Rosemarie G. Edillon, Ph.D., ceso iUndersecretary

Policy and Planning Group

National Economic and Development Authority

THE DETERMINANTS OF FEMALE LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION IN THE PHILIPPINES

Emily Cabegin, Ph.D. and Rebecca Gaddi, Ph.D.

The Life We Want

2

Strongly-bonded relationshipsMATATAG

Family is together Time with friends Work-life balance Strong sense of community

Secure futurePANATAG

Enough Resources for day-to-day needs and unexpected expenses

Peace and security Long and healthy life Comfortable retirement

Comfortable lifestyleMAGINHAWA

Free from hunger and poverty

Comfortable house with secure long-term tenure

Good transport Travel and vacation

OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

Determine factors that determine a woman’s decision to participate in the labor market using quantitative and qualitative approaches.

•General • Specific

• Describe trends and patterns in male and female employment

• Assess the micro-determinants

• Determine effects of cultural factors and social norms

• Identify statistical issues in fully capturing the contribution of women

• Provide policy/program recommendations

EMPIRICAL MODELS

1) The probit model of labor force participation

2) The multinomial probit model of employment states

EMPIRICAL MODELS

1 - unemployed2 - paid employee in government3 - paid employee in private establishment4 - paid employee in private household, family business, or farm5 - informal sector

EMPIRICAL MODELS

3) Cultural determinants of female employment status

Where Y participation in the labor force;X individual-level demographic and socioeconomic variables;C culture/religion;M exposure to media; andZ regional-level variables

Labor Force Participation Rate (LFPR), by sex (1995-2018)

Female Labor Force Participation Rate by Region, 2010-2017

Per Capita GRDP and Female LFPR (2016)

Labor force participation rate (%)

Per

Cap

ital

GR

DP

(0

00

)

Labor Force participation Rate (%)

Per Capita GRDP and Female LFPR (2016)Pe

r C

apit

al G

RD

P (

00

0)

NCR

MIMAROPA

ARMM

CENTRAL VISAYAS

NORTHERN MINDANAO

DAVAO REGION

Descriptive Statistics

Variable Female Male

Not in the LF 51.35 26.70

Unemployed 1.18 1.72

Paid employed (private est) 15.86 38.41

Paid employment (govt) 6.02 4.86

Paid employment (hh, family farm 5.70 1.25

Informal sector 19.89 27.06

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS (SURVEY)

Characteristic Women Men

Had college degree 20% 14%

Completed secondary education

39% 50%

Attending school 14% 14%

Average family size 6 6

With children 3 yrs old and below

30% 28%

With children 7-12yrs old 25% 25%

Findings

Determinants of the Labor Force Participation

AGE

PREDICTED PROBABILITY OF LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION BY SEX

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Men’s LFPR higher than women across working life cycle, with widest gaps in women’s childbearing ages of 20 to 39 years old.

Gender gap in narrows down in the forties; attaining greater convergence in phasing out years to retirement.

EDUCATION

PREDICTED PROBABILITY OF LABOR FORCE PARTICIPATION, BY EDUCATION AND SEX A female college graduate’s likelihood to

participate in the labor force is 7 percentage points higher relative to those with primary education; about 10 percentage highercompared to those with high schooleducation and 14 percentage points higher relative to those with some college education.

Effect of a tertiary education on increasing labor force participation is significantly stronger for women than for men.

Determinants of Class of Worker

EDUCATION

Predicted Choice Probability of Class of Worker, by Education, Female sample

EDUCATIONPredicted Choice Probability of Class of Worker

, by Education, Male sample

MARITAL STATUS

Predicted Probability of Class of Worker by Marital Status, Female sample

Predicted Probability of Class of Workerby Marital Status, Male sample

Cultural Determinants of Female Employment Status

Marginal Effects from Probit Estimates of the Effect of Culture on Women Employment Status

Education Married Women Sample All Women Sample

Elementary undergraduate (reference category) (reference category)

Elementary graduate -4% -1.5%

High school undergraduate 3% -7%

High school graduate 5% 3%

College undergraduate 6% -4%

College graduate 54% 21%

Marginal Effects from Probit Estimates of the Effect of Culture on Women Employment Status

Patriarchy Index Married Women Sample

Low (Reference Category)

Moderate -8%

High -13%

Marginal Effects from Probit Estimates of the Effect of Culture on Women Employment Status

Religion Married Women Sample All Women Sample

Roman Catholic (Reference category) (Reference category)

Protestant and other Christian

14% 4%

Iglesia ni Cristo -1.5% 2%

Muslim -33% -13%

Others 15% 5%

Marginal Effects from Probit Estimates of the Effect of Culture on Women Employment Status

Pregnancy status Married Women Sample All Women Sample

Not pregnant (Reference category) (Reference category)

Pregnant -37% -13%

EXPOSURE TO MEDIA

Media exposure Married Women Sample

All Women Sample

Lowest (Reference category)

(Reference category)

Lower 2.2% -0.6

Moderate 5% 0.4

Higher 18% 4%

Highest 22% 4.4%

WOMEN OWNERSHIP TO ASSETS

Ownership of house and/or lot

Married Women Sample All Women Sample

Do not own house or lot (Reference category) (Reference category)

Woman jointly own house and/or lot

20% 8.3%

Woman alone own house and/or lot

9% 5%

P=

Time with familyTHE TLE

P=

Time with familyTHE* TLE*

THE TLE

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. Strengthen skill capacities and expand paid employment opportunities for less educated women;

2. Strengthen the sustainable livelihood programs for the poor;

3. Strengthen the enforcement of the Telecommuting Act; and

4. Counter discrimination in the workplace

POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS

On countering the stereotyped gender norms and a patriarchal mindset:

1. Increase public information and media coverage on the important role of the women workforce; and

2. Review educational learning materials and storybooks in early childhood to promote gender equality and dispel stereotyped gender roles.

On equal conjugal sharing of home and child care:

1.An extended paternity leave and parental leave encourages increased men’s involvement in prenatal visits, child care and housework and ensures a more equal conjugal sharing of domestic care that would free up some time for women to participate in the labor force.

2.An extended paternity leave will also lessen the discrimination of employers against hiring women.

On improving the workplace environment for working parents with young children:

Facilitate the back-to-work transition of workers taking a maternity or paternity leave, by providing them access to child care services for very young children.

• Executive Order No. 340

• Bills that require employers in private and public sectors to provide day care facilities

• Republic Act 10028

Greater Sensitivity of Women’s Work: Data Collection Methods

1. Conduct gender orientation trainings for survey enumerators and supervisors;

2. Provide a more reasonable quota of enumerators;

3. Include recovery questions or paraphrase questions;

4. Include stylized questions to capture data on other types of work than employment work.

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