The Crimean (Eastern) War, 1853-1856

Primary Source Microfilm An imprint of Thomson Gale

The Crimean (Eastern) War,

1853-1856

Filmed from the holdings of the Military Science Archive at the Russian State Archive of

Military History in Moscow

Primary Source Microfilm An imprint of Thomson Gale

iii

Primary Source Microfilm, An Imprint of Thomson Gale

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thereof in any form

Printed and bound in the United States of America

2004

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction to the Collection v

The Crimean (Eastern) War, 1853-1856 .. .1

v

INTRODUCTION

The Russian historical archives in Moscow and St. Petersburg contain vast numbers of documents relating to the Crimean War, or, as the Russians used to call it, the Eastern War of 1853-1856. These papers are often in duplicate or multiple copies, and most are very well organized, catalogued, and available for researchers, both native and foreign. As in the case of all important subjects, filmed or electronic reproduction of original sources facilitates global research, which is the goal of Primary Source Microfilm.

The Crimean War was a conflict which

pitted Ottoman, French, British, and eventually Piedmont-Sardinian (Italian) forces

against Russia, with the participation of volunteers and mercenaries from a dozen other states and nations. The threat of Austria, Prussia and Sweden joining the coalition

in a grand rollback of the Russian Empire complicated matters, and the final butcher s bill approached a million dead, wounded, and disappeared without a trace. Highlighted by the epic, year-long, coalition siege and ultimately unsuccessful Russian defense of Sevastopol, the war is too often trivialized in the popular literature and media of the English-speaking world by focusing upon Alfred Lord Tennyson s celebrated, patriotic war-time poem, The Charge of the Light Brigade. Such heroic-romantic over-simplification masks the fact that this prolonged armed confrontation witnessed novel weaponry such as rockets, new forms of logistics and communication via steamship, rail and telegraph, a fresh organization of military medicine with organized female nursing, and innovative forms of military journalism with a few war correspondents and some photography.

In fact, the Crimean War served as a major watershed in modern world history and resulted in a great increase of British and French influence in the Middle

East, a weakening of both Russia and the Ottoman Empire in the Balkans, as well as what turned out to be a fifteen-year military-naval neutralization of the Black Sea and a slight decrease of Russian power in the Baltic. It caused domestic crises leading to major, modernizing reforms in the Austrian (Hapsburg) monarchy and the British army, as well as the Russian Empire, and, paradoxically, a strengthening both of Prussia in Germany and of Russia in the Caucasus, Transcaucasia, and Central Asia. Its more distant fallout even helped bring on the Great India Mutiny of 1857-58, the Arrow or Second Opium War of 1858-60 (Britain and France vs. China), and the US Civil War of 1861-65.

This greatest of European military conflagrations between 1815 and 1914 has produced an ample literature among the three chief European participants. However, except where Russians have published their French-language sources and these are mainly diplomatic , most Western historians have only had indirect access to Russian-language

papers, as in the selection of first-hand accounts of action reproduced or abstracted in Albert Seaton, The Crimean War: A Russian Chronicle (New York: St. Martin s, 1977). And these are hardly a substitute for the real thing, the full, original official and unofficial reports, correspondence, and memoirs, such as the collection of Russian Military Science Archive Crimean War papers, published in this microform set.

Russia s Military Science Archive (Voenno-uchenyi arkhiv, or VUA, sometimes translated as Military History Archive) was founded in 1797. It lasted in some form or other as a separate institution until 1906, when it was joined with the Moscow Department of the General Archive of the General Staff. Presently the VUA fond is one of the basic collections of the present incarnation of the General Staff Archive the Russian State Military History Archive (Russkii gosudarstvennyi voenno-istoricheskii arkhiv , RGVIA, formerly TsGVIA Russian having replaced Central in the name of this and slew of state archives in 1992). This fond contains, among other items, the most comprehensive set of Russian documents concerning the military side of the Crimean War. Indeed, three fifths of manuscript sources of the chiefly archive-based account of Russian land warfare during the Crimean War in the late L.G. Beskrovnyi s Russkoe voennoe iskusstvo XIX v.

(Moscow, 1974), are VUA papers, and his is the only such modern study to date. So Russian historians of the Crimean War, not to say British, French, American, and other non-Russians, have not capitalized on the full value of these documents.

A partial explanation for the relative neglect of the VUA and other RGVIA fonds for the study of the Crimean War is that linguistically equipped Russian and non-Russian historians of the war have availed themselves, first, of published learned memoirs, such as A. Zhandr, Materialy dlia istorii oborony Sevastopolia i dlia biografii Kornilova

(St. Petersburg, 1859); E. Todleben, (Dfense de Sbastopol (2 vols., St. Petersburg, 1863); M. Likhutin, Russkie v Aziatskoi Tursii v 1854 i 1855 godakh: iz zapisok o voennykh deistviiakh erivanskogo otriada (St. Petersburg, 1863); N.N. Murav ev, Voina za Kavkazom v 1855 godu

(3 vols in 2, St. Petersbureg, 1876); A.P. Khrushchov, Istoriia oborony Sevastopolia

(St. Petersburg, 1889);

vi

P.K. Menkov, Zapiski (3 vols., St. Petersburg, 1898); N.I. Pirogov, Sevastopol skie pis ma i vospominaniia (Moscow, 1950); and, second, of the solid source-based studies and publication of materials, such as V.M. Anichkov, Voenno-Istoricheskiie ocherki Krymskoi ekspeditsii

St. Petersburg 1856)/Der Feldzug in der Krim

(Berlin, 1857, suppl. 1860);

Anton Christian von Hbbinet, Ocherk meditsinskoi i gospital noi chasti v Krymu v 1854-1856 g. (St. Petersburg, 1870); N. Dubrovin, Materialy dlia istorii Krymskoi voiny i oboronry Sevastopolia (5 vols., St. Petersburg, 1871-74); M.I. Bogdanovich, Vostochnaia voina 1853-1856 (4 vols in 2., St. Petersburg, 1876), and Istoricheskii ocherk deiatel nosti voennago upravlennia v Rossii v pervoe dvatsatipiatiletie blagopoluchnago tsarstvoivaniia Gosudaria Imperatora Aleksandra Nikolaevicha

(1855-1880 gg.) (6 vols., St. Petersburg, 1879-81); A.P. Shcherbatov, ed., General-fel dmarshal

Kniaz Paskevichi i ego zhizhn i deiatel nost : po neizdannym istochnikam (7 vols., St. Petersburg, 1888-1904); Stoletie Voennago ministerstva 1802-1902 (St. Petersburg, 1902); A. Andriianov, Inkermanskii boi i oborona Sevastopolia

(St.

Petersburg, 1903); and, finally, the two Appendix (Prilozhenie) volumes to A.M. Zaionchkovskii s Vostochnaia voina 1853-1856 gg. (2 vols. in 3 + 2; St. Petersburg, 1908-1913). More such printed sources are noted in the bibliography of the late American Professor John Sheton Curtiss s Russia s Crimean War (Durham: Duke University Press, 1979).

Notably, Zaionchkovskii s tables and charts contain so much detail about the nature and disposition of Russian military and naval forces and armaments before and during the war, that scholars have felt free to devote their research time to other matters. A good example of this is Curtiss s Russia s Crimean War, which relied on such published material, as did Norman Rich s Why the Crimean War: A Cautionary Tale (Hanover/London: University Press of New England). Likewise, William C. Fuller s masterful Strategy and Power in Russia, 1600-1914

(New York: Free Press, 1992) made some use of RGVIA (TsGVIA) documents, but not for the Crimean War planning. Hopefully the publication of these documents as microforms will help correct this situation.

The VUA Crimean War papers are found in 976 separately numbered files, from Delo (file) No. 5387 to Delo No. 6162 (sixty of them further subdivided by number or letter) and are devoted chiefly to the army. The totality of these papers is staggering

in scope and importance, ranging from directives and official correspondence to position papers and memoirs; political and military intelligence reports and reports on foreign intelligence; accounts of action inaction, logistics, fortifications, and engineering; and, among other things, information on native militias and foreign volunteers, spies, traitors, prisoners-of-war and their treatment, disinformation, domestic morale, field hospitals, military justice, and Russia s military cipher.

The cast of major characters in some of the VUA files especially devoted to correspondence include the expected: Emperor Nicholas I and War Minister Prince V.A. Dolgorukov; the local commanders-in-chief, Field Marshall I.F. Paskevich, Prince Alexander Menshikov, and Prince M.D. Gorchakov; some of their top subordinates, Generals A.N. Lders and P.E. Kotsebu (Kozebue) and Adjutant General Annenkov. Among the VUA fond

memoranda and memoirs are contributions of General F.V. Rdiger, Col. A.P. Khrushchov, the experienced statesman and architect of Balkan policy, P.D. Kisilev, and the rising specialist of military statistics and future reforming War Minister, Dmitrii Miliutin. Included as well is some inevitable, but maybe marginally interesting trivia, such as Menshikov s letter thanking the Empress for an icon she sent to him. Evgenii V. Tarle, whose classic, colorfully written, two-volume Crimean War

appeared during World War II (2 vols., Moscow-Leningrad, Moscow: 1941, 1943), mined some of the VUA correspondence and reports and found such gems as the Sevastopol sailors and sailors calling the hesitant General-Admiral Menshikov Anafema

( Anathema ) and Izmenshchikov

( Traitor ).

The scene of action mirrors the wide geographic sweep of the war itself. Russia s initial defensive action in Wallachia in the autumn of 1853, the counterattack across the Danube into eastern Bulgaria in 1854, and the subsequent withdrawal under Austrian diplomatic pressure back into Russian territory occupy a large set of these papers, as, of course, do all sorts of activities in the Crimea not only around the major battles (Alma, Inkermann, Balaklava, Chernaia) and Sevastopol, but also Kerch and the Sea of Azov and the defensive preparations along the Black Sea. The fighting in the Caucasus and Transcaucasia and the defense preparations in Baltic and White Seas enjoy less coverage. Yet even the fortress-monastery Solovki, a hundred miles south of the Arctic Circle, has its own file.

The overwhelming majority of these files are in Russian. Only two are in German, and another seventeen mixed with both Russian and French. These are of two natures: military and political intelligence reports (including the two German files), and the triangular correspondence among the senior commanders Dolgorukov, Menshikov, and Gorchakov. For the French-reading investigator, these files could provide the basis for interesting case studies, but a much greater value of the VUA collection certainly accrues to the Russian-reader on any level, from advanced high school student interested in original source-based research through professional historians. A useful assignment for the linguistically equipped beginning student of history might be to compare the British and American accounts of the Ottoman and British atrocities and looting on Kerch, as noted in Trevor Royal s Crimea. The Great Crimean War 1854-1856 (New York: St. Martin s, 2000), and the corresponding VUA documents concerning the

vii

landing. One could also use the Russian reports too evaluate the challenge to the utility of the entire Kerch-Azov expedition made by C.W. Lambert s The Crimean War. British Grand Strategy, 1853-1856

(Manchester UK/New York: Manchester

University Press/St. Martins, 2000). Likewise, one might complement the latter s analysis of the Anglo-French Baltic campaigns of 1854-56 with material from VUA. Robert B. Edgerton s Death or Glory. The Legacy of the Crimean War (Boulder: Westview, 1999), with its treatment of disease, hunger, camp followers, survival strategies, what passed as military medicine, war correspondents, and dozens of other often neglected aspects of warfare at that time, begs amplification with more Russian sources, some of which VUA can supply.

A perusal and analysis of all the memoranda and proposals in the VUA collection, moreover, may produce some fundamental reevaluations of the received wisdom in standard accounts. In preparing my Origins of the Crimean War

(London/Harlowe: Longman, 1993), I

discovered in the Menshikov files in another archive his late March 1853 advice to

Nicholas I well before the rupture with the Ottomans note to provoke war with them and the Anglo-French by occupying the Danubian (Romanian) Principalities as the Emperor s

plans envisioned. Similarly, The preliminary VUA catalogue

notes a proposal in early autumn, 1853, to withdraw from these Principalities, which Russian forces has occupied in July, the very action which did bring on the war with Turkey. Who made this later Russian proposal and under what conditions is not indicated, but this is just one of several gems, which a diligent researcher who mines the VUA Crimean War files may find.

The age of computers should facilitate further detailed studies of armies, navies, and wars, where the sources survive. Indeed, the degree of minutia, which the VUA fond

promises, however, ought to prompt some student of Russian military history or the Crimean War to commence by verifying the accuracy of Zaionchkovskii s tables and other earlier works and proceed from there. The small sample of original documents, which I examined in 1990 and 1992 in preparation of my Origins of the Crimean War,

supplements and slightly contradicts Zaionchkovskii, if not the overall thrust of conclusions one can draw from his work in comparing the forces of the four major participants. A budding archivist might test the waters with a detailed description of a discreet set of these files.

Finally, with this publication in microform of the VUA Crimean War papers, Primary Source Microfilm has increased opportunities for Russian scholars and set the stage for Western historians who know Russian to begin archive based integration of the military history of the war. This was what I attempted, but, without knowledge of Ottoman Turkish, could not do fully, for the diplomatic history of war s origins. For an integrated history of the Crimean War, however, researchers must be aware that the VUA documents are only part of a larger whole. While, for example, they cover the shore defenses in the Black, Azov, and Baltic Seas and a selection of proposed naval strategies, most of the documents pertaining to the Russian navy and naval actions are housed in St. Petersburg in the Russian State Archive on the Military-Naval

Fleet (Russkii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv voenno-morskogo flota,

RGAVMF, formerly TsGAVMF). They do not figure in this set. Other important documents as well as some duplicates of VUA papers are housed in Moscow in the Russian State Archive of Ancient Acts (Russkii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv drevnykh akt, RGADA, formerly TsGADA). And some of the essential documents concerning disposition of forces and reports of battles are located in RGVIA, but in Fond No. 1, which contains papers from the old General Archive of the General Staff. Until a team of archivists produces a complete and correlated catalogue of all the Crimean War archival holdings in Russia, Ukraine, and also Finland and Poland, specialists will not be certain that they have taken into account all of the vital Imperial Russian documentation.

David M. Goldfrank

Professor of History Georgetown University

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