The Craftsman - 1902 - 05 - May

7/27/2019 The Craftsman - 1902 - 05 - May

1/72

www.historicalworks.com


2/72


3/72

FOREWORD

PERSISTENT in the aim proposed in its initial num-ber, The Craftsman for the current month offersto its readers a series of papers upon certain phases of artallied to Labor. Metals, the objects which are made fromthem, and the processes which are applied to them arehere considered by a number of writers, several of whomare themselves craftsmen. It is hoped that the suggestionsupon the use of enamel as a decorative agent may awakeninterest in a medium of artistic expression, as yet littleunderstood in America, but possessin almost unlimitedpossibilities of Kicturesqueness to be a d ded to our interiorsand even, as t e writer indicates, to our public thorough-fares. The articles by the womenworkers in metals, technical and practical, like those uponthe art of book-binding contained in the April issue, willdoubtless prove instructive to those practically interestedin these special crafts. They are also a sign of the times,hopeful and not to be disregarded, showing that the ques-tion of sex is relatively unimportant, and that workman-ship alone is the test through which the right to labor andto create is gained. The critique of the AlexanderW. Drake collection : section of brass and copper vessels,is written by one competent to judge of its value. Thearticle is unusual, as coming from an artist and craftsman,in that, beside treating of medium, form and color, itreaches out to questions social and racial. It is a tributeto the art of which William Morris was the advocate andprophet; a system created by the people for the service ofthe people, and which supplies a first necessity of allcivilized life. In such service The Crafts-man will continue to put forth effort, and workers inany medium are invited to accept the aid of this publica-tion for their encouragement and advancement, Anything



4/72

iv FOREWORD

of value accomplished in use of material, process, or ar-tistic result, if communicated to the Publishers, will re-ceive from them the degree of recognition that it deserves.By this means, the designer, or inventor, will ain the in-centive to future and further attainment ; the ollowers ofthe Arts and Crafts movement will be able to note eachstep in its course ; opportunity will be given for publicdiscussion of technical questions in a simple and practicalmanner; the standards of work and taste will be surelyand permanently raised. At a11 times The Craftsman as the organ and representative of art allied to labor, willmaintain its principles by demanding from the workmanhonest and intelligent service, and for the workman anadequate livelihood that shall raise him above the neces-sity of haste and negligence.Further to serve the interestsand pleasure of its readers, The Craftsman solicits in-formation from all Arts and Crafts Societies, both at homeand abroad, regarding such of their aims and proceedin sas are of general importance and tend to propagate broad ythe healthful, popular enthusiasm of which these societiesare the outcome. Toward the development of thesame movement, correspondence is invited from com-munities in which no such centers of practical work andaesthetic spirit as yet exist to multiply legitimate pleasuresand to dignify the conduct of life.



5/72

Door for house i n Ont eora Park , N . Y.W ifh copper tr immi ngs by M ary Norton



6/72

Hal l Clock by t he Unit ed Crafts



7/72

THE MARKERS OF TIMEEREUNT Horae et Imputantur. Thehours perish and accuse, are wordsformulated from the grave thought of theMiddle A es,old Englis a which appear on many andial accenting cathedral front,or college quadrangle, or yet again thembler structure to which men were wontto be called in larers of time were tae numbers by daily duty. Grave mark-ese clocks and sundials, warning thepeople to act rightly and to think purely, lest their souls

should suffer in jury. Something of the sense of personalresponsibility, of the conscience which distin uishes theAnglo-Saxon, is reflected in this thou 1formulated in the learned language of ht, alt! ough it ist e schools, Thespirit of the race has rarely been more clearly expressed,or received a better commentary than in this brief warning.Across the channel too, therewere clocks and dials inscribed with earnest words of in-struction for the proF r conduct of life. But these wereof other tenor, and t ey also mirrored the thoughts andprinciples of the people whose lives they divided andmarked. In Paris, the tower of the Palace of Justice dis-played in the fourteenth century Henry de Vies greatclock: a picturesque spot upon the grey wall, rich in blueenamel and gold fleurs-de-Iys, with its supporting femaleiibures, carved and gilded, and its decorative inscription,achina quae bis sex tam juste dividit horas, justitiamservare monet et Iegesque tueri: The instrumentwhich so justly divides the hours of the day, teaches usto respect justice and to keep the law. This counsel isone appealing to the intellect, rather than to the heart. Itvoices the spirit of the races who gave to the world legalconcept in its simplest, purest form. It is the great Ro-man code reduced to its lowest terms, solemn in its recog-nition of equity, setting forth citizen-rights and the dignityof the State, but leaving the one who reads it unmovedand cold. And this is because it contains no direct and



8/72

54 THE MARKERS OF TIME

personal warning, because it does not search the recordof individual life and conscience, like the words, Theyperish and accuse, which constitute every hour into anawful Final Judgment. The two differing sentencessum up indeed all that can be learned in history of thetwo opposite races : the Latin, animated in its actions andthought by the idea of citizenship and unity; worshippingthe concept of the city even so far as to name it the Eter-nal, as in the case of Rome ; fighting again and again fordemocracy in various countries of the continent, and whenovercome, returning again and again to the charge inobedience to the most deeply set of instincts. On the otherhand, we feel the spirit of our race and kindred throbbingthrough the Pereunt et Imwhich gave birth to Magna C utantur ; the individualityf:arta, to the great EnglishParliament, to Shakspeare, to the colonization schemeswhich have well-nigh universalized our language, and tothe personal fortitude which has reached out into thegravesttellectu rils to give us material wealth and dominant in-aYeorce among the races of men. The heroes ofthe world have always obeyed the princi le clothed in thewords Pereunt et Imputantur, with aH their eloquentand terrible suggestion of the opportunity once offered,once accepted or rejected, and never repeated.The value of legends such asthe ones quoted, when placed at points to which all eyesare compelled, can scarcely be estimated, Elevated abovethe narrow and sombre streets of mediaeval towns, theirpower of teaching, warning and saving must have beeninexpressibly Preat over the trained minds of scholars,just as the scu ptures of the cathedral fronts pictured theend of the world and the stories of saints, sufferers andsinners for the unlettered people, and so taught them torespect the laws of both God and man.It might be urged that legendsand symbols have spent their force ; that they were



9/72


10/72


tive to the inscription circling the drum of the cupola:TuFh ,yt Petey, and upon this rock I will found myAnd it is undlsof exhoitation, if skilfully cKted that a symbol, or a wordosen, will lead throngs of mento brave and generous action throu h the faith born ofenthusiasm, even though they, in ca mer moments, rejectithe cause represented by the inspiring symbol or word.Still another proof of the uplifting effect of hortatory in-scriptions may be read in the faces of visitors to the Me-morial Half, at Harvard University, which, on theauthority of Professor Charles Eliot Norton, is said to bethe only building in the world dedicated to youthful value.The eulogies of the student soldiers who gave their livesin the war which preserved the Union and Constitutionof the United States, follow the wall lines tike a frieze,and to those who read them they seem like the utterancesof a supreme intelligence, guiding the world to the heightsof patriotism and self-sacrifice.Opportunities for the display oflegends such as these occur but rarefy, nor if more fre-quent, would they afford equal power of touching heartsand quickening enthusiasm. But if inscriptions similar insense to those accentuatinpublic time-pieces and dia It the meaning of the mediaeval, should be set for a like pur-pose on our modern clock-towers, both dignity and ict-uresqueness would be added to certain city quarters w I: chare now marked only by costly and ugly structures andby jostling, careless crowds, Such action would not bea return to customs which have long since lost their forceand meaning, Nor would it be an attempt to disciplineand awe reasoning beings with means adapted to thechildhood or youth of humaniDeath painted on the old z , such as is the Dance ofbri ge at Lucerne, It wouldsim Iy infuse an uplifting idea into the midst of the strifean B selfishness of trade and enterprise, and set a standardof thought and deed over and above that of the stock ex-



11/72

THE MARKERS OF TIME 57

change and the great corporations. And no mans soul,save that of the degenerate, is so dead within him that itcan not be touched by words of lofty counsel meeting hiseye on his daily path, with all the power that the voiceof a wise friend might possess over him. Examples of theinspirin force of such inscriptions may be drawn fromcertain amiliar memories of our American cities : as forinstance, the motto of the State of Massachusetts, whichstands clear cut and bold upon the facade of the Old Statezrofn Boston, with its dignified, imperious announce-

8 ce maintained by liberty and the sword. Anda secon exam Ie lies in the dedicatory inscription uponthe Soldiers lJ onument, on Boston Common, which waswritten by the president of Harvard : To the men ofBoston who died on land and sea, during the war whichkept the Union whole and preserved the Constitution, thegrateful City has raised this monument, that their examplemay serve to coming generations. And surely,set on itscourse by such eloquence, the desired influence will pre-vail and be perpetuated, It is further to be wished thatpublic instruction, such as this, might be conve ed in con-nection with the markers of time : the clocz s of townhalls and libraries and railway stations to which, at alltimes and seasons, attention is drawn by the demand forpunctuality among all classes of people, which year byyear grows more exacting as life grows more complex.So let some words of encour-agement, counsel and warning : words above all reflectingthe sense of personal responsibility contained in the Pereunt et Imputantur appear joined with our publicclocks and dials, just as the sentence fraught with thedignity of justice and the law is still left to dominate thewayward, restless city of Paris. And this is done therenot to the sole furtherance of picturesqueness, which is sodesired and appreciated by the artistic French peorather that the warning may restrain from mor Ie, butJ Iaxityand keep in the paths of social and political rectitude those



12/72


who pass beneath it. It is possible further that more ofthese le ends and mottoes may appear at different pointsof the o d city, as a society of Parisian artists and anti-quaries is now discussinmany lost historic Iandmar a the advisability of restorings, such as smaller monumentsof various kinds, and the shop signs which lent interestand character to the streets before the adoption of thecommonplace, but convenient modern system of numbers.A similar movement is felt in our own country : an im-pulse to create beauty in public places that the old andbest idea of the abstract city may a ainthat it may become the richest an 8 prevail : that is,most beautiful pos-session of the people, who shall keep it in trust for thecommon good, regarding it as a focus of moral, intellec-tual and aesthetic illumination, and enjoying its advan-tages equally afforded to all.Were these principles in fulloperation, private life would be at once simplified andembellished, and the inordinate desire for individual Iux-ury, always the vice of rich republics, would be strictlyrepressed. Under these conditions, an ideal home maybe pictured, and that home would be such as it was de-scribed by William Morris, the supreme craftsman of thenineteenth century. The place of life and laborwould then contain no superfluous objects, such as nowencroach upon space, demand care and attention withoutreturning an equivalent of service, and, most often, offendby ugliness of form and color. Rather it would receivewithin its walls only such objects as are known to be use-ful and felt to be beautiful : simple furnishings for themaintenance of comfort, good order and sanitation; instru-ments needed in the pursuit of some art or science ; booksfor instruction and recreation ; pictures and models, valu-able for their cultural influence, and not chosen in obedi-ence to some passing caprice, and acce tednumber, as is now almost universally tK in too greate c&se,



13/72

THE MARKERS OF TIME 59Prominent among these neces-

sary furnishings stand the markers of time, the clocks onwhich depend the provisions for the well being of the in-dividual occupants of the home, and for the very main-tenance of the family bond. And about the family time-piece, as we know from our own sentiment, and by illus-tration from literature and art, circle a large share of thememories-both the sweet and the bitter-of life. Weremember the stories told us in our childhood by ourparents and grandparents, of the clocks of their ownhomes ; tall and slender, standing on the stair-landin , orin the keeping-room or kitchen, of some New Eng ?a ndfarm or village house. And as the picturing words fellfrom the lips of the dim-eyed, placid-faced, aged man orwoman, the vision of the clock rose before us as some-thing to be loved and cherished. We could see the pol-ished metal dial, round and glistening like the full moon,with its great numerals so eagerly consulted by the chil-dren anxious for their food and their play-time, or yetawaiting the moment when they should creep unwil-lingly to school. Within the dial, perhaps, a circle wascut to allow the sight of a quaint picture displaying orsuggesting the mechanism of the time-piece: sometimesa ship was seen, straining its sails and ploughing thewaves, in obedience to a regular motion ; sometimes themovements of the planets were described by miniatureballs ; or, as a motif drawn from the Dance of Death,.Father Time appeared with his proper attributes, thescythe, the skull and the hour- lass. The old time-piecewas, as Longfellow writes wit a the feeling born of ex-perience, associated with all the events that constitute thehistory of a family: birth, marriage, and death, partings,home-comings, and all the lesser concerns which fill thehours and make the smaller divisions of time pass unre-marked into the greater. The sentiment and romance ofthe clock so permeates domestic history that no poem,



14/72


PRY, or cture, treating of the life of the people, is com-plete wit %ut mention or representation of some markerof time. For it gives accent and homeliness to the mimicscene, as surely as by means of its regular, slow and gen-tle utterance, it lends a sense of peace and comfort to thereal environment. The tick of the clock and the steamof the kettle are the working a&s of discovery and inven-tion. They have tided over discouragement, disciplinedunskilful haste and encouraged patient, continuous effort.The clock is a first necessity of civilized life : while itselfand the book are the most available and universally satis-fying substitutes for human companionship.In view, then, of its importantfunctions and of its great influence upon daily experience,it should be fashioned with extreme care by the crafts-man and chosen with equal care by the one who receivesit into his home. Its mechanism should be clothed indistinctive, beautiful form, that it may remain pleasingthroughout the vicissitudes of a long companionship.Unassuming and refined, it should not obtrude u n thesight, but rather like many a household saint, sKuld itperform its useful functions without attracting praise orblame : which is the ideal way of rendering service, Itsvoice should be low and sweet, like that of the idealwoman, and if its face were marked with the best thoughtof the race, epitomized as in some sentence like the Per-eunt et Imputantur, it would then indeed attain thehighest requisites of perfect friendly or fraternal fellow-ship. It would lend a new sense to the meaning of thelegend often found in Latin countries on the dials ofmarkers of time, in places of recreation and pleasure : Imark no hours save the happy ones.



15/72

EnameljarBy L oui s C. Ti f fany



16/72

_ --



17/72

ENAMEL AS A DECORATIVE AGENTBY SAMUEL HOWE

NAMEL is a strong, active force for color,which requires great care in use. Its in-tensity, unchanginand movement ms quality, expressione us hesitate to em-ploy it for many purposes, because of theneighbors, It difficulty of securing for it congenialis, by nature, assertive and capricious. Itmust be judiciously introduced; otherwise, lack of har-mony and disorder follow. If the entire scheme can notbe well and effectively planned, then enamel would best beomitted altogether+ Within a short time only, hasenamel been successfully employed in modern decoration.The difficulty with which it is controlled and handledcaused artists and craftsmen to hesitate long before at-tempting to deal with a so uncertain yet fascinating ele-ment. Those who examined the enamels made byCourties from designs of Raphael, or the beautiful speci-mens of the Spitzer collection, and the small, exquisitepieces in g&a& by Pierre Raimond, were astonished tofind the capricious decorative agent controlled and submis-sive, without having lost any of its brilliant charms.Then, repeated experimentsof methods by which Fradually led to the discoveryename has been applied with fineresults to the adornment of the modern house, holding itspeculiar beauties, without detracting from those of neigh-boring elements, and without injury to the decorativescheme as a whole.

But the use of this agent ofadornment yet contains an element of uncertainty whichis likely to remain permanent. Enamel is hard to produce ;it is still harder to place and, when perfectly made, it in-volves so much human effort that it sometimes becomestragic. When well placed, it enriches ; when out of place,it confuses, Uncompromising, hard, and changeless, it iswithout pity for the decorator who has made errors



18/72

62 ENAMEL AS A DECORATIVE AGENT~~through haste, or lack of jud ent. In a word, as theprice of its service, it demanYs from the artist the mostunremitting care and the most exact calculation of effect.The misuse of enamel is evi-denced in the vagaries of certain examples of Latinouveau, which are found in Germany, Austria, andless extensively in England, and which result mainlyfrom direct and often wilful disobedience to aesthetic laws.Enamel should be too greatly prized to allow it to enterwhere it is not welcome, and architecture too highly vene-rated to derogate from its dignity by the addition of orna-ment foreign to the general scheme of the edifice.The main purpose of the pres-ent paper is to indicate the various occasions in whichenamel may enter into the decoration of the modern house.And this purpose would not seem to be an idle one, sincelittle has been written regarding its use in ceilin s,panels, pilasters, beams, on the under-side of \ wall-car els andbrackets, in the apparatus for electric lighting, on ironwindow-frames, casements and door-fittin s, and aroundopen fire-places. Such uses, it is plain, emand greaterknowledge than is possessed by ordinary builders andcraftsmen ; for they involve architectural questions regard-ing laws of proportion, fitness to place and surroundings,and other considerations not to be treated liBut as these d ficulties havehtly.already been overcome in a number of instances in bothEurope and America, it is necessary only to make plainthe advantages of metal over wood in certain details ofhouse-construction, in order to insure the use of enamelas a decorative agent. As an example, the superiority ofan iron over a wooden window frame is unquestionable,if durability be the chief requisite. Iron window-framescan not be affected by wear, and, when properly enameled,they show that union of decorative with constructive ele-ments which is an essential of all good arcchitecture. Bymeans of black oxide of cobalt, enamel can readily and



19/72

ENAMEL AS A DECORATIVE AGENT 69

durably be secured to iron, and this metal can then bedecoratively used on hinges, door-plates, lighting appara-tus and the other more or less important parts of a build-ing which we have already enumerated. A good ten-dency borrowed from the Japanese, and rapidly creepinginto the art of Europe and America countenances fewthings for ornament alone, while it beautifies and refinesall objects intended for daily service. The custom of hid-ing locks in mortices formerly robbed the builder of thechance to use the lock-plate decoratively, but now,through the efforts of the English architects, NormanShaw, Ernest George, and their followers, locks oftencome out from concealment to create points of decorativeinterest on the surfaces where they occur.In the uses above indicated, theenamel may be subjected to various treatments : the artistcan easily glaze some portion of his iron work with semi-opaque enamel, while other parts can be treated in solidtones of full-bodied pigment. Again, certain vigorousdesigns can be hammered from iron or copper, in such awa as to receive opaque enamel of sufficient body to beweHseen after a second and transparent coating of enamelhas covered the entire surface. Bright and polished metalwithout enamel is also an important factor in beauty ofeffect, as it provokes the play of light and shade, such aswe see made in the dark apartments of continental castlesand halls by shining coats of mail, trophies of arms,coffers, and drinking vessels.We do not ask indeed, norwere it even desirable, in view of the great expenseneces-sitated, that the enamels of the sixteenth century be re-produced, with their accuracy of figuredrawing and theirflesh-tints so difficult to manipulate. But we do stand inartistic need of a decorative agent which shall accomplishin point of color for modern interiors what the Frenchenamels of Francis Firsts time did for the churches, townhalls and palaces of France.



20/72

64 ENAMEL AS A DECORATIVE AGENTOnce the interiors of public and

private buildings were so beautified, artists would be ledto the calculation of exterior effects to be produced by thissame medium of enamel, The street signs and perma-nent advertisements which now so generally disfigure thewalls on which they appear, might become finely decorative,if treated in enamel and set in broad continuous bands offull rich color. Thus they would regain for our thor-oughfares something of that picturesque quality which hasirJ;t to them through the practical demands of mod-* The future extensive use ofenamel seems to be assured, since experiments are nowmaking, under the direction of Mr. Louis C. Tiffany, inhis studio at Corona, Long Island, with the purpose ofdoing for enamel what has already been accomplished forglass. And surely all that ingenuity, skill and knowledgecan suggest, this artist will work out and complete!Mr. Tiffany is not content withhaving re-discovered the processes of the glass-workers ofPompeii and Herculaneum, producing by these methodstable-vessels and lamps, beautiful in color, well annealedand perfectly made : greatly superior for practical use tothe antiques which are sadly lacking insanitary &ties.He has further applied certain of these secrets to t e studyof the sister art of enameling : enamels being, as is wellknown, alass, and glass silicate colored with metallicoxides. is efforts are now centered in he application ofenamel to vases ornamented with fruits, flowers, or con-

ventional designs in high relief; his processes being ofcourse unknown outside of his studio, but certain shapesbeing evidently hammered up from pitch molds, in theusual way, afterward rounded into vase-form, and lastlyclosed at the bottom. The desired relief being secured,he adds paillons, or, as the French word signifies, spangles, which are small sheets of absolutely pure



21/72

ENAMEL AS A DECORATIVE AGENT 65

gold or silver, of from thirty to fifty times the thickness ofgold leaf; these are embedded in transparent enamel, orin the surface of the copper foundation, without allowingair to penetrate beneath. Or again, an opaque enamel isfloated over the relief ornament: a process difficult evenfor flat surfaces, and still more complicated when ap liedto relief ornament. Over this opaque substance, co oredenamel is then added according to the design; thin, trans-parent glazes being mainly used to produce the qualityneeded. In cases when the natural color of the metalenters into the scheme, the glaze is permitted to over-runthe entire subject, giving a still further tone, by increas-ing depth, perspective and Iustre.Superimposed enamel, that is :the placing of thin layers of transparent substance oneover the other, is attended with the danger of chipping,and with great expense,-the latter owing to the numberof firings and of annealings necessary, and the risk con-sequent upon them. But this transparent, or semi-opaquemethod, notwithstanding its difficulties and its cost, is areal boon to craftsmen, since it affords them a last oppor-tunity to harmonize their strong, crude, and sometimesbrutal tones, by removing what is technically known as the grin, and by softening, enriching and intensifyingtheir effects. Passing now from the consid-eration of process to that of effect, we are met by the ques-tion of comparison between enamel and marble or opales-cent lass,malaca

and yet again between enamel and jade,ite, or jaspar, as to qualities of color, brilliancy anddurability. This question has been already partiallyanswered by a practical experiment, which while notwholly satisfactory, has done much to advance the claimsof enamel to the possession of a hities tested, Properly to measure t h degree of thea uali-e tone in the co or ofgood enamels necessitated the choice of a high standardof value in color, brilliancy and lustre, To this end a



22/72

66 ENAMEL AS A DECORATIVE AGENT

small vase, made by Mr. Louis C, Tiffany, and a fairexample of that artists skill, was taken to the Tiffanyshop in Union Square, placed in a strong light, and sur-rounded by unmounted, polished, and partly cut gems :such as lapis la~uli, sapphire, star sapphire, topaz, goldenberyl, Mexican fire-opal, Siberian amethyst, pink tourma-line, aquamarine, and other valuable gems correspondingto the shades of color in the vase. In the results of thetest, the enamels proved equallof color with the gems ; due fine in quality and toneal owance being made for thescintillations and counter-lights cast by the latter. Thedifficulties of forming a competent judgment consequentusp n the play of these lights were not easily overcome,he gems, placed in contact with the enamel, seemed tochange their color, and refused to retain any one tone.Many of them, also, as is their custom when alone, attimes almost lost their color by excess of fire. But com-parison was finally made possible by the use of a neutral-izing, or semi-opaque layer of glass, which was spreadover the gems; a device adapted from one stage in themanufacture of enamels.certain de The conditions being thus to ablues and t ee equalized, the enamels,-especially thee intense greens,-showed much more depthand perspective than were found in the stones. The sametest further showed that the relations between ems andenamels differ according to the light in which t a e objectsare seen. As for example, in a jewel containing a num-ber of emeralds mounted in gold ornament, the enamel andstones were of the same color, when subjected to daylight ;while, under electric light, the emeralds attained a some-what better, fuller, richer and more natural color than theenamel, which lost some share of its tone and accent:changes which prove that in such comparisons and con-trasts account is to be taken of the chemical action of lightwhether emanating from the natural source, the sun, oryet from artificial means, such as as, or electricity.From t a e description of these



23/72

ENAMEL AS A DECORATIVE AGENT 67tests, it will be seen that the study of enamels demandsmuch technical knowledge: which fact has no doubt de-terred many American artists and craftsmen from attempt-ing to work in this medium. But beside Mr. Tiffany,who has devoted several years of his life to the workdescribed in the present paper, there are other well-knownmen-among them John LaFarge and Prentice Tread-well Crowninshield-who, in their decorative schemes,have approached the same art by the use of transparentglazes over aluminum leaf. In Boston, a small privatestudio has recently been opened for the practical study ofenamel, and the same branch of art will, it is said, betaught at Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, in the coming schol-astic year. In New York, there is, as yet, no movementtoward the establishment of a school, but in addition tothe accomplishments of Mr. Tiffany, the city can showthe remarkable work in figures done by M. Gustave deFestetics, and successful exartist whose name is withhe d.riments made by anotherThe conditions of the workabroad are not everywhere satisfactory. In Paris, theschools of enameling fostered by the City Council, closedsometime since, after a service of ei ht or nine years,although an effort is now making for t?r ir reopening. InLondon, enameling is taught in the excellent TechnicalSchool which is conducted by the County Council of thatcity. In Vienna and Buda-Pesth, as well as in severalcities of Germany, Holland and Russia, there are well es-tablished schools in which craftsmen and artists are in-structed in the various branches and recesses of both thehistoric and the modern art of iname ng.Among individual workers areto be mentioned Professor Herkomer, Alexander Fisher,George J. Frampton, Nelson and Edith Dawson of Lon-don, all of whom are producing fine results.The example of such men aswe have cited, should serve as an inspiration to others



24/72

68 BEATEN METAL WORK

less courageous and ingenious; while the fascination ofmaking something unassailable by time should allure andhold the ambition of the true craftsman, Let us hope thatthe future of the art will justify our present expectationsof its success I

BEATEN METAL WORK D BY AMALIEBUSCKT HEast century saw the ada tation of machiner tothe production of nearly af; material needs. F hemachine now makes almost automatically the thousandarticles used in the daily routine of life, While the mak-ing of objects by the thousand has given the world moreleisure, it has also filled it with the tawdry and the com-monplace. Th erefore, the change has been regarded withcontempt by many of artistic temperament, who charac-terize it as commercialism, as artistic retrogression. Butin selpite of all inventions, it has been proven impossible en-tir y to supersede the handicrafts, by means of which thefinest work in wood, stone, and metal is still done. Theindividual craftsman of the past is now the skilled laborerof our great factories and workshops, and his skill is nodoubt equal, if not superior to that of his similar of the past,while his facilities are greater. But the conditions of hislife are paralyzing. He works against time; not for indi-viduality ; not for varying form, and lines of beauty whichwould develop his artistic sense. Skilled workmanshipis his pride. Number and uniformity are his aim andambition. It is useless to decry these conditions. Theyare not necessarily permanent. An outside infIuence,-



25/72


26/72

Copper Sh i el d, sixt een i nches in di ameterFr om th e Bu sck Studi os, New York



27/72

BEATEN METAL WORK 69the socalled amateur,- is gradually becoming a force,He is not yet so skilful a workman; but because he isaiming persistently at technical excellence, because he isguided by his artistic capacities, he is destined to raise thecrafts to their former position beside the arts.tendencies is plain. The meaning of the presentIt is shown by the fact that theyounger generation of those who are artistically inclineddo not regard music, poetry, painting and sculpture as theonly worthy mediums of expression.

Among many other materialspossessed of artistic possibilities, the metals have beenrecognized as capable of being made to express greatbeauty of form and color. As yet, little is doing by theartist himself in casting metal and in the heavier process bywhich wrought iron is produced; the artist supplying forthe one the model in clay, and for the other usually thedesign only. Under the maintenance of so complete adivision of labor, perfection is, of course, impossible. Butat present, many difficulties, financial and technical, standin the way of a closer co-operation.Beaten work, as applied tosome of the softer mediums, such as gold, silver, copper,brass and bronze, is now executed by the artist himself.But even here, difficulties are met, since it is not to besupposed that craftwork will be simply a revival of theold methods, For while the craftsman of the future mustpossess equal, if not greater skill than the workman of thepast and present,his age, if he r et will he fail in the requirements ofshal not avail himself of the most advancedmechanical and mediumistic devices. Handwork is a survival, andis much in danger of becoming a fetich. Effect, fitness ofthe purpose to the medium, and honest workmanship arethe ends to be pursued. And many results are best, ifnot alone, attained by hand-tools. An object wrought by



28/72


hand may properly awaken admiration in the minds ofthose patrons of the arts and crafts who have never usedthe tool, and seen and felt the tough metal soften, move,and take form beneath the hammer. The patron mayhave artistic capabilities, and may appreciate all the beau-ties which texture adds to form, but it is only for thecraftsman that the word hand-made can have its fullsignificance, In this division of modern worklies the principal difficulty of de&o The worker with innate mechanic r

g artistic handicraft.ability must recognizehis probable incapacity as a designer of merit. The production of thii sworthy craftworE hand-made is not legitimate or, and offers no improvement upon thethe skilfully wrought articles turned out by our firms.The aim must be beauty, and the conception can comefrom the artist alone. Co-operation is essential, and thisstatement can not be too insistently made. At the pres-ent time, craftsmen,-from the artistic heads of someof our best known and most pretentious firms down tothe individual workers in metal, wood, bookbinding, andother mediums, are devoid of any knowledge of construc-tion, or of the principles of the adaptation of design.Before modern craftwork canattain distinction, artistic motive must be the incentive ineach object wrought. Unskilled or barbaric work-manship may be overlooked, or even necessary. But tohave no aim beyond that of skilled workmanship is to beuninteresting, which is unpardonable. On the other

hand, the desi er can not meet the re uirements ofmetal-work, wit out some practical knowle1n d9e of techni-cal methods and of the peculiarities and limitations of hismedium, The technical points necessaryto be understood in metal work are neither numerous nordifficult to be understood. Yet it is only by experimentthat the worker can attain to a full appreciation of the



29/72

BEATEN METAL WORK 71quality of the medium which should always be expressedin the design. After a short experience in theworkshop of a coppersmith, or a jeweler, in which one cangain the principles of solderinof the use of special tools, an B and brazing, a general idealearn to give the hammer-blow that stretches, or that thickens the metal, the begin-ner may himself set up a small shop and devote himself tothe increase of his skill : a process in which he will inci-dentally discover not only new difficulties, but also possi-bilities which he has never suspected. The little work-shop is an essential factor in the education of a desi ner,even if he have at his command the facilities of the ulfy-equipped workshop of a commercial house, in which hemay perfect his more pretentious efforts.The fittings of the little work-sho may be elaborate or simple, according to the choiceof tKe worker. Amay be used with ! reat many anvils, lathes and formsa vantage ; yet it is also possible to pro-duce good results by limiting these fittings to a few steelhammers and wooden mallets, a sand-bag, a pitch-bed, anumber of wooden blocks, and a set of steel outlining andraising tools, the number and forms of which vary withalmost every new design; so that it is best for the workerto supply or make them according to his needs.The earliest r usse metalwhich has come down to us is in bronze; t e metal beingiYbeaten into the design, which was cut on the face ofwooden blocks. Later, the wooden blocks were discardedfor softer materials, which did away with the necessity ofcarving the design. The beds of resisting mediums nowin use are : lead, the sand-bag, and a mixture of tch.Burgundy pitch is superior to the tar mixture whit k hasbeen commonly used, because it is cleaner, less sticky, andmore easily removed from the surface of the metal, Theconsistency of the tch-bed is easily changed to meet therequirements of J ering cases, by melting, and by adding



30/72


plaster of Paris, or lard, Lead, on account of its greaterresistance, is used under narrow line tools to give sharperdefinition, by holding back the metal on either side of thepoint directly under the tool. But pitch is sufficiently re-sistent for copper up to eighteen gauge, and further, it hasthe advantage of holding the work securely : for the metalis laid on hot, and pressed down until evertact with the resistin medium, The pitc K part is in con-H is then cooledand holds the metal irm and flat.The pieces of copper repousseillustrated in this paper arc good examples of what maybe done with very simple means. The designs have beenworked out entirely with steel and wooden tools in thepitch-bed and on the sand-bag. Machinery has been usedonly in turning the edges of the fire-place front, in a pon-derous press, such as may be found at any coppersmiths,The means for attaining thebest results in metal-work, as well as in any of the othercrafts, were concisely formulated by William Morris,when he said :

We must diligently cultivatein ourselves the sense of beauty, skill of hand, and nicenessof observation, without which only a makeshift of art canbe got?



31/72

THE DRAKE COLLECTION OF BRASSAND COPPER VESSELS m BY SAMUELHOWE

OLLECTING is often the subject of ridi-cule and merciless criticism. But laughterand scorn do not abate the enthusiasm of theamateur. The chase after the beautiful therare and the curious, continues with unre-mitted zeal, The impulse to collect is morethan a desire to possess, more than the craving for notoriety,or the passion for hoarding precious things, or for overcom-ing difficulties standing in the way of possession, and foroutwitting astute rivals, Still, it cannot be denied that allthese elements are, to a certain degree, factors in the col-lecting problem. But it is possible to take a higher andbroader view of the subject, and it is most significant thatcertain of our brightest and most active citizens devotetheir leisure to diligent search after some one class of theobjects which may be the desire of the collectors mania.Indiscriminate collecting is amistake justly deserving censure. InteIIigent collecting isoften the work of a scholar, a man of the world, who, notcontent with the pleasures derived from foreign countries,and varied scenes, Ei,Iadly burdens himself with relics andtrophies of memora le occasions.The unrestrained bibliophile,who is sometimes also unskilled and ignorant, is the typewhich is largely responsible for the harsh criticism so oftenmade upon collectors. But this passion is, by no means,an unmixed evil. It has the negative value of keeping itspossessor from less harmful extravagances. It has thepositive value of increasing his information and of refin-ing his taste. The inconsistencies and va a-ries of celebrities never fail to amuse those less higa yplaced; but many of these same censors possess in them-selves the germs of the follies which they so criticise, and



32/72

74 THE DRAKE COLLECTION

lack nothing save means and opportunity to develop par-allel cases of madness. A list of noted collectors revealstastes as widely different as are the stations and profes-sions of the persons able so to gratify their desires.Richard Heber required eight houses in which to keephis books; four bein a in En land,Brussels, Antwerp, G ent, an d the others, inParis. M. NestorRoqueplan, a French author and director of opera,who, as a critic and man of affairs, thoroughly satis-fied the public, bequeathed to the nation a large col-lection of warming pans. His Majesty, Geor e IV. ofEngland, had a passion for teapots, Prince s ismarckfor thermometers, Louis XVI, for locks, clocks andkeys, The late empress of Russia and her and&u h-ter, Princess Marie of Roumania, actions of scent bottles. The English A kr fuire large co ec-iralty causes thefigureheads of disused British warships to be sawn offand preserved as memorials. Kin Edward VII, and ex-President Cleveland are collectors o walking-sticks, a factwhich would seem, at first thouent with the ways of men ht, to be quite inconsist-he d close by the confiningduties of court and professional life.Amonprovided for the preservation of a collectors many havet eir treasures as a whole,but perhaps none save M, Edmond de Goncourt hasasked that they be dispersed. This famous Frenchman,almost equally well known as an author and a connois-seur, gave directions in his will that his ceramics andbric-a-brac be sold ; preferring that they should pass intothe possession of those who should care for them, ratherthan be classified in a museum, there to await the coldglances of the indifferent.The collection, which is the subjectof the present paper is a very important one; whether itbe judged from its claims to beauty, extensiveness andvalue, or yet again from the educative influence which it



33/72

THE DRAKE COLLECTION 75

exerts upon artists and craftsmen and the public taste.We shall now treat only of the section of brass and cop-per objects which are said to be the direct cause of the brassfever : a mania which is invading society and trans-forming many of its devotees into collectors and amateurs.The Drake collection, preciousas it is from the aesthetic point of view, has besides anlinZi2asEi and pathetic interest derived from the peopleoned these vessels and utensils, which are ex-amples of what may be done with a few sheets of goodmetal and a mere handful of tools. In glancing throughthe collection, we find it to be largely the work of simplefolk, artistic yet unlettered, of those who, ignorant of clas-sictaprinciple and academic rule, have yet perceived thevi essence of art and clothed it in visible form. If westudy a simple water bottle from Arabia, Spain, or Poland,we feel that its maker has put his life into his work. Orwe may take a lesson in the development of ornamentfrom a Venetian bucket. Here, on the lower part of theutensil, the hammer blows are distinct, regular and suf-ficiently accented to keep them in sight. Then followsa deeply tooled line, practically straight. Then, the moodof the craftsman having changed, we find a quaint designhammered from the inside, with the ground set back inthe front. This bucket, made by some humble worker,and intended for the common uses of laboring people, isfull of interest for the student. For possibly it was sug-gested by some great mosaic glowing with voluptuouscoloring, or drawn from a capital stone in St. Marks,

Perhaps it is the helplessness ofthese brave familtheir salvation, wg servants which is the true cause ofich saves them from being lost or de-stro ed,I It is mainly to metal that we look for the lawsof c ssic proportion, and the preservation of many forms.Metal is long suffering and endures much.hand brazier ! Examine, if you will, that smallIt is punctured and perforated. It leans a



34/72

76 THE DRAKE COLLECTION

little to one side. Yet who would have it otherwise thanit stands : a combination of dignity and insolence ?Observe also the large brazierfrom Madrid, and note the influence which it asserts overthe great fire platform ! It is not too much to say thatcenturies of thought could scarcely improve its outlines.Its handles are full bodied brass castings, strong andspirited, refined a little by the file, but without losing inthe process anything of their vigor.Furthermore, these examples ofbrass are of good, thick and honest metal: a substancewhich responds to the blow essential to shape it, andwhich is sufficiently thick to preserve the marks of theblow, and to resist a possible loss by the action of fire, byfriction, or by accident. These qualities it were well forour young women workers to observe ; for they are in-clined to choose thin metal as the object of the gentle tappings. And here we venture to recommend fencing andthe exercises of the gymnasium as preparatory work fortheir use of thicker, more resistent metal, to the end thatboth their designs and their execution may be improved.But let us return to the collec-tion before us, and compare a stamped silver bowl, pur-chased at a fashionable silversmiths, with a brass onecoming from the cottage of a Russian peasant! Thework on the latter vessel is distinguished by an infinitecare which has guided the craftsman in his effort to ac-complish by hand what he had no other means to do.Such is work that lasts I There is a sentiment of gran-deur running through this epic poem of work. At times,also, there are signs of a gentle mood : a subtle, fleetingidea, as if the workman were reproducing a half-forgotten,hereditary art. There are curious signs on these littlejugs, these Russian tea and cake boxes, which appeal andare known to lovers of art.For example, look at this milkjug and note its handle, large and thick, cast solid, rough-



35/72



36/72


37/72


38/72

A D utch M i l k Can-fo be carri ed over t he shoulder wi th a yok e


39/72


40/72

73 THE DRAKE COLLECTIONThese vesseIs might be studied with much profit by ourarmy of factory workers in so-called ornament, whocould learn from them a lesson in simplicity and restraint.Most attractive also are thecopper kettles, for there are few thin s which bear sopIainIy written on them the history of 2 eir lives. Everypressure, every incident is shown. We can see how themetal sheet was handled, hammered, twisted, turned andthen hammered again. And aII these processes testify tothe &II of the craftsman who used them! Furthermore,these domestic vesseIs appeal to those who love their feI-low men ; for years of human Iife have written their his-tory upon them in the marks of daily service. Fire,water, feast, famine, trouble, pleasure have made but asurface impression upon them. They have survivedthem ail. If bent, they can be straightened.they can be soldered. If punctured,They are phiIosophers, and theyaccept events as they come.An ItaIian scaldino next invitesour attention. It is in reality very simple, in s te of itsrich appeamnce, which is caused by its well b2 riced de-sign, evenly covered and centered. What a picture itwould make, if filled with lighted charcoal!indefinitel And thus we might commentand digni , in praise of the qualities which characterizeE; these household wares of the people of manynations and races ; finding in them baIance and exquisiteproportion, richness and beauty of form. How tall thesesmall pieces are 1 Only inches in height ! But note thescale of them I They dwarf every day metal ware bytheir frank acceptance of laws of proportion which,although scarcely classic, still entitle then to be rivals ofthe jars and vases of Pompeii and Herculaneum,The aesthetic value of this col-lection should awaken the enthusiasm not only to pos-sess, but also to create similar objects. Any sincerecraftsman can take up the study of metal work. There



41/72

THE DRAKE COLLECTION 79is here no chemical or harassing mechanical difficulty toovercome. Nor does the enterprise require difficult andcomplicated technical manipulation. Any one who canpatiently and intelligently hammer a flat surface, or acquirethe art of riveting, can be n the work. But the use ofthe hammer must be we1 ff understood, before the crafts-man may decorate. And great pleasure is found in thepreliminary task, since copper is responsive to the touchof the workman,- more so, perhaps, than any other metalsave pewter. So, while the use of the hammer is lackingin the passion, in the intoxicating happiness communicatedby the forge, there is much in this work which strengthensand develops the craftsman. Brass andiron are not onlyof the people, as is iron, but they are mirrors of pop&rlife. Their polished surfaces receive the impress of home-ly histories of pleasure, pain and toil.Altogether the brass and coppervessels of the Drake collection are rich in lessons of art,history and life. They may be compared with a Shakes-pearian play in which tragedy and comedy jostle eachother, in which idea and emotion are simply and grandlyexpressed. Of Mr. Alexander W. Drake,the owner of the collection, we have not spoken, for wehave felt that we could add no word to the tributes whichhave been already paid to him.praise him. Furthermore, his worksFor he has not been content to label, caseand catalogue after the manner of collectors. By con-stant use, these brasses and bronzes gathered from for-eign households have become to him as living guests whopay homage to their host, and add, each in greater or lessmeasure, to the beauties of his home.



42/72

THE EVOLUTION OF THE LOCK mBY E. ALEXANDER POWELL

HERE is, perhaps, no craft which has un-dergone such an evolution in the last cen-tury as that of the locksmith. In less thanone hundred years it has dropped from thestatus of an art to that of an industry ; be-fore the march of progress mediaeval aes-theticism has given way to modern commercialism. Asa result the craft has gained in science what it has lost inart. The cumbersome, but exquisitely wrought locks ofour forefathers time have been replaced by a mechanismfar more wonderful than the most beautiful ornamenta-tions of theold-time smiths. From the most remote timesit has been an accepted fact that to retain a thing of valueit was necessary to fasten that in which it was contained,The wooden button of the ancients gave way to a barfitting into sockets, and this in turn to a rude latch, oftenwith a Ieathern thong, and so on, until gradually themodern lock was evolved. But even to-day many of theold forms still remain, The wooden button can be foundin daily use in the cottages of English shires. Thedoorsof adobe huts in Old Mexico are still barred againstmarauders, and amongst the natives of our southernmountains the latch lifted by a deer skin thong is still acommon sight. The earliest historical mentionof locks occurs in Judges iii, 23-25, where it is told that Ehud locked the doors of the parlor, and the servantsof King Eglon took a key and opened them, TheEgyptians of four thousand years ago were probably thefirst people to make use of the lock in its modern sense,their doors being fitted with a primitive affair, consistingof a simple device of a series of three pins in the lock pro-per, dropping into three corresponding holes in the bolts,when it is pushed in, and thus holding it fast. This lockcontained the principles of the modern tumbler lock, andso is still in use among the modern Egyptians and Turks,



43/72

THE EVOLUTION OF THE LOCK 81

but in their hands has made no advance. These lockswere made of hard wood, and must have been very cum-bersome affairs, with keys several feet in length, callingto mind the passage in Isaiah xxii, 22, The key of theHouse of David will hy upon his shoulder. (B. C. 758).Also Callimachus, in hk Hymn to Ceres, speaks of thegoddess in the form of her priestess, Nissippe, carrying a keyfit to be borne upon the shoulder. For many cen-turies locks continued to be made large and clumsy, forEustathius, Bishop of Thessalonica (A. D. I I 55) de-scribes keys that were curved like a sickle and so largethat they were often carried on the shoulder.Next to the Egyptian, the oldesttype of tumbler lock was probably one invented by theChinese very early in their history. The tumbler lockderives its name from a lever or slide entering a notch inthe bolt, which consequently cannot be moved until thetumbler is lifted by a key. Many modifications of thisancient lock are still used. The next step in lock makingwas the warded lock, the name being derived from anirre 8 My shaped construction attached to the lock casein t e path of the key which makes it impossible to movethe bolt unless the key has openin s in its bit which en-ables it to pass the wards. Such ocks were used by theAncient Romans Ion before the beginning of the Christ-ian Era, and are stH used when a cheap lock suffices,It was probably some such lock that is mentioned inHomers description of Penelope openin H her wardrobe : A brazen key she held, the hand e turned,With steel and polished ivo adorned.The bolt, obedient to the s en string,Forsakes the staple as she pulls the ring.The wards, respondent to the key, turn round,The bars fly back, the flLoud as a bull, made hi H ing valves resoundand valley ring.So roared the lock when it released the spring.



44/72


45/72

THE EVOLUTION OF THE LOCK 83kind, and is the only information we have respecting themethods of the old iron workers. At this period, iron,l&e gold, silver and other metals, was chased up to reatperfection, as shown in the marvelous examples of ocksin the Hotel de Cluny and at the Louvre. Jousse, in urg-ing his objections to the old style of locks, claims that theyare always placed on the outside; that great difficultywas met with in making them because of the intricacy ofthe action, but more especially because of the great de reeto which their ornamentation had been carried, that t eywere easily picked and were liable to tear ladies dresses.He divides locks into two classes. First, those with sin-gle hasps ; second, those with double or bifurcated hasps.Among other receipts f iven in this interesting work,Jousse tells how to me t iron and to run it into moldslike other fusible metals, and at little expense, He alsogives several modes of brazing or joining pieces of irontogether by means of melted brass, and also recommendsa mixture of silver and brass. Perhaps the most inter-esting portion of his work is that dealin with the enamel-ing of iron work. His receipt is as fo fiows: One ouncerosin; one quarter ounce Sanderas ( urn sanderac) ;one quarter ounce mastic en carme, a% of which areto be pulverized and mixed together and the color whichis desired is added. If the worker wants blue, he takes email f in (some color, not enamel), and the same pro-cess if he wishes red, vermilion, green, verdigris, etc. ;these are mixed with the above composition, which is thenallowed to cool to the consistency of paste. From thispast % substance small sticks are made with which thewor is enameled after it has been tinned. The enamel-ing is performed by slightly heating the piece of iron andthenwhit Kassing over the places with the aforesaid sticks,are gradually melted by the heat. The authorsays that this enamel will fast a long time and is verycheap. A lock was a subject on which



46/72

84 THE EVOLUTION OF THE LOCK

the ancient smiths deIighted to exercise the utmost re-sources of their art. The locks of chests were originallyof the most elaborate and beautiful description. Inchurches, Ioc s were frequently found adorned withsacred subjects traced on them, and with the most ingen-ious mechanical contrivances for concealing the key-hole.Keys were also highly ornamented with appropriatedecorations referring to the locks to which they belonged,and even the wards were turned into beautiful devices,initial letters or the arms of the owner,

A common and most ingeniousexpedient was often resorted to by the ancient smiths toprocure the effect of rich decoration at the smallest possi-ble outlay of time and Iabor, An open work patternhaving been marked on sheet iron, it was punched outand the edges filled up square. This sheet was Iaid uponanother one and foIiations or other ornaments weremarked out through the interstices of the first. Whenthe second set of ornaments had been cut out, the secondsheet was placed on the third, and the same operationwas repeated to any extent of elaboration. Any numberof sheets thus perforated were Iaid one upon another insuch a way as to best throw up the design, were rivetedtogether, and occasionally beads, rosettes and other orna-ments were also attached to the face. As one punchingand one filing up would serve for many p&es at thesame time, this, although strictly a handwork process,was by no means so expensive as might be imagined.Locks were often made out of perforated iron plates, thebottom one alone beinrelieve the rest. brass and serving as a ground toOld f, were for the most part filedfrom the solid, the labor on them fre uently being enor-mous. Tracings of locks, more especa%often first cast and then fiIed up. y in England, wereThe art of lock making musthave made considerable advance during the reign ofQueen mabeth, for we are told that one, Mark ScaIiot,



47/72



48/72


49/72

THE EVOLUTION OF THE LOCK 85a famous locksmith of the time, made a lock consistinof eleven pieces of iron, steel and brass, all of which, wit aa ipe key of gold, weighed only two grains of gold.TX is Scaliot must have been an ingenious and cleverworkman, for the Marquis of Worcester, in his famousCentury of Inventions, ( I663), mentions severallocks of his design, and says of one of them : If astranger open it, it setteth an Alarm a-going, which thestranger cannot stop from running out ; and besides, thoughnone should be within hearing yet it catched his hand, asa Trap does a Fox ; and though far from maiming him, yetit Ieaveth such a mark behind it, as will discover him ifsuspected; the Escocheon or Lock plainly showing whatmonies he has taken out of the box to a farthing, and howmany times opened since the owner had been in it.In America during the Colonialperiod, the value of chests, trunks and cabinets was ma-teriall increased when accompanied with metal mount-ings, ocks, keys and hinges. Wrought iron and brasswere at this time in great demand, It must be assumedthat the majority of boxes, trunks, cases and chests hadno locks, since in manof special mention. ?y inventories the lock was worthyhus William Bartlett, of Hartford,in 1658, has a chest with a lock, lo/-. In 1640 JohnHarby had two old locks at I/- each, and four ironhinges at --/lo each. Alexander Roll0 had a door lockand key 7/6. Two chests with keys and locks, 15/-,a desk with ditto, S/-,t In the inventories of hardware inthe various shops, handles are very seldom mentioned.

Needless to say that the craftof Iocksmithing grew to large proportions during the six-teenth and seventeenth centuries, and the English artisans,although behind their fellows of the Continent in the finerarts, excelled them in the making of locks and keys.Much of the good effect of the better specimens of Englishworkmanship was obtained by the simple method de-scribed elsewhere in this paper, of perforating sheets of



50/72


51/72

THE EVOLUTION OF THE LOCK 87distance above the lock and having a little box or slide toit, bg the withdrawal of which an inspection of the visitormig t be made, and a conversation take place beforedrawing back the bolt. In times when assassination wasthe easiest and most largely employed method of remov-ing an enemy, it can be readily seen that this contrivancewas of very practical value, and some modifications of itwere invariably found on everare several such gtiUe.s in K door of the period, Theret e cloisters of WestminsterAbbey, and many yet exist in the remains of the monas-tic and conventual establishments of the period.For the last two centuries, thelittle Midlands town of Wolverhampton in Staffordshirehas been the center of the lock-making industry in Eng-land. As late as 1856 scarcely a machine of any kindwas used in making locks or kedistrict. r s throughout this wholeTwo decades ago Wo verhampton made nearlyalI of the good locks, and WilIanhalI, a nearby hamlet,nearly the whole of the cheaper kind, but in both pIacesthe o rations were almost wholly handwork. Themanu acture was whoIIy in the hands of small masters,each of whom worked at the bench himself and employeda smaIl number of workmen and apprentices. The pro-ducts were sold to the Wolverhampton factors or mer-chants, and many of the small manufacturers depended onthese wekIy receipts for the means of carrying on the nextweeks operations. There were very few lock factorieswhere the trade was conducted on anything Iike a largescale.

Among the Continental Iock-smiths, the French semrrier~ were, perhans the most &II-ful and paid more attention to the mechanism and beautyof their locks and keys than the workers of any othercountry. Among German smiths, the iron work ofNuremburg was exceptionally beautiful, and the smiths ofthat city excelIed in every variety of article used by theChurch, or the Laity in time of peace, while the Augs-



52/72

88 THE EVOLUTION OF THE LOCKburg smiths were beyond competition in the productionof work for military purposes. Although door trimmingswere never produced in Italy in any such quantities asthey were in England, France or Germany, a few goodspecimens are to be met with, and in the cities of Veniceand Bologna, where the great masters left their impressionson the work, the highest degree of perfection was reachedinindividual examples. In the latter days of the 16th centurwhen the Italian States were at the zenith of their wealt Kand power, their aristocracy were dissatisfied unless themost utilitarian of their wants and requirements wereministered to by the greatest artists of the age. As a re-sult the locks and knockers of Venice and Bologna at-tained the most wonderful degree of perfection and showthe influence of such masters as Luca della Robbia andSansovino, of Riccio, and of Giovanni di Bologna, Italianlocks were seldom if ever made in duplicate, and all thework of this school exemplifies how impossible it wasto feave any article connected with the Church abso-lutely undecorated. The bronze knocker from the PisaniPalace is the most famous example of the Italian schooland probably dates from the latter days of Sansovino.Up to the middle of the eigh-teenth century, the main dependence for security in locksconsisted of a combination of complicated wards, intricatekeys, single tumblers, and a multitude of bolts shot sim-ultaneously by the action of a single key from all sides,and even from the angles of the door or lid to whichthey were attached; often as many as twelve beingused. Barrons lock was the first tohave multiple tumblers, and was patented in England in1878. An improvement on this was the lock patentedten years later by Joseph Bramah, of London, which hadthe reputation of being the most secure known. So surewas the inventor of the strength of his lock that he saidthat it was in that state not to be within the range of



53/72


54/72

90 THE EVOLUTION OF THE LOCK

it was desired to open the door, and at that hour and atno other could the key be made to open it.To-day permutation, combina-tion, dial and time locks are in extensive use upon fireand burg&r proof safes and vaults, and it is safe to saythat such an acme of perfection has been reached that itis absolutely impossible to open them except by the useof high explosives.



55/72

SOME CORNISH CRAFTSMEN D BYMABEL THORNTON WHITMORE

HERE is on the coast of Cornwall, Eng-land, a Iittle fishing village which, in thepast twenty years, has become celebratedbecause of resident artists whose work isknown wherever pictures are seen andvalued. But in the Iast decade there hasgrown up in that same Iittfe viIIage,a flourishing industryabout which very little is known outside the limits of thesection influenced by it.NewIyn by Penzance lies onthe border of Mounts Bay, about midway betweenLands End on one side, and the Lizard Lights onthe other. It is a picturesque little place, crouching at thewaterside under the brow of a steep hill, where thecrooked streets threaten to shoot the pedestrians straightinto the harbor, and where thatched roofs are stilI infashion. The bleak Cornish coast offers

IittIe in the way of encouragement to farmers, and thechief occupation of the men and the Iar er boys is fishing.The Iittle harbor, artificialIy made by ong piers built outinto the bay, is crowded with the brown-sailed Iuggers,which at sunset stream out to the ocean, and in the earlydawn steal back one by one, with their load of fish.In the winter months, however,there are many nights when the boats cannot go out.Then, the men find their occupation ashore: mending nets,repairing sails, overhauling rigging and-most importantof aII, if judged by the faithfulness shown- pacing thequarter deck, to and fro on the bluff by the water-side,telling long tales of their varied experiences.The younger Iads from fourteento eighteen, who belong to the crews, but take a minorpart in the work on shore, thus have, during the longwinter months, much idle time on their hands, And itwas with a view of keeping them out of the Pubs, and



56/72

92 SOME CORNISH CRAFTSMEN

so out of mischief that, about 1892, some of the localartists organized The Newlyn Industrial Class, devotedchiefly to metal work. The Member of Parliament forthat district, who is a wealthy and generous man, becameinterested in the idea, and financially aided the enterprise.A suitable room was rented,centrally located near the water (for your true fishermannever penetrates more than a few hundred yards inland),where the incessant din of the hammers would not seri-ously annoy the neighbors, A few simple tools werepurchased : chasers, punches, dies for stamping back-f rounds, and hammers and mallets, with a number ofead, or pitch tablets. An instructor experienced in metalwork was engaged from London, and the school wasopened three evenings the week for all who wished to join,no fee being charged. The class became popular,and although a number of the pupils soon wearied of thework, their places were filled by others whose interestgrew and whose ability for the work developed.It must be understood that,atthe outset, the artists were as ignorant of the craft of brass-beating as the fisher-lads themselves. But three or fourof them became much interested in the work, originallyfrom the point of view of a charity toward the boys, andafterward, because of the mall good and interesting re-sults obtained. The evening c asses were at first directedby the instructor from London, and attended in turn byone or two of the artists. The latter quickly became con-versant with the methods employed, and expert in the useof the tools. They made all the designs for the work.These were at the beginning very simple, They weregiven to the bo s, who with carbon transfer paper, tracedthem on smootg sheets of copper or brass. Copper wasfound to be more ductile and easier to work, and thesequalities, together with its deep, rich color, made it thefavorite material. As soon as the artists themselves began



57/72


58/72


59/72

SOME CORNISH CRAFTSMEN 93

to understand the use of the tools and the manipulationof the metal, the instructor was dismissed, and the workattempted assumed a somewhat different character, Thework of the London teacher was precise, neat, highlyfinished, and conventional. The artists, on the contrary,aimed at something more individual, unconventional anddistinctive. Their designs were kept simple and naturallreflected the surroundings of the place: the things rTitwhich the fisher-boys were familiar. Sea-weed and fishes,the quaintly shaped luggers, even the light-house pierwith the tossing sea at its foot were outlined on the metal.The things first wrought were trays, simple plaques,finger-plates for the edges of doors, etc.But in a short time there de-veloped among the boys a number who showed real abil-ity for the work. One in particular, somewhat older thanthe others, became expert, not only in the use of the tools,but also in adapting and even in originatinLater, this youn man was employe simple de-E%lary, to superintenf ! at a regu-the class, take care Lf the room,purchase materials, and teach beginners. The t&weeklyattendance of the artists (finally somewhat of a burden)then became unnecessary; but one or two, with Mr. JohnD. Mackenzie (whose beautiful black-and-white work iswell known among illustrators), at their head, continuedto make the designs, superintend the work, and direct thesale of the productions. From making the small objectsalready mentioned, the boys progressed to varied andcomplicated articles. Candlesticks, sconces, inkstands,hoods and blowers for fire-places, corners and finger-lates for doors, brass and!& co per boxes, picture frames,ge tea-trays and beautiful pE ques were produced. Thearticles were at first bought cheaply in the neighborhood.But the market widened, and as the quality of workman-ship improved, and the designs became more elaborateand beautiful, the work commanded higher prices, and



60/72

94 SOME CORNISH CRAFTSMEN-~orders came from all directions. A depot for the sale ofarticles was established in several places, and a Londonagency instituted. The boys, who, at the begin-ning, received their instructions and a small percentage onthe sales, wereof the profits ; iven fifty and then seventy-five per cent.ta e remainder going to the maintenance ofthe rooms and the salary of the caretaker and teacher.The more skilful workers began to earn substantial sums,and advancing from tracing the patterns, they were finallyable, in man instances, to adapt and even to originatedesigns, TK time occupied in learning this craft wouldotherwise have been wasted : stormboats lay at anchor, or day hours evenings when theJla t could be sparedfrom other labors. In Newlyn, the influence of theartists upon the work was naturally very great; their de-signs being original and valuable, But good designs arenow obtainable from many sources, and their transfer tothe metal is work which even a child can do. Thus,given a little instruction in the use of the tools, theknowl-edge of the possibilities of the medium comes quickly, andthe union in one person of designer and workman ismore or less certain, when any facility or taste is de-veloped. The rough Corn&h fisher-lads,with an education far inferior to that offered by our ordi-nary grammar schools, and with no inheritance of me-chanical ability or dexterity, have, in a few years, estab-lished an industry which is already recognized in England,and which commands a good sale and fair profits. It isalso an employment which they can pursue at odd hours,and which does not interfere with their regular calling offishers. Therefore, in view of the success attending thework,and the employment and profit it offers to lads whoglean but a scanty and precarious livelihood from thetreacherous waters, the artists who devoted many prec-



61/72

METAL AS A MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION 95

ious hours, amid the deafenin noise of the hammer, tothe starting and fostering of ta erepaid for their unselfish labors. enterprise, may well feel

METAL AS A MEDIUM OF EXPRESSIONBY MARY NORTONW ROUGHT metal brings us to a field of work whichoffers large opportunities to the craftsman. Themedium may seem at first unsympathetic and stubborn,but, on the contrary, it is most responsive to those whounderstand its nature. Metal offers a wide choice oftemperament from which to select our favorites, For myown part, I much prefer the pure metals to the alloys, aswith my somewhat limited experience, one element at atime engages all my energies, Every metal should beallowed to preserve its own individuality, and we shouldseek to define its leading characteristics, while using it toexpress our own ideas. In planning work : for example,an interior decoration, it is well to consider first, whatkind of metal can best be employed, with respect to both useand ornament ; second, which of several metals is preferablein color and texture in relation to the other furnishings ofthe room ; third, but by no means least in importance,what style of design is best suited to both the use and themetal selected. If iron is chosen as filling all require-ments, a design must be made, especially adapted to thequalities of that metal. We can no more make a designsuited to iron, and work it out in copper, than we canweave a pattern for gingham into a brocade, and expect



62/72

96 METAL AS A MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION

the result to be satisfactory. The characteristics of thetwo metals are too different to allow similar treatment.It is quite as impossible for theartist who has never worked in metal to design therefor,as for the workman who has no artistic feeling, to carryout a design. To obtain good results the artist shouldalso be the artisan. It would seem impossible for eventhe most skilled workman fully to carry out a de.4which he did not conceive and to which he is not fu!?ysensitive. It is, however, not always practicable for theartist to be his own workman, and there are many partsof the work which can be done almost as well by theworkman as by the artist. But after these more or lessmechanical parts are accomplished, the artist must finishthe work, or must always see in it a reat lack whichevery intelligent observer will also feel, thou h he ithe cause. aQ&noreAnd let me say here that it is tot e int gentobserver, as much as to the craftsman, that the lesser artsowe their revival and to whom they are looking for appreciation and support. The artist who can find anartistic workman is fortunate; for the training school ofthe modern artisan is the factory, in which even thosewho are employed to do hand work must pay more at-tention to the quantity done in a certain length of time,than to the quality, as long as the latter meets the fixedrequirements. This is very apparent in the silver workof to-day, or, at least, it is there brought more closely toour notice. The desire to save time may account, in ameasure, for the great number of tools used by silver-smiths in chasing ; which number is so great as to reducethe work almost to the function of the die, and the work-man to the machine. Technique, in this respect, isnot the skifful use of many tools, but ingenuity in theuse of few. For example, if in making aline we use a curved tool, all such lines in our work will



63/72

METAL AS A MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION 97

bear exactly the same expression ; whereas, when liningis necessary, if we use a straight tool,-sometimes bring-inB it up to the very end in making a quick curve,-theef ect produced will be much fresher and more spontan-eous, In looking at much of the silver-chasing of today we find the shape of the tool used moreapparent than the feeling which the designer wished toconvey; and here again, the disadvantage of separatingthe designer from the worker is brought to our notice. Inthis kind of work, it seems both easy and natural thatthey should be one. So much is said just now ofthe marks of the tool, that we are led to regard the de-sire for them as a fad, rather than as a real appreciation,Tool marks in themselves are of no value, if they do notaid to interpret the thought; properly used, their functionis not so much to leave their own mark or impression, asto change the whole appearance and quality of the metal,This is not so apparent possiblyin chasing, though too much can scarcely be saidagainst the constant use of the outlining tooL If thewhole design is outlined, before being raised, freshnessand feeling are almost impossible in the finished work.A continuous line of any account would naturally be bad,but it is made worse by the inevitable spreading whichtakes lace when the design is raised. Very little outliningis rea #y necessary before or after the design is raised, andit is most interesting to note the delightful effects which canbe obtained in place of outlining, by a broad flat tool,commonly called the planisher, which is one of the bestmodeling tools. In making a spoon, it wouldseem that nothing is ained by hammering it into shapeby hand, if through t%e employment of such a variety ofmechanical devices all life and feeling are lost. One or twohammers, an anvil and a round steel head for shaping the



64/72

98 METAL AS A MEDIUM OF EXPRESSION

bowl are quite sufficient to produce a variety of shapes.As the shaping is done when the metal is cold, it requiresa greater length of time and more hammering to obtaina desired form than when hot metal is used. Consequentlygreater refinement is secured.It is necessary in executingwrought silver to anneal it several times ; by this process,the article is brought to a rose-heat and the substance con-tained in all silver of use to make it sufficiently hard, isburned away on the surface, leavinlutely pure silver which is

a coating of absebeautif J in color and texture.I see no reason why this should ever be destroyed. Inthe commercial article, it is always burned away in a bathof acid; as thetJ re silver is not sufficiently hard to takethe polish us y applied, or the oxide, if the latter is de-sired. Neither polish nor oxide can compare in beautyto the surface left by the annealing, which possesses un-marred all the most delicate impressions given by the

Workman. Metal has so long presented tothe world the expressionless face of the die that its variedpossibilities have been almost forgotten. It is now callingto be redeemed by the forge and the anvil, and those whoshall take up this kind of work with the purpose of doingall in their power for the metal as well as for themselves,will be ully repaid for their labor.

. ...yF3p



65/72

EXHIBITION OF THE GILD OF ARTSAND CRAFTS OF NEW YORK

HE recent exhibition of the Gild of Artsand Crafts of New York was an exampleof the results which can be obtained bynd perseverance, even though theing be very small. This gild, theorganization of its kind in New Yorkin January, 1900, with four youngwomen as members ; two of these fillin the offices ofsecretary and treasurer. At that time, t a e society hadno constitution and there was no money in the treasury ;the four members being personally responsible for all ex-penses incurred. During the first year, which wasan experimental one, more than one thousand dollars passedthrou h the hands of the treasurer; this coming fromactua Bsales and commissions, or being returns from classesin various departments of designing and crafts-work.Since then, the gild has outgrown its humble be inning,and now occupies a number of studios in the bui din atNo. 132 East Twenty-third street. Its members inc udeworkers in sculpture, etching, water-colors, miniaturepainting, photography, book-binding, stenciling, fire etch-ing, chalk drawing, designing, book lates, wood carving,Icot and metal work, needle wor , basketry and bead

.I he aim of the gild, as set forthin its constitution, is to advance the union of the Arts ofDesign with the Arts of Production ; with the ideal that

the artist and artisan should be one and the same person.It is also purposed to establish shops which shall take theform of permanent exhibition, and sales rooms, where thework of the gild members and pupils, after passing a jury,shall be placed, also to co-operate actively with any or-ganization interested in the progress of education andindustry. Practical and theoretical in-



66/72

100 GILD OF ARTS AND CRAFTS

struction is given by cornmodeling, book binding, IeatK

tent teachers in drawing,er and metal work, basketryand other crafts. Just at present, arrangements are pend-ing to secure a permanent home for the gild, where a stillbroader scope of work can be undertaken, and a perman-ent exhibition be maintained in connection with the work.The class rooms of the gild are considered as work shops,and are open to the students daily, from nine A. M. tofive P. M. Another of the chief aims of the gild is tomake design, with drawing, the basis of an art education ;

combined with these studies, a hand-craft gives thethe benefit of mental and manual training, and up&ba anteseducational with professional work,One of the most interesting dis-plays made at the recent exhibition was a collection ofbaskets, the work of Miss White, Miss Francis and MissEppendorf, all of whom are experts, and the first of whomis the author of a work which is a recognized authorityupon basketry. These baskets, most varied in color and;:g , were woven from natural grasses or from corn-N dyeing was used in the work, except in themate& with which the baskets were sewed.The copper and brass work ofthe Busck Studios attracted considerable attention, someof the copper pieces being beautifully colored, and manypleasing effects being attained in hammered brass. Thesestudios also showed examples of tooled leather, and anumber of copper covers for French earthenware cas-seroles ; reproductions of the latter are shown in thisnumber of The Craftsman.Among the other exhibits wor-thy of mention were examples of bookbinding by MissHaskelI and Miss Preston : a beautiful piece by the latterbeing a book-cover of mosaic in colored leathers.Miss Hicks showed a numberof specimens of her excellent work in tooled leather ; alsoa number of cotton cloths for hangings and covers, dyed



67/72


68/72

, 1.-.. . ;. : . .*.G_ . ,. n

Screen in fumed oak and U ni t ed Craf t s leat her



69/72

THE CRAFTSMAN 101

by a primitive process employed in the East Indies, whichconsists of tieing small stones or shot into a piece of whitecotton cloth in such a manner as to form a design, Thecloth is then dipped in a dye vat; the spots protected bythe cord which holds the stones in place, remaining white,and thus forming the design.In addition to the exhibit of theGild, the Volkmar Potteries of Corona, L. I., sent a num-ber of representative pieces ; and rugs were shown by Mrs.Douglas Volk, who was also the exhibitor of some inter-esting woven hangings in silk and wool. These articleswere made at Lovel, Maine, where the industries of card-ing, spinning, weaving, and dyein

The Craftsman - 1902 - 05 - May

Documents

Transcript of The Craftsman - 1902 - 05 - May