybean, sugar cane, and cotton (cash crops), as well as energy plantations and pasture (see Section 1.2.3). The aim of this study is to give quantitative evidence in form of a meta-analysis how the water and soil resources of the Cerrado ecosystem have been altered under heavily modified land use. The study reviews the environmental stressors regarding past and projected human land use actions and climate change and gives a comprehensive review of available field studies of the Cerrado that investigated the impact of different land uses (crop, pasture and energy plantation) on soil-hydraulic and biogeochemical properties and changes to the quality of surface and groundwater for nutrients and pesticides. This compilation attempts to give a starting point to determine the change of soil and water resources in the Cerrado under stress by identifying the current impacts of land use change (Chapter 8). Objective 8: Quantification of soil and water degradation as a result of rapid land-use change in a meso-scale catchment in the Cerrado of Mato Grosso, Brazil.

The aim of this study was to assess how land use change from natural Cerrado to agricultural production that emerged during the last 20-30 years has affected soil physical, hydrological and biogeochemical properties and processes at the hillslope scale and subsequently water quality at the meso-scale. The specific objectives of the field study were (1) to examine the effects of land use change from natural Cerrado to three commonly found croplands (soybean/cotton/maize rotation and sugarcane) and to pasture on texture, soil aggregate stability, infiltrability, saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), pH, and soil nutrients (NPK); and (2) to determine the impact of agricultural production on water quality by examining its seasonal pattern and the spatial distribution of water quality parameters across a meso-scale catchment (Chapter 9).

Objective 9: Review of scales, topics, feedbacks and discussion of the key challenges of ecohydrological research from a German perspective.

This study reviews current German ecohydrological research approaches within plant-animal-soil-systems, meso-scale catchments and their river networks, lake systems, coastal areas and tidal rivers and discusses their relevant spatial and temporal process scales and different types of interactions and feedback dynamics between hydrological and biotic processes and patterns. Scaling issues regarding both ecological and hydrological processes and types of ecohydrological interactions (reaction, cascade and feedback as introduced above in Figure 4) are elaborated and key challenges are identified (Chapter 10, in German).

Objective 10: Re-evaluation of pattern-process interrelationships and the role of ecogeomorphology for the study of land degradation

The study reviews successes and shortcomings of the ecogeomorphic approach (as a generalisation of an ecohydrological one) to comprehend patterns of land degradation. It then identifies five key challenges that need to be overcome to enable effective combating of land degradation in drylands (Chapter 11).

The following ten chapters comprise research articles that tackle the objectives in turn. In the final Chapter, ten key theses are formulated that bundle the advancement of current knowledge by my research and gives an outlook on the future research agenda on approaches for sustainable water and soil resource management.

16

2 Increasing occurrence of high-intensity rainstorm events relevant for the generation of soil erosion in a temperate lowland region in Central Europe

Eva Nora Mueller1 and Angela Pfister2 1 Institut für Erd- und Umweltwissenschaften, Universität Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24, 14476

Potsdam 2 Emschergenossenschaft/Lippeverband, Kronprinzenstr. 24, 45128 Essen Abstract:

Rainfall times series with a high temporal resolution of one minute for the Emscher-Lippe catchment area were analysed for trends in regard to erosion-relevant storm events with intensities larger than 0.3 mm/min (>20 mm/h) for the last 70 years using the Mann-Kendall test. The analysis data showed for all investigated stations an increase of rainstorm events with erosion-relevant rainfall intensities; the trend was more pronounced over the last 35 years and was shown to be statistical significant for a critical zone with rainfall characteristics of: intensity iRain=0.3-0.7 mm/min, duration tRain=2-10 min and depth hRain=1-3 mm. The increase of rainstorm events over the last 35 years was more pronounced in the summer season (July-September), but increases were detected also in the other seasons. The high-intensity storm events occured only ca. 4-15 times/year; the estimated trend increases of up to 0.5 events/year could therefore result in a multiplication of the occurrence of these storm events within only a few decades. This study has shown for the first time that the rainfall regime for temperate lowland regions in Germany has changed within its erosion-relevant spectrum over the last couple of decades. Parallel to the changes in the rainfall regime, increases in the annual and seasonal average temperature and changes in the occurrence of circulation patterns responsible for the generation of high-intensity storms were found, however not in the occurrence of thunderstorms. A climate-change driven increase of rain storm events over the last couple of decades and a potential future continuation of this trend may have several adverse effects for the study area and potentially for a larger region in central Europe, for example an increase of soil erosion on slopes, the depletion of soil nutrients, an increased transport of nutrients and contaminants attached to sediment particles, their transfer into surface water bodies and consequential negative effects on stream habitats. This paper was published in the Journal of Hydrology with the citation: Mueller EN, Pfister A (2011) Increasing occurrence of high-intensity rainstorm events relevant for the generation of soil erosion in a temperate lowland region in Central Europe, Journal of Hydrology 411: 266-278. Due to copyright issues, the original articles are not included in this file.

17

Part II: Modelling

ecohydrological responses and

feedbacks of land degradation

18

3 Modelling sediment export, retention and reservoir sedimentation in drylands with the WASA-SED Model

Mueller, E. N.1, Güntner, A.2, Francke, T.1, Mamede, G.3

1 Institute of Geoecology, University of Potsdam, Germany 2 Helmholtz Centre Potsdam – GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Germany 3 Department of Environmental and Technological Sciences, Federal University of Rio Grande do

Norte, Mossoró, Brazil

Abstract:

Current soil erosion and reservoir sedimentation modelling at the meso-scale is still faced with intrinsic problems with regard to open scaling questions, data demand, computational efficiency and deficient implementations of retention and re-mobilisation processes for the river and reservoir networks. To overcome some limitations of current modelling approaches, the semi-process-based, spatially semi-distributed modelling framework WASA-SED was developed for water and sediment transport in large dryland catchments. The WASA-SED model simulates the runoff and erosion processes at the hillslope scale, the transport and retention processes of suspended and bedload fluxes in the river reaches and the retention and remobilisation processes of sediments in reservoirs. The modelling tool enables the evaluation of management options both for sustainable land-use change scenarios to reduce erosion in the headwater catchments as well as adequate reservoir management options to lessen sedimentation in large reservoirs and reservoir networks. The model concept, its spatial discretisation scheme and the numerical components of the hillslope, river and reservoir processes are described and a model application for the meso-scale dryland catchment Isábena in the Spanish Pre-Pyrenees (445 km2) is presented to demonstrate the capabilities, strengths and limits of the model framework. The example application showed that the model was able to reproduce runoff and sediment transport dynamics of highly erodible headwater badlands, the transient storage of sediments in the dryland river system, the bed elevation changes of the 93 hm3 Barasona reservoir due to sedimentation as well as the life expectancy of the reservoir under different management options. This paper was published in the Journal Geoscientific Model Development with the citation: Mueller EN, Güntner A, Francke T, Mamede G, (2010): Modelling water availability, sediment export and reservoir sedimentation in drylands with the WASA-SED model. Geosci. Model Dev., 3, 275-291, doi:10.5194/gmd-3-275-2010. Due to copyright issues, the original articles are not included in this file.

19

4 Ecohydrological modelling of land degradation in drylands: feedbacks between water, erosion, vegetation and soil

Eva Nora Müller1, Britta Tietjen 2,3,4, Laura Turnbull 5,6, John Wainwright6

1 Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25,

14476 Potsdam, Germany 2 Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstr. 6, 14195 Berlin, Germany 3 Earth System Analysis, Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, Telegraphenberg A62,

14412 Potsdam, Germany 4 Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), 14195 Berlin, Germany 5 Institute of Hazard, Risk and Resilience, Department of Geography, Durham University, Science

Laboratories, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK 6 Department of Geography, Durham University, Science Laboratories, South Road, Durham, DH1

3LE, UK Abstract:

Across vast areas of the world’s drylands, land degradation is exacerbated by ecohydrological processes, which alter the structure, function and connectivity of dryland hillslopes. These processes are often interlinked through positive feedback mechanisms in such a way that a trigger may result in a re-organisation of the affected landscape. We developed an ecohydrological process-based model, MAHLERAN-EcoHyD to further the understanding of the complex linkages between abiotic and biotic drivers and processes of degradation in drylands and to overcome a key discrepancy of previous modelling approaches regarding their temporal scaling. The coupled model is used to investigate soil-vegetation-transfer feedback mechanisms within grassland-shrubland transition zones at the Sevilleta LTER site in the south-western United States. The capabilities of the model are presented for three set-ups: first, the impact of individual high-intensity storms was scaled up to assess annual variations; second, the model was used to assess what kind of spatial changes to surface soil texture due to soil erosion by water occurred on plots with different vegetation compositions and third, it was assessed how different vegetation dynamic scenarios (static, dynamic, drought and overgrazing) affect and feedback with abiotic processes. The paper concludes with a critical discussion on ecohydrology as a discipline to study land degradation through water erosion in drylands. The study shows that the focus of future land-degradation studies may need to shift from ecohydrology as an integrative science, to ecogeomorphology in which soil-hydraulic conditions, soil formation, actions of wind, fire, animals and bioturbation and management aspects are all accounted for. This paper is in review with the Journal of Biogeosciences. Mueller EN, Tietjen B, Turnbull L, Wainwright J (2014, in review) Ecohydrological modelling of land degradation in drylands: feedbacks between water, erosion, vegetation and soil. Biogeosciences. Due to copyright issues, the original articles are not included in this file.

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5 Approaches to modelling ecogeomorphic systems

L. Turnbull 1, T. Hochstrasser2, M. Wieczorek3, A. Baas4, J.Wainwright 5, S. Scarsoglio6, B. Tietjen7, F. Jeltsch8, E. N. Mueller9

1 Institute of Hazards, Risk and Resilience, Department of Geography, Durham University, Science Laboratories, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, United Kingdom

2 School of Biology and Environment Science, University College Dublin, Science Centre – West, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland

3 Geosciences, Alfred Wegener Institute, Telegrafenberg A43, D-14473 Potsdam, Germany 4 Department of Geography, King’s College London, Strand Campus, London, WC2R 2LS, United

Kingdom 5 Department of Geography, Durham University, Science Laboratories, South Road, Durham, DH1

3LE, United Kingdom 6 Dipartimento di Idraulica, Trasporti ed Infrastrutture Civili, University of Turin, 10129 Torino, Italy 7 Institute of Biology, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstr. 6, D- 14195 Berlin, Germany 8 Plant Ecology and Nature Conservation, University of Potsdam, 14469 Potsdam, Germany 9 Institute of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Potsdam, 14476 Potsdam, Germany Abstract:

The effects of drivers and disturbances on system processes in drylands are not necessarily additive and are often non-linear. Therefore, to understand the effects of different combinations of drivers and disturbances on land degradation dynamics, novel tools are required. In this chapter we explore different modelling approaches that have been developed to simulate individual ecological or geomorphic processes, including deterministic and stochastic models of pattern formation, and multiple models that simulate ecological or geomorphic processes. The chapter culminates with a discussion of these different modelling approaches and how they provide a foundation upon which to develop much needed ecogeomorphic modelling tools. Ultimately, if pattern is important in understanding land degradation in drylands, only limited understanding can be gained by using detailed models that do not, or cannot represent pattern, or by looking at models that look at patterns, but not the processes in operation. In developing ecogeomorphic modelling tools, it is critical that these different approaches to pattern and processes are brought together. This paper was published as a chapter and a Springer e-book article with the citation: Turnbull L, Hochstrasser T, Wieczorek M, Baas A, Wainwright J, Scarsoglio S, Tietjen B, Jeltsch F & Mueller EN (2013) Approaches to modelling ecogeomorphic systems. In: Mueller EN, Wainwright J, Parsons AJ & Turnbull L (2013) Patterns of Land Degradation in Drylands: Understanding Self-Organised Ecogeomorphic Systems. Springer, Utrecht. Due to copyright issues, the original articles are not included in this file.

21

Part III: Ecohydrological

responses resulting in

ecosystem stabilisation and

degradation

22

6 Modelling the effects of land-use change on runoff and sediment yield for a meso-scale catchment in the Southern Pyrenees

Eva Nora Mueller1, Till Francke1, Ramon J. Batalla2,3, Axel Bronstert1 1 Institute of Geoecology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, 14476 Potsdam,

Germany. 2 Department of Environmental and Soil Sciences, University of Lleida, Alcalde Rovira Roure 191,

25198 Lleida, Catalonia, Spain 3 Forestry and Technology Centre of Catalonia, Carretera de Sant de Llorenç de Morunys km 2,

25284 Solsona, Catalonia, Spain

Abstract:

The Southern Pre-Pyrenees experienced a substantial land-use change over the second half of the 20th century owing to the reduction of agricultural activities towards the formation of a more natural forest landscape. The land-use change over the last 50 years with subsequent effects on water and sediment export was modelled with the process-based, spatially semi-distributed WASA-SED model for the meso-scale Canalda catchment in Catalonia, Spain. It was forwarded that the model yielded plausible results for runoff and sediment yield dynamics without the need of calibration, although the model failed to reproduce the shape of the hydrograph and the total discharge of several individual rainstorm events, hence the simulation capabilities are not yet considered sufficient for decision-making purposes for land management. As there are only a very limited amount of measured data available on sediment budgets with altered land-use and climate change settings, the WASA-SED model was used to obtain qualitative estimates on the effects of past and future change scenarios to derive a baseline for hypothesis building and future discussion on the evolution of sediment budgets in such a dryland setting. Simulating the effects of the past land-use change, the model scenarios resulted in a decrease of up to 75% of the annual sediment yield, whereas modelled runoff remained almost constant over the last 50 years. The relative importance of environmental change was evaluated by comparing the impact on sediment export of land-use change, that are driven by socio-economic factors, with climate change projections for changes in the rainfall regime. The modelling results suggest that a 20% decrease in annual rainfall results in a decrease in runoff and sediment yield, thus an ecosystem stabilisation in regard to sediment export, which can only be achieved by a substantial land-use change equivalent to a complete afforestation. At the same time, a 20% increase in rainfall causes a large export of water and sediment resources out of the catchment, equivalent to an intensive agricultural use of 100% of the catchment area. For wet years, the effects of agricultural intensification are more pronounced, so that in this case the intensive land-use change has a significantly larger impact on sediment generation than climate change. The WASA-SED model proved capable in quantifying the impacts of actual and potential environmental change, but the reliability of the simulation results is still circumscribed by considerable parameterisation and model uncertainties. This paper was published in the Journal CATENA with the citation: Mueller EN, Batalla RJ, Francke T, Bronstert A (2009) Modelling the effects of land-use change on runoff and sediment yield for a meso-scale catchment in the Southern Pyrenees, CATENA 79: 103-111 Due to copyright issues, the original articles are not included in this file. .

23

7 Modelling bedload rates from fine grain-size patches during small floods in a gravel-bed river

E.N. Mueller1, R.J. Batalla2,3, C. Garcia4, A. Bronstert1

1 Institute of Geoecology, University of Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24-25, 14476 Golm, Germany 2 Department of Environment and Soil Sciences, University of Lleida, 25918 Lleida, Catalonia, Spain, 3 Forest and Technology Centre of Catalonia, 25280 Solsona, Catalonia, Spain 4 Department of Earth Sciences, University of the Balearic Islands, 07122 Palma de Mallorca, Spain

Abstract:

This study investigates the applicability of five bedload-transport formulae (the Meyer-Peter and Müller, Schoklitsch, Bagnold, Smart and Jaeggi, and Rickenmann equations) to predict bedload transport rates of frequent, low-magnitude flood events (maximal bankfull discharge) for a mountainous, poorly sorted gravel-bed river characterised by a bimodal sediment-size distribution and spatially distributed patches. For model parameterisation, special emphasis was placed on the spatial composition of the grain-size distribution (hereafter GSD) to evaluate the impact of preferential removal of sediments from patches with finer sediments on bedload transport. Three parameterisation approaches to the choice of an appropriate sediment size that considered the apparent bimodality of the GSD to varying degrees were tested. The modelling study demonstrated that the incorporation of spatial structure of GSD and its bimodal character has an important impact on model performance - a unimodal parameterisation failed to reproduce measured bedload rates for all tested bedload formulae; a threshold parameterisation approach that considered only finer sediments from the small patches as bedload source material in combination with the Schoklitsch, Smart and Jaeggi and Rickenmann equations yielded the best results, whereas the Meyer-Peter and Müller and the Bagnold equations failed to predict bedload rates for all parameterisation approaches. The modelling study thus showed that bedload formulae are sensitive to the spatial structure of the GSD which should not be treated as a continuum of sediment size fractions but rather as composition of finer sediment patches to enable an adequate reproduction of measured bedload data from low-magnitude floods in gravel-bed rivers. This paper was published in the Journal of Hydraulic Engineering with the citation: Müller EN, Batalla RJ, Garcia C, Bronstert A, (2008): Modelling bed-load rates from fine grain-size patches during small floods in a gravel-bed river, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 134, 1430-1439. Due to copyright issues, the original articles are not included in this file.

24

8 The Brazilian Cerrado: Assessment of water and soil degradation in catchments under intensive agricultural use

Philip Hunke1, Boris Schröder2,3, Peter Zeilhofer4, Eva Nora Müller1 1 University of Potsdam, Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Hydrology/Climatology,

Germany (philip.hunke@googlemail.com) 2 Technische Universität Braunschweig, Environmental Systems Analysis, Braunschweig, Germany 3 Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research BBIB Berlin, Germany 4 Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso – UFMT, Departamento de Geografia, Cuiabá-MT, Brasil Abstract:

The Brazilian Cerrado is recognized as one of the most threatened biomes of the world, as the region has faced a striking change from natural Cerrado vegetation to one of the top regions of the world’s cash crop production. This paper reviews the history of land conversion in the Cerrado as well as the development of soil properties and water resources under past and ongoing land use and climate change. We compared soil and water quality parameters from different land uses considering 80 soil and 15 water studies conducted in different regions across the Cerrado in order to give quantitative evidence of soil and water alterations from land use change. Following the conversion of native Cerrado, we found significant effects on soil pH, bulk density, and extractable P and K for croplands, and less pronounced effects for pastures. Soil N did not differ between the land uses, since most of the sites classified as cropland were nitrogen-fixing soybeans. Water quality studies showed nutrient enrichment in agricultural catchments with potential susceptibility to eutrophication. Regardless of land use, P is widely absent because of the high fixing capacities of deeply weathered soils and the filtering capacity of riparian vegetation. Pesticides, however, were consistently detected in the entire aquatic system. In several case studies, extremely high peak concentrations exceeded Brazilian and EU water quality limits and were potentially accompanied by serious health implications. As land use intensification is likely to continue, especially in regions where less annual rainfall and severe droughts are projected in the northeastern -and western part of the Cerrado, the leaching risk and displacement of agrochemicals are expected to increase, especially as current legislation reduces riparian vegetation. We conclude that the combined effects of land use intensification and climate change are likely to seriously limit the Cerrado’s future productivity and ecosystem stability. Since only limited data are available, we recommend further field studies to understand the interaction between terrestrial and aquatic systems. This study may serve as a valuable database for integrated modelling to investigate the impact of land use and climate change on soil and water resources and to test and develop mitigation measures for the Cerrado. This paper is in review with the Journal Ecohydrology. Philip Hunke, Boris Schröder, Peter Zeilhofer, Eva Nora Müller (2015). The Brazilian Cerrado: Assessment of water and soil degradation in catchments under intensive agricultural use. Ecohydrology Due to copyright issues, the original articles are not included in this file.

25

9 Quantification of soil and water degradation as a result of rapid land-use change in a mesoscale catchment in the Cerrado of Mato Grosso, Brazil

Philip Hunke1, Rebekka Roller1, Peter Zeilhofer2, Boris Schröder3,4, Eva Nora Mueller1

1 University of Potsdam, Institute of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Hydrology/Climatology, Germany

2 Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso – UFMT, Departamento de Geografia, Cuiabá-MT, Brasil 3 Technische Universität Braunschweig, Institute of Geoecology, Environmental Systems Analysis,

Braunschweig, Germany 4 Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research BBIB Berlin, Germany

Abstract:

South America’s Cerrado biome has experienced a rapid land use change from natural forest savannah to croplands and pastures over the last three decades. Especially in the federal state of Mato Grosso, the deforestation of native vegetation has increased in the last decades, however, there is little information available about how land use intensification in concert with enormous soil correction measures such as liming and fertilizer application have altered the biogeochemistry of soil and water resources of meso-scale catchments. The aim of this study was therefore to assess how land use change from natural Cerrado to agricultural production has affected soil physical, hydrological and biogeochemical properties and processes at the hillslope scale and subsequently water quality at the meso-scale. The specific objectives of the field study were (1) to examine the effects of land use change from natural Cerrado to the most common croplands (soybean/cotton/maize rotation and sugarcane) and to pasture on texture, soil aggregate stability, infiltrability, saturated hydraulic conductivity (Ksat), pH, and soil nutrients (NPK); and (2) to determine the impact of agricultural production on water quality by examining its seasonal pattern and the spatial distribution of water quality parameters across a meso-scale catchment.

The results showed that land conversion significantly reduced near surface (0-40 cm) infiltration rates under pasture (-96 %) and croplands (-90 % to -93 %). On cropland sites soil aggregate stability was significantly lower than under Cerrado and pasture. Topsoil pH and nutrient concentrations were elevated under croplands and pasture with extreme high extractable P concentrations (80 mg kg-1) under soybeans (9 times natural background); pastures showed a decline in N. Nutrient accumulation to deeper horizons was not observed for N and P for any land use. The snapshot water sampling showed a strong seasonality of water quality parameters with higher temperature, oxi-reduction potential (ORP) NO2

- and very low oxygen concentrations and oxygen saturations in the wet season. In the dry season, remarkably high concentrations of PO4

3- were measured. A spatial pattern was not observed as the water quality parameters showed agricultural impact at all sampled sub-catchments across the meso-scale catchment regardless of stream characteristics (stream order, percentage of riparian vegetation, sub-catchment size). In conclusion, land use conversion degraded soil physical properties, leaving cropland soils more susceptible to surface erosion with potential lateral nutrient transport to the stream network. Direct NO3

- leaching appeared to play a minor role; however, water quality is affected by agricultural non-point sources due to topsoil fertilizer inputs with effects across the whole catchment, from small low order streams to the larger rivers of the modified catchment.

This paper was submitted to the Journal Geoderma Regional. Philip Hunke, Rebekka Roller, Peter Zeilhofer, Boris Schröder, Eva Nora Mueller (2015) Quantification of soil and water degradation as a result of rapid land-use change in a mesoscale catchment in the Cerrado of Mato Grosso, Brazil, Geoderma Regional Due to copyright issues, the original articles are not included in this file.

26

Part IV: Key Challenges and

Conclusion

27

10 Scales, topics, feedbacks and key challenges of ecohydrological research from a German perspective (in German)

Skalen, Schwerpunkte, Rückkopplungen und Herausforderungen der ökohydrologischen Forschung in Deutschland

Eva Nora Müller1, Loes van Schaik1,2, Theresa Blume3, Axel Bronstert1, Jana Carus1,2, Jan Fleckenstein4, Nicola Fohrer5, Katja Geißler6, Horst H. Gerke7, Thomas Graeff1, Cornelia Hesse8, Anke Hildebrandt9, Franz Hölker10, Philip Hunke1, Katrin Körner 6, Jörg Lewandowski10, Dirk Lohmann 6, Karin Meinikmann 10, Anett Schibalski1, Britta Schmalz5, Boris Schröder2,11, Britta Tietjen 12

1 Institut für Erd- und Umweltwissenschaften, Universität Potsdam, Karl-Liebknecht-Str. 24, 14476 Potsdam

2 Umweltsystemanalyse, Institut für Geoökologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Langer Kamp 19c, 38106 Braunschweig

3 GFZ Deutsches GeoForschungsZentrum, Sektion Hydrologie, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam 4 Helmholtz Zentrum für Umweltforschung – UFZ, Department Hydrogeologie, Permoserstr. 15,

04318 Leipzig 5 Abteilung Hydrologie und Wasserwirtschaft, Institut für Natur- und Ressourcenschutz, Christian-

Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel, Olshausenstr. 75, 24118 Kiel 6 Institut für Biochemie und Biologie, Vegetationsökologie und Naturschutz, Maulbeerallee 3, 14469

Potsdam 7 Leibniz-Zentrum für Agrarlandschaftsforschung (ZALF) e. V. Müncheberg, Institut für

Bodenlandschaftsforschung, Eberswalder Straße 84, D-15374 Müncheberg 8 Potsdam-Institut für Klimafolgenforschung, Telgrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam 9 Ökologische Modellierung, Institut für Geowissenschaften, Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena,

Burgweg 11, 07749 Jena 10 Leibniz-Institut für Gewässerökologie und Binnenfischerei, Abteilung Ökohydrologie,

Müggelseedamm 310, 12587 Berlin 11 Berlin-Brandenburg Institute of Advanced Biodiversity Research (BBIB), 14195 Berlin 12 Institut für Biologie, Freie Universität Berlin, Altensteinstr. 6, 14195 Berlin Abstract:

Ecohydrology analyses the interactions of biotic and abiotic aspects of our ecosystems and landscapes and is a particularly diverse discipline regarding thematic and methodical research foci. This article gives an overview of current German ecohydrological research approaches within plant-animal-soil-systems, meso-scale catchments and their river networks, lake systems, coastal areas and tidal rivers and discusses their relevant spatial and temporal process scales and different types of interactions and feedback dynamics between hydrological and biotic processes and patterns. Key challenges were identified to be the innovative analysis of the interdisciplinary scale continuum, the development of dynamically coupled model systems, the integrated monitoring of coupled processes at the interface and the transition from basic to applied ecohydrological science for the development of sustainable water and land resource management strategies under regional and global change. This paper was accepted for publication in the Journal Hydrologie und Wasserbewirtschaftung in May 2014 with the citation: Eva Nora Müller et al. (2014, in press) Scales, topics, feedbacks and key challenges of ecohydrological research from a German perspective. Hydrologie und Wasserbewirtschaftung

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11 Land degradation in drylands: reёvaluating pattern-process interrelationships and the role of ecogeomorphology

E. N. Mueller1, J. Wainwright2, A.J. Parsons3, L. Turnbull 4, J.D.A. Millington 5, V. P. Papanastasis6

1 Institute of Earth and Environmental Science, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany 2 Department of Geography, Durham University, Science Laboratories, Durham, United Kingdom 3 Department of Geography, University of Sheffield, Winter Street, Sheffield, United Kingdom 4 Institute of Hazards, Risk and Resilience, Department of Geography, Durham University, Science

Laboratories, Durham, United Kingdom 5 Department of Geography, King’s College London, Strand, London, United Kingdom 6 Laboratory of Range Ecology, Aristotle University, Thessaloniki, Greece

Abstract:

In this study we argued that improved understanding of land degradation in drylands needs a problem-centred multidisciplinary approach. Specifically, we have argued for an ecogeomorphic approach. In this concluding chapter we review successes and shortcomings of this approach, and identify key challenges that need to be overcome, and present the conceptual and methodological advances that need to be made to overcome these challenges. There has been a wealth of research investigating patterns and processes separately at small spatial scales, and, some advances in linking ecology and geomorphology have been made. However, there remains little in the way of true integration across the disciplines that deal with both ecogeomorphic patterns and processes. To overcome this weakness, it is imperative that the lessons of ecology are learned – to value truly coupled eco-hydro-geomorphic studies, in which biogeochemistry, plants, geomorphology, soils, and hydrology are all well represented and experimentally manipulated – and that the lessons of geomorphology and hydrology are learned: to value observational studies in which ecological measurements are coupled with hydrological and geomorphological measurements, and the role of exogenous forces is explicitly recognized. No one approach will be applicable to understanding land degradation in drylands. Unique settings, both biophysical and cultural, mean that the solutions to land degradation differ from place to place. Furthermore, evolutionary changes in drylands – degraded or otherwise – mean that methodological approaches employed to study the system may need to be fluid. We conclude the chapter by identifying five key challenges for land degradation studies in drylands. First, a common language needs to be developed. Secondly, the problem of scale and scale interactions needs to be overcome. Thirdly, the lessons of complexity science need to be accepted and acted upon. Fourthly, the understanding of the interactions of ecogeomorphic processes and people needs to be improved. Fifthly, management strategies for combatting land degradation in drylands need to be developed taking account of scientific advances, but not waiting for an “ultimate solution” that will never arrive. This paper was published as a chapter and a Springer e-book article with the citation: Mueller EN, Wainwright J, Parsons AJ, Turnbull L, Millington JDA, Papanastasis VP (2013) Land degradation in drylands: reёvaluating pattern-process interrelationships and the role of ecogeomorphology. In: Mueller EN, Wainwright J, Parsons AJ & Turnbull L (2013) Patterns of Land Degradation in Drylands: Understanding Self-Organised Ecogeomorphic Systems. Springer, Utrecht. Due to copyright issues, the original articles are not included in this file.

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12 Conclusion

This final chapter provides a summary and a discussion on the main findings and conclusions reached from this research, followed by recommendations for future work.

12.1 Main findings and key theses

This study sought to contribute to the comprehension of the impacts of land-use change of agricultural fields on the ecohydrological functioning, interactions and transfer processes resulting in water and soil degradation within meso-scale catchments. Ten objectives were defined at the end of Chapter 1, which were broadly bundled into three core topics: ecohydrological modelling approaches (Part II), ecohydrological responses and feedbacks resulting in ecosystem change (Part III), and conceptual developments (Part IV). In order to discuss the main conclusions of this research, each of the objectives will be taken in turn. Objective 1: Trend analysis in the occurrence of high-intensity storms relevant for the generation of soil erosion.

Rainfall time series with a high temporal resolution of one minute for the Emscher-Lippe catchment area were analysed for trends in regard to erosion-relevant storm events with intensities larger than 0.3 mm/min for the last 70 years using the Mann-Kendall test. The analysis data showed for all investigated stations an increase of rainstorm events with erosion-relevant rainfall intensities; the trend was more pronounced over the last 35 years and was shown to be statistical significant for a critical zone with rainfall characteristics of: intensity iRain=0.3-0.7 mm/min, duration tRain=2-10 min and depth hRain=1-3 mm.

This study has shown for the first time that the rainfall regime for temperate lowland regions in Germany has changed within its erosion-relevant spectrum over the last couple of decades. A climate-change driven increase of rain storm events over the last couple of decades and a potential future continuation of this trend may have several adverse effects for the study area and potentially for a larger region in central Europe, for example an increase of soil erosion on slopes, the depletion of soil nutrients, an increased transport of nutrients and contaminants attached to sediment particles, their transfer into surface water bodies and consequential negative effects on stream habitats. . The general validity of this proposition should be investigated for more, high-resolution rainfall time series for the macro region of central Germany / Europe and ideally for other locations around the globe. Yet, this might prove very difficult as time series with a comparable resolution and length are normally not available. Objective 2: Development of a meso-scale model for sediment export, retention and reservoir sedimentation from erosion hotspots in drylands.

The semi-process-based, spatially semi-distributed modelling framework WASA-SED was developed for water and sediment transport in large dryland catchments: it simulates the runoff and erosion processes at the hillslope scale, the transport and retention processes of suspended and bedload fluxes in the river reaches and the retention and remobilisation processes of sediments in reservoirs. The modelling tool enables the evaluation of management options both for sustainable land-use change scenarios to reduce erosion in the headwater catchments as well as adequate reservoir management options to lessen sedimentation in large reservoirs and reservoir networks.

The model concept, its spatial discretisation scheme and the numerical components of the hillslope, river and reservoir processes were tested for the meso-scale dryland catchment Isábena in the Spanish Pre-Pyrenees (445 km2) to demonstrate the capabilities, strengths and limits of the model framework. The example application showed that the model was able to reproduce runoff and sediment transport dynamics of highly erodible headwater badlands, the transient storage of sediments in the dryland river system, the bed elevation changes of the 93 hm3 Barasona reservoir due to sedimentation as well as the life expectancy of the reservoir under different management options.

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Objective 3: Development of an ecohydrological model of land degradation in drylands that implicitly contains feedbacks between water, erosion, vegetation and soil.

An ecohydrological, process-based model, Mahleran-EcoHyD, was developed to further the understanding of the complex linkages between abiotic and biotic drivers and processes of degradation in drylands and to overcome a key discrepancy of previous modelling approaches regarding their temporal scaling. The coupled model was used to investigate soil-vegetation-transfer feedback mechanisms within grassland-shrubland transition zones at the Sevilleta LTER site in the south-western United States. The capabilities of the model were presented for three set-ups: first, the impact of individual high-intensity storms was scaled up to assess annual variations; second, the model was used to assess what kind of spatial changes to surface soil texture due to soil erosion by water occurred on plots with different vegetation compositions and third, it was assessed how different vegetation dynamic scenarios (static, dynamic, drought and overgrazing) affect and feedback with abiotic processes. The study concluded with a critical discussion on ecohydrology as a discipline to study land degradation through water erosion in drylands. The study showed that the focus of future land-degradation studies may need to shift from ecohydrology as an integrative science, to ecogeomorphology in which soil-hydraulic conditions, soil formation, actions of wind, fire, animals and bioturbation and management aspects are all accounted for. Objective 4: Review and conceptual discussion of current ecohydrological and ecogeomorphic modelling approaches

The review chapter was the conceptual extension of the previous objective: the need to move from a mere ecohydrological modelling perspective to an ecogeomorphic one. Ecogeomorphic modelling should not only include descriptions of hydrological state variables, but would also include numerical information on drivers, disturbances and processes due to changes in soil-formation and structure, the effect of fire, wind and landforms as well as biogeochemical processes. Different approaches to simulate elements of dryland ecosystems associated with land degradation were explored: deterministic and stochastic modelling approaches of pattern formation and process-specific modelling approaches were explored - both ecological and geomorphic, including finite difference and finite element approaches, and rule-based approaches such as cellular automata (CA) models. These different modelling approaches were then discussed, in terms of how they reproduce patterns of land degradation and to which extent they can be used to provide a foundation upon which to develop the much needed fully-integrated and coupled ecogeomorphic modelling approaches. In conclusion, if pattern is important in understanding land degradation in drylands, we can only gain limited understanding by using detailed models that do not, or cannot represent pattern, or by looking at models that look at patterns, but not the processes in operation. In developing ecogeomorphic models, either by coupling or integrating models, these different perspectives need to be brought together. Critically, the ecogeomorphic modelling and field experimentation need to be carried out in tandem, with field experimentation informing the conceptualization and development of ecogeomorphic models, and ecogeomorphic models servicing as a tool to benefit the design of a new generation of ecogeomorphic field experiments to help resolve the remaining unknowns of pattern-process linkages in drylands. Objective 5: Quantification of the effects of land-use change on runoff and sediment yield for a meso-scale catchment in the Southern Pyrenees

The land-use change over the last 50-70 years with subsequent effects on water and sediment export was modelled with the process-based, spatially semi-distributed WASA-SED model for the meso-scale Canalda catchment in Catalonia, Spain. The model scenarios suggest a decrease of up to 75% of the annual sediment yield, whereas modelled runoff remained almost constant over the last 50 years. The relative importance of environmental change was evaluated by comparing the impact on sediment export of land-use change, that are driven by socio-economic factors, with climate change projections for changes in the rainfall regime. The modelling results suggest that a 20% decrease in annual rainfall results in a decrease in runoff and sediment yield, thus an ecosystem stabilisation in regard to sediment export, which can only be achieved by a substantial land-use change equivalent to a complete afforestation. At the same time, a 20% increase in rainfall causes a large export of water and sediment resources out of the catchment, equivalent to an intensive agricultural use of 100% of the catchment area. For wet years, the effects of agricultural intensification are more pronounced, so that in this case the intensive land-use change has a significantly larger impact on sediment generation than climate change. The WASA-SED model proved capable in quantifying the impacts of actual and potential environmental

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change, but the reliability of the simulation results is still circumscribed by considerable parameterisation and model uncertainties. Objective 6: Quantification of bedload-rates from fine grain-size patches during small floods in a gravel-bed river experiencing land-use change in the Pre-Pyrenees The modelling study on bedload transport showed that bedload formulae are sensitive to the spatial structure of the grain size distribution (GSD) which should not be treated as a continuum of sediment size fractions but rather as composition of finer sediment patches to enable an adequate reproduction of measured bedload data from low-magnitude floods in gravel-bed rivers. Three parameterisation approaches to the choice of an appropriate sediment size that considered the apparent bimodality of the GSD to varying degrees were tested for five bedload-transport formulae (the Meyer-Peter and Müller, Schoklitsch, Bagnold, Smart and Jaeggi, and Rickenmann equations). The modelling study demonstrated that the incorporation of spatial structure of GSD and its bimodal character has an important impact on model performance - a unimodal parameterisation failed to reproduce measured bedload rates for all tested bedload formulae; a threshold parameterisation approach that considered only finer sediments from the small patches as bedload source material in combination with the Schoklitsch, Smart and Jaeggi and Rickenmann equations yielded the best results, whereas the Meyer-Peter and Müller and the Bagnold equations failed to predict bedload rates for all parameterisation approaches. Objective 7: Meta-analysis of water and soil degradation in heavily modified catchment in the Brazilian Cerrado.

80 soil studies and 15 water studies conducted in different regions across the Cerrado were reviewed to assess soil and water quality changes due to the rapid land-use change of the region over the last 30 years. Following the conversion of native Cerrado, significant effects were found on soil pH, bulk density, and extractable P and K for croplands, and less pronounced effects for pastures. Water quality studies showed nutrient enrichment in agricultural catchments with potential susceptibility to eutrophication. Regardless of land use, P is widely absent because of the high fixing capacities of deeply weathered soils and the filtering capacity of riparian vegetation. Pesticides, however, were consistently detected in the entire aquatic system. As land use intensification is likely to continue, especially in regions where less annual rainfall and severe droughts are projected in the northeastern -and western part of the Cerrado, the leaching risk and displacement of agrochemicals are expected to increase, especially as current legislation reduces riparian vegetation. It was concluded that the combined effects of future land use intensification and climate change are likely to seriously limit the Cerrado’s future productivity and ecosystem stability. Objective 8: Quantification of soil and water degradation as a result of rapid land-use change in a meso-scale catchment in the Cerrado of Mato Grosso, Brazil.

The field study has shown that over a relatively short period of 20 to 30 years several soil physical and biogeochemical properties have changed significantly in a former Cerrado catchment due to a heavily modified land-use. The most pronounced effects occurred on the soybean plot including a) a significantly decrease of infiltration rate, b) a significant decrease of soil aggregate stability and c) a significant increase of K at all sampled soil depths and very high topsoil P concentration, however no accumulation of P into deeper horizons. Under pastures, the effects on soil properties for pH, K and P concentrations were less pronounced but showed compared to the natural Cerrado site a significant loss of N in the entire soil profile.

All altered land uses showed a strongly decrease in soil permeability (infiltration and Ksat), which is likely associated with the occurrence of frequent overland flow events, a decrease of soil moisture in deeper horizons,, accelerated erosion on the agricultural fields accompanied by the formation of gullies, depletion of nutrients on the field and nutrient export (dissolved and particular-bound) into the streams. The water snapshot sampling across the modified catchment showed a strong seasonality of water quality parameters with higher temperature, ORP, NO2 and very low oxygen concentrations and oxygen saturations in the wet season. In the dry season remarkably high concentrations of PO4 were measured.

This research attempted to link impacts from land use change on soil physical and chemical properties and their effects on water quality across a meso-scale agricultural catchment. The soil results give a clear picture of the current degradation status of the sampled fields, whereas the snapshot sampling of the river system provided only a first insight into the biogeochemical behaviour of the

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catchment and several severe limitations became apparent. Due to the limited number of water samples and the short sampling period, high uncertainty remains about the spatial and temporal pattern of water quality and the high PO43- nutrient concentrations in the dry season. Further samplings is required that should focus on direct measurements of overland flow generation and related nutrient concentrations on the agricultural fields and within in the seemingly extended gully system whose role as a key connector between the terrestrial and aquatic system has to this point not been studied for the Cerrado.

Objective 9: Review of scales, topics, feedbacks and discussion of the key challenges of ecohydrological research from a German perspective.

The review study gave a comprehensive overview of current ecohydrological modelling approaches and process study across the entire field of the science discipline ecohydrology. A meta-analysis of relevant process scale ranges of all projects showed that the investigated ecohydrological processes cover a much larger time-space continuum than the traditional hydrological or ecological ones. The individual hydrological and ecological scale ranges of an ecohydrological feedback are often even unlikely to overlap. One of the key challenges of ecohydrological research appears to be a novel conceptualisation of the coupled scale ranges both in space and time. Linked to the treatment of scale is the development of coupled models: one of the key questions is processes at which scale should be included in a fully dynamic model to enable the incorporation of feedback dynamics. Both integrated modelling and integrated monitoring need to contribute to the transition of ecohydrology from a basic to an applied science to further the development of sustainable water and land resource management strategies under regional and global change.

Objective 10: Re-evaluation of pattern-process interrelationships and the role of ecogeomorphology for the study of land degradation

There has been a wealth of research investigating patterns and processes separately at small spatial scales, and, some advances in linking ecology, hydrology and geomorphology have been made. However, there remains little in the way of true integration across the disciplines that deal with both ecohydrological/ecogeomorphic patterns and processes. To overcome this weakness, it is imperative that the lessons of ecology are learned – to value truly coupled eco-hydro-geomorphic studies, in which biogeochemistry, plants, geomorphology, soils, and hydrology are all well represented and experimentally manipulated – and that the lessons of geomorphology and hydrology are learned: to value observational studies in which ecological measurements are coupled with hydrological and geomorphological measurements, and the role of exogenous forces is explicitly recognized. No one approach will be applicable to understanding land degradation in drylands. Unique settings, both biophysical and cultural, mean that the solutions to land degradation differ from place to place. Furthermore, evolutionary changes in drylands – degraded or otherwise – mean that methodological approaches employed to study the system may need to be fluid. Five key challenges were identified for land degradation studies, which go beyond the previously stated key challenges of objective 9. First, a common language needs to be developed. Secondly, the problem of scale and scale interactions needs to be overcome. Thirdly, the lessons of complexity science need to be accepted and acted upon. Fourthly, the understanding of the interactions of ecogeomorphic processes and people needs to be improved. Fifthly, management strategies for combating land degradation in drylands need to be developed taking account of scientific advances, but not waiting for an “ultimate solution” that will never arrive.

The aim of this habilitation was to evaluate the impacts of land-use change of agricultural fields on

the ecohydrological functioning, interactions and transfer processes resulting in water and soil degradation within meso-scale catchments with specific focus on high-intensity storms. Land-use change was discussed through out this thesis as a nonlinear, multi-disciplinary process which requires an equally complex, interdisciplinary approach to monitor, model and analyse. Ecohydrological models with feedbacks can be used for hypothesis testing at the hillslope scale, but they appear to be too time-consuming in regard to computing time to be employed at the meso-scale. Cascade models work better at the meso-scale to assess both the management of land-use and the impacts of climate change scenarios, but there is the danger that they dysfunction by neglecting some critical interactions of soil-water-vegetation processes at the hillslope scale.

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Water and soil management agendas was presented for three diverse ecosystems (Mediterranean Pre-Pyrenees, Cerrado, Chihuahuan Desert) taking into account hydrological, geomorphological and ecological perceptions. The later included mainly vegetation processes by taking into account the process interactions between soil hydrology, soil chemistry and water quality with type and cover of diverse vegetation. Effects of fauna were mostly disregarded in this study, although they are thought to play a critical role in influencing soil hydrology and are thought to be responsible in creating hydrological patterns through-out a catchment. Westbrook et al. (2013) discusses this missing link in current ecohydrological research in detail; and some exciting work on the feedbacks between bioactivity and spatial heterogeneity of water storage and fluxes is currently conducted by e.g. Schaik et al. (2013).

Ecohydrology as a science field includes both flora and fauna, but disregards in its modelling and

monitoring schemes the humans as normally very (inter)active members of an ecosystem. For a really integrated approach of water and soil management we will need to go beyond mere ecohydrology, but need to include the human dimension into our research framework. One innovative way of achieving an integrated water and soil management could be the dynamic linking of process-based ecohydrological models to the functioning of the public domain such as water and land users, farmers, stakeholders and policy makers from institutions and environmental protection agencies. So far, only very few studies have attempted to do so (e.g. Saqalli et al., 2010 or Tsegaye and Vairavamoorthy, 2011), and those studies failed to include real feedback dynamics.

I therefore define as a key challenge the need to develop a conceptual approach on how to merry the

use of nonlinear differential equations to describe our environment with the advancements of artificial intelligence to portray multi-agent behaviour to achieve a sustainable water and soil management under local and global change.

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