The Aesthetics of Shadow by Daisuke Miyao

T h e A e s T h e T i c s o f

s h A d o w

Lighting and Japanese Cinema

d a i s u k e m i ya o

T h e A e s T h e T i c s o f

s h A d o wLighting and Japanese Cinema

D a i s u k e M i ya o

DukeUniversityPress

DurhamandLondon 2013

©2013DukeUniversityPress

Allrightsreserved

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For Dica

A c k n o w l e d g m e n t s ix

I n t r o d u c t I o n

WhatistheaestheticsofshaDoW? 1

1.LightinganDcapitaList-inDustriaLMoDernity:Shochiku and Hollywood 15

2.fLashesofthesWorDanDthestar:Shochiku and Jidaigeki 67

3.streetfiLMs:Shochiku and Germany 119

4.theaestheticsofshaDoW:Shochiku, Toho, and Japan 173

c o n c l u s I o n

thecineMatographyofMiyagaWakazuo 255

n o t e s 283

B I B l I o g r A p h y 329

I n d e x 365

Contents

IameternallygratefultothelateRobertSklar,mymentor.Ihadcountlessjoyfulmomentswithhimwhenwetalkedaboutfilmsand books. With his generosity, patience, and continuous en-couragement,Ihavebeenabletotransformmyselffromanaïvestudent fromJapanwhoknewvery littleabout thepracticeofcinemastudiesintoalittlemorearticulatefilmhistorian.Thankyousoverymuch,ProfessorSklar. IowesomuchtothebigheartofthelateKeikoI.McDonald.Itwasmygreatpleasuretoreporttheprogressofmyresearchtoheratannualconferences.Ourmeetingswerealwaysafterherdailyten-milerun,andshealwaysamazedmewithherpositiveenergy.IamsorrythatIdidnothaveachancetorunthehistoricHaywardFieldwithKeiko-sensei,whowasaUniversityofOre-gonalumna. SpecialthanksgotoKenWissokerofDukeUniversityPress.Kenwastheveryfirstpersonwho listenedtomy initial roughideaaboutwritingatransnationalhistoryofcinematiclighting.ItwasinChicagoin2007whenmybookonSessueHayakawacameout.Hehasbeenenthusiasticaboutthisprojecteversinceandguidedmethroughalongandwindingroad.ThisbookisacollaborationbetweenKenandme. AsmyprojectinvolvedextensiveresearchbothintheUnitedStates and Japan, I have been very fortunate to be assisted bymanyinstitutions.IthankaboveallCharlesSilverattheMuseumofModernArt,FilmStudyCenterinNewYork;OkajimaHisa-

ACknowledgments

x acknoWLeDgMents

shi,OkadaHidenori,TochigiAkira,IrieYoshiro,andItakuraFumiakiattheNationalFilmCenter,theNationalMuseumofModernArt,Tokyo;WachiYukiko,FukudaAtsuko,andstaffmembersatKawakitaMemorialFilmIn-stitute;MoriwakiKiyotakaattheMuseumofKyoto;YasuiYoshioatKobePlanetEigaShiryokan;BarbaraHallattheMargaretHerrickLibraryoftheCenterforMotionPictureStudy;MonaNagaiandJasonSandersatthePacificFilmArchive;JohnMhiripiriattheAnthologyFilmArchive;andstaffmembersat theUniversityofOregonKnightLibrary’s InterlibraryLoanOffice.IhavealsobenefitedgreatlyfrommyvisitstotheNewYorkPublicLibraryforPerformingArts,ucLaDepartmentofSpecialCollec-tions,TsubouchiMemorialTheaterMuseumatWasedaUniversity,theNa-tionalDietLibrary,andShochikuOtaniLibrary. AnacLs/ssrc/nehFellowship,CenterfortheStudyofWomeninSocietyResearchGrant,OregonHumanitiesCenterResearchFellowship,RichardA.BrayFacultyFellowship,andotherinternalresearchgrantsattheUniversityofOregonprovidedmewithprecioustimeandfundingtocompletethisbook. KotaniEiichi,KuritaToyomichi,MiyagawaJiro,OkadaMariko,WakaoAyako,andYoshidaKijusharedpreciousstoriesofJapanesefilmmakingwithme. IamdeeplygratefultoStevenBrown,RebeccaFowler,HideakiFujiki,TomGunning,EliseHansen,AbéMarkusNornes,andYomotaInuhiko,whokindlyreadsectionsofthisbookatvariousstagesandgavemevalu-ablecommentsandencouragements. CheerstoKathleenKarlyn,MikeAronson,PriscillaPeñaOvalle,San-gitaGopal,KatharinaLowe,KateMondloch,AudraMahoney,andthefac-ultyandthestaffoftheCinemaStudiesProgramattheUniversityofOre-gon.Iamhonoredtosharetheloveofcinemawithyou. Among many friends, colleagues, and mentors on both sides of thePacificwhohaveprovidedinvaluableprofessionalandemotionalsupport,IwouldliketoparticularlythankCharlesAffron,DudleyAndrew,ChrisArnold, Keri Aronson, Kathryn Barton, Jennifer M. Bean, Betty Chen,StephenDurrant,MaramEpstein,RobertFelsing,FunatsuAkiko,AaronGerow, Carol Gluck, Frances Guerin, Heidi Johnson, Patrick Keating,ChikaKinoshita,HiroshiKitamura,ColleenLaird,TomLaMarre,JeanMa,MatsudoMakoto(PinewoodCompany),MatsuiJun(Heibonsha),Shan-nonMcLachlan,MizunoSachiko,ShoganNaidooandtheyMcamarathon

acknoWLeDgMents xi

groupinEugene(forkeepingmefitphysicallyandmentally),MiwakoOki-gami,OtaYoneo(ToyFilmProject),MisaOyama,AugustaLeePalmer,Michael Raine, Donald Richie, Saito Ayako, Tze-lan Sang, Miryam Sas,ShibataMotoyuki,IrinaShport,WilliamG.Simon,BenSinger,TakeuchiShigehiro(Eigashiryonokobeya),AlanTansman,PatrickTerry,NoboruTomonari, Mitsuyo Wada-Marciano, Akiko and Glynne Walley, KristenWhissel,LindaWilliams,MariYoshihara,MitsuhiroYoshimoto,andZhangZhen. LeighBarnwellandLizSmithatDukeUniversityPresshavepatientlyguidedmethroughthebook’seditorialandproductionprocesses. IalsothankenthusiasticaudiencesofmytalksattheUniversityofCali-fornia,Berkeley;CarletonCollege;theUniversityofMaryland;StanfordUniversity;theAssociationforAsianStudies;KinemaClub;andtheSo-cietyforCinemaandMediaStudies. IwouldliketosincerelythankNishimuraTaro,MatsumotoToshio,Ta-tsumiTakayuki,andthefacultyoflettersatKeioUniversity,andNotojiMasako,KunishigeJunji,andthefacultyofAmericanstudiesattheUni-versityofTokyo,Komaba,fortheirtremendouskindness. I am very grateful to my parents, Miyao Shunsuke and Masami, foralwaysbelievinginme,andtomyparents-in-law,AkagiSadaoandKimiko. Lastly,very,veryspecialthanksgotothelovesofmylife:Yoko,Dica(whoisatRainbowBridge),Dot,andHoku.Withoutyou,Iwillbelostintheshadow.Withyou,Icanbebrightandcheerful.

“ ‘Theaestheticsofshadow’[kage no bigaku]thatJapanesepeoplecreatedovera longperiodoftimethroughoutlongyearsstaysdeepinsideofourselvesnomatterhowmuchsocialtendencieschange.Wewanttobringout‘theaestheticsofshadow’fromitshiddenplace,understanditcorrectly,anddoourbesttocreateJapanesecinema.”SowroteYoshinoNobutaka,aproductionde-signeratShochiku,oneofthemajorfilmcompaniesinJapan,inthejournalEiga Shomeiin1979.1Cinemaisamediumoflightandshadow.Cinemadoesnotexistwithouttheelectricallightbeamthatpassesthroughthecelluloidstriptothrowashadowimageontoascreenbeforeaviewer.2Evenbeforetheprocessofpro-jection,theproductionofmovingphotographicimagesisacon-structioninlightandshadow.Evendigitalcamerasneedlighttoinputinformationtobetransformedintodata.ItisthereforenosurprisethattheJapaneseproductiondesignerparticularlynotedlightinginJapanesecinema.WhatattractsmeinYoshino’swords,though,ishisstrongemphasisonshadow.Whatis“theaesthet-icsofshadow”thathebelievedtobeveryimportantinJapanesecinema? In fact, Yoshino’s claim faithfully replicated the well-knownwriting by renowned novelist Tanizaki Jun’ichiro, In Praise of Shadows(“Ineiraisan,”December1933–January1934).Inhisdis-cussionofJapanesearchitecture,Tanizakiwrites,“Ultimately,it

IntroductIon

Whatistheaesthetics ofshaDoW?

2 introDuction

isthemagicofshadows.Weretheshadowstobebanishedfromthecor-ners,thealcove[inaJapaneseroom]wouldinthatinstantreverttomerevoid.Thiswasthegeniusofour[Japanese]ancestors—thatbycuttingoffthelightfromthisemptyspacetheyimpartedtotheworldofshadowsthatformedthereaqualityofmysteryanddepthsuperiortothatofanywallpaintingorornament.”3In Praise of Shadowshasbeenoneofthemostinflu-entialwritingsthatexplainJapaneseaesthetics.In1940,quotingTanizaki’sdiscussion extensively, Midorikawa Michio, the head of the NipponeseSocietyforCinematographers(NihonEigaKameramanKyokai),stated,“Weshouldobservethebeautyofshadows,whichappearsgracefully intheharmonyof[Japanese]architectureand lights.”4MidorikawaurgedcinematographersinJapantouselightingthatwouldachieve“thebeautyofshadows.”Forinstance,theNipponeseSocietyforCinematographersdecidedonThe Battle of Kawanakajima(Kawanakajima kassen,KinugasaTeinosuke,1941),awarfilmsetinsixteenth-centuryJapan,ashavingthebestcinematographyforadramaticfilmoftheyearmainlybecauseof“theattractionofblackthatfillstheentirefilm.”5ThenotionthatYoshinocalled“theaestheticsofshadow”hadalreadybeenwidelysharedamongJapanesecinematographersbytheearly1940s. Curiously,however,theexpressivityofshadowshadnotbeenempha-sizedinthedominantmodeoffilmlightinginJapanbeforeTanizakiwroteIn Praise of Shadows.ThesloganinthefirstdecadesoffilmmakinginJapanwas“Clarityfirst,storysecond”(Ichi nuke, ni suji),whichMakinoShozo,“thefatherofJapanesecinema,”hadintroducedinthe1910s.6Asthetermnuke(clarity)suggests,whatearlyJapanesefilmmakersemphasizedwasnotthebeautyofdarkness,butbrightnessthatwouldmakeimagesvisibleeveninworn-outprintsscreenedattheatersnotequippedwithbrightlightbulbs forprojection.Shochiku inherited suchanemphasisonclarity inlighting when they adopted their slogan “Bright and cheerful Shochikucinema”(akaruku tanoshi Shochiku eiga)inthe1920s. Morecuriously,whenTanizakiwroteIn Praise of ShadowsandJapanesecinematographerswidelyagreedwithhimaboutthebeautyofshadows,Japanwas leading theworld in thevogueofneon signs.7Theapprecia-tionofshadowemergedinthemidstofaflourishingcultureofelectricallight.TheacclaimedHollywoodfilmmakerJosefvonSternbergwasveryimpressedbythecoexistencebetweenlightandshadowinJapanwhenhevisitedin1936.Emphasizinginparticularthesimultaneousthrivingoflight


andshadow,SternbergrelatedhisfascinationwiththeJapaneselandscapetoOnoShichiro,areporterforthenewlyestablishedNihon Eigajournal:

TheentertainmentdistrictsinJapanaregood,especiallyatnight.Thelinesofvariousobjectsrisetothesurfaceincolorfulneonandallotherthingsaremysteriouslyhiddenindarkness....Japaneselandscapeisasmonochromeasinkpaintings,butthecolorsintheentertainmentdis-trictsaregaudilygorgeous.ThereisastreetvendorsellingexoticautumninsectsrightinfrontofanAmerican-stylejazzcafé.Cornisbeingbar-becuedrightnexttoicecreambeingsoldatanAmerican-styleparlor.Wearinggeta[woodenclogs]onherbarefeet,awomanwithaJapanesehairstylewalksalongthatstreet.Itisasuperbmysteriousviewthatcom-binesoldandnewcultures.IfIphotographthis,itmustbeTechnicolor.8

SternbergwasarguablythefilmmakermostrespectedbyJapanesecinema-tographersintheearlytomid-1930s.Thisrespectwasaresultofthecine-matographyinthosefilmsofSternberg’sthatmadeastarofMarleneDiet-richinHollywood.Asstatedinhisautobiography,Sternberg’stheoryofcinematiclightingresidedinacreativecontrastbetweenlightandshadow.Inachapterentirelydevotedtoexplaininghisthoughtsoncinematiclight-ing,Sternbergconfidentlystated,“Eachlightfurnishesitsownshadow,andwhereashadowisseentheremustbealight.Shadowismysteryandlightisclarity.Shadowconceals,lightreveals.(Toknowwhattorevealandwhattoconcealandinwhatdegreeandhowtodothisisallthereistoart.)Ashadowisasimportantinphotographyasthelight.Onecannotexistwith-outtheother.”9Thecoexistencebetweenlightandshadowthatheempha-sizedherecorrespondedtohisresponsetotheJapaneselandscapein1936. ContrarytoSternberg’semphasisontheinnatebalancebetweenlightandshadowincinematic lighting,whatJapanesecinematographersandcritics who specialized in film technologies particularly noted was his“craftyemphasis on shadows,” according to thecinematographer MiuraMitsuo,whohadwitnessedSternberg’sfilmmakinginHollywoodin1928andhadphotographedThe Battle of Kawanakajimain1941.10ThecriticTakiiKoji selected Sternberg’s Shanghai Express and Blonde Venus as thebestAmerican films of 1932 in terms of cinematography. In particular, Takiipraisedthecinematographicachievementin“low-keytones”that“enhancetheatmosphereandexpressthedrama.”11Focusingonthedistinctiveuseofshadowsinthesefilms,Takiiclaimed,“Thelow-keylightingisthehighest

4 introDuction

achievementofphotographictechnique....Itisnotsimplyaboutinvisibledarkness.”12 Why did Tanizaki and Japanese cinematographers start emphasizingshadowsinthe1930swhenJapanwasinthemidstoftheflourishingcultureofelectriclight?WhydidtheyneedtheconceptifthedominantmodeofJapanesefilmmakingsincethe1910shadbeenbrightnessinlighting?Weretherenoattemptstochallengethe“clarityfirst”sloganbywayofshadowbeforethe1930s?Ordidtheswitchoccurinanunprecedentedmanner?Whatwerethesociopolitical,economic,orculturalcontextsbehindthistendencytovalueshadowshighly?WhydidTanizakiandJapanesecinema-tographersneedtostressthesignificanceofshadowsinthenameofJapa-neseculture?Wasthereanythingtheyneededtodefendorjustify?AndhowwastheappreciationofshadownaturalizedastheessenceofJapaneseculturalidentity,asseeninYoshino’sclaim,ifitdidnotappearuntilthe1930s? In thisbook, Ibringout “ ‘theaestheticsof shadow’ from itshiddenplace”andfindawayto“understanditcorrectly.”YouwillreadhowandwhythenotionthatYoshinocalled“theaestheticsofshadow”wasformu-latedinthehistoryofJapanesecinema.Tobemorespecific,Itellastoryaboutthetension-riddenprocessofhowtechnologiesof lightingdevel-opedandhowdiscourseson lightingwereconstructed in the formativedecadesofcinemainJapan.Mystoryoftencrossesnationalbordersbe-causethediscussionof“theaestheticsofshadow”insuchcloseconnectionwithJapanesecultural traditionmusthavebeenaresultofcomplicatedinternationalortransnationalconflictsoverlightingtechnologies.Inthissense,Inarrateatransnational“historyofentanglementthattracesactualinterconnections”offilms,filmtechnologies,filmmakers,andfilmcriticismaroundlightandshadow,tousethefilmscholarMiriamHansen’sterms.13 ThisbookisarecastingofJapanesefilmhistorythroughthetropeoflightandshadow.14Lightinghasplayedasignificantrolenotonlyindistin-guishingthestylesofJapanesefilmfromthoseofAmericanandEuropeanfilm,butalsoinidentifying,orinventing,acoherentJapaneseculturaltra-dition.Implicitlyorexplicitly,suchquestionsaswhat is Japanese cinema?,what roles should cinema play in Japanese society?,andwhat is Japanese?havebeenexamined in thepracticeanddiscourseof lighting techniquesandtechnologies.HowcouldthelightandlightingbeusedasalensforinsightintoJapaneseidentity?Howwerecinematographyandlightingpracticed,


conceptualized,andtheorizedintheheterogeneousfieldsofJapanesefilm?Iarguethatlightingtechnologyincinemahasbeenstructuredbythecon-flicts of modernity in Japan, including the struggles over how to definecinema,subjectivity,andnationhood.15 IdiscusstheuniquehistoryofJapanesecinemabutIdonotpresup-poseanahistoricallyunifiedJapaneseness.Influencedbystructuralistandpoststructuralisttheory,thefilmtheoristNoëlBurchinsistson“theJapa-nesedifference,inbothHeianliteratureandmodernfilmpractice.”16EventhoughBurchemphasizesthe“presence of the context”inJapaneseculturalproduction,whatheseemstosuggest is thepresenceof thehistoricallyunchanging traditionof intertextuality, inwhich textsdonothide theirreferencetoothertexts.17AccordingtoBurch,Japanesecinemais“presen-tational”because it reliesonJapanese tradition, the fundamentalOthertothatoftheWest,whiletheWesterncounterparthas“representational”conventions,inwhichtheprocessofculturalproductionissupposedtobehidden.18ThereisnodoubtthatJapanesecinemaisintertextual.Lightingisclearevidenceofthis,especiallywhenShochiku,oneofthemajorfilmcom-panies,standardizeditsproductatitsfilmstudioandreferredtoKabuki-stylelighting.However,thatwasnottheresultofanunchangingpresenceofJapanesetraditionbutratherofasocioeconomicchoicemadeforlocalneeds—inventionof tradition in theprocessofmodernization.WhenIarguethatacertaincinematicstylewasdeployedinaJapanesemanner,ImakethecasewithinthehistoricalcontextofJapanesemodernity. EventhoughthefocusofthisbookisonJapanesecinema,IsituateJapa-nesecinemawithinthebroaderfieldsoftransnationalfilmhistory.Taka-muraKurataro,theformerheadoftheNipponeseSocietyforCinematog-raphers,oncewrotethattheessenceoffilmmakingwas“howtocontrolbroadanddiversetechnologicalmaneuversfromphotographing(stabiliz-inglightfromlensesontofilms)toprojection(exhibitingimagesrecordedonfilmontoscreensbyusinglights).”19Takamura’sclaimindicatesthattechnologicalandartistic“maneuvers”oflightdonotpresupposeanycul-turalornationalconflictinnature.Experimentswithtechnologicallightingincinemashouldbelocatedwithinthetransnationaldiscursiveandprac-ticalnetworkofapreoccupationwithandrepresentationoftechnologicalmodernity. Atthesametime,inJapanesereality,cinematiclightinghashistoricallybeenstabilizedandexhibitedincloserelationtoJapan’sculturalandna-

6 introDuction

tionalidentitypolitics.20Japanesefilmmakinghasbeenaninternationalaf-fair.After1897,whenKonishiCameraStorepurchasedaBaxterandWraycamerafromtheUnitedKingdomandAsanoShirobecamethefirstJapa-nesecinematographerwhousedthecameraandphotographedlandscapesofNihonbashiandAsakusaofTokyo,Japanesefilmcompaniesimportedmostof thecameras, lightingequipment,projectors, and rawfilm fromEuropeandtheUnitedStates.21Allofthoseimportedmaterialswerecon-tinuouslyinshortsupply.In1919,thepioneercinematographerEdamasaYoshiro insisted, “Both directors and cinematographers know very wellthatitisimpossibletohavegoodresultsinfilmmakingwithweakbeamsoflight....[However,]currently,equipmentforusingartificiallightingisnotcomplete.Wecannothelpdependingonlyonthesunlight.Itisthemosturgentissueforustohaveproperequipmentforartificiallighting.”22 Therehashistoricallybeenanunequalgeopoliticalrelationship,oranimbalance of power, between Japan and the United States. There is nodoubt thatHollywoodhasplayedaubiquitous role in thedevelopmentoflightingtechnologyinJapan.YettherelationshipbetweenHollywoodand Japanese cinema has not simply been a binary opposition betweenthe production and distribution center and periphery, between culturaldominanceandresistance,orbetweenglobalandlocal.ThefilmscholarDavidBordwellclaimsthatalltheworld’smass-marketcinemasmighthavebeenbasedonthestandardcontinuitystylepioneeredbyclassicalHolly-wood, as thegroundagainst which the stylistic accomplishments of in-digenousfilmmakerscanbeanalyzed.23But,asMiriamHansensuggests,thatdoesnotmaketheworld’smass-marketcinemas“simplyvariantsofadominantstyle.”24Hansenargues,“IffilmmakersinChinaandJapancon-frontedHollywoodhegemonyinbothitsenablinganddestructiveeffects,theireffortstoforgeidiomsoftheirownwerecruciallyinflectedbyalargervernacular-modernistcultureat oncecosmopolitanandlocal.”25 Bearinginmindsuchtensioninthegeopoliticalperspectivebetweenatransnationalityandanationality,IdrawonthehistorianHarryHaroo-tunian’sconceptof“co-evalmodernity,”whichsuggests thenarrativeofmodernity inJapantobe“contemporaneityyet thepossibilityofdiffer-ence,”withoutignoringthecomplexglobalpowerrelations.26Harootunianregardsa“doubling”as“auniqueemblemofJapan’smodernexperience”;fascinationwiththenewuncertaintyandfixationofsuchtemporalityandresistancetothecultureofcapitalism;or“therecognitionofavastfield


ofeconomicandculturalunevennessthatit[doubling]soughttoresolve,overcome, and even repress.”27 Following Harootunian’s idea of a dou-bling,thisbookregardstheideaofJapanesemodernityasfragmentaryandprovisional,inwhichkindaishugi(theideologyofmodernization,industri-alization,rationalization,andscientificprogress,modeledupontheWest)andmodanizumu(discoursesofnewnessineverydaylifeandmaterialsofconsumerculture)existedinanambivalentmanner. The aesthetics of shadow emerged in a process of transnational andcross-cultural negotiation in Japanese modernity. When I use the termnegotiation,IhaveStuartHall’sinfluentialessay“Encoding/Decoding”inmind.Hallproposesthreedecodingstrategiesinpracticesofreadingandmakingsenseofcultural texts.28Negotiatedreading ismoreambivalentthandominantreading,whichwouldpresumenoactiveinterventionatallonthepartofthedecoder,oroppositionalreading,whichwouldassumenoidentificationatallwiththestructuresofinterpellationofthetext.AsthefilmscholarJudithMaynesuggests,whilethemodelofnegotiation“positsboththeactivityofthereader/viewerandtheheterogeneityofthediffer-entelementsofsocialformations”and“conceivesofavarietyofreading,”thereis“atendency”inculturalstudiesofregardingsuchheterogeneityandactivityasanindicationof“aresistancetodominantideology.”29Suchatendencyeventuallymaintainsthebinarystructurebetweenthedomi-nantversustheoppositional.Idonotconsiderthenotionofnegotiationtobea formofresistance. Iammoreconcernedabouthistoricallyspe-cificstrugglesandconflictsamonggroupsofpeople.Someofthemcouldbeinpoliticallyoreconomicallydominantpositionsandothersinrecep-tiveones,butsuchrelationshipswerebynomeansunchanging.Anaudi-enceofapopularstarcouldbeextremelypassivetothepresumedidealofcapitalistideologyandtremendouslyactiveatthesametime.Suchanaudiencecouldbecooperative in reinforcing thedominant ideologybynotpassivelybutconsciouslyparticipatingintheconstructionofthestar’sofficial image.Simultaneously, hisorherperception—or theaffect—oftheonscreenimageofthestarwasdirectandphysicalanddiminishedthedistancebetweentheactorandhimselforherself.Tome, thenotionofnegotiationgraspssuchsimultaneity,coexistence,anddialogismwithoutignoringthepowerrelations—globalpowerrelations—amonggroupsofpeople.Negotiationisnotlimitedtotheissueofspectatorialpositionsbutthoseofindustrialproduction,socialcriticism,andculturaltradition.

8 introDuction

Withsuchanotionofnegotiationinmind,Idescribethehistoricalpro-cessofhowtheaestheticsofshadowhasbeeninvented,developed,natu-ralized,andpublicizedinthediscourseofmodernityinJapan.MyfocusonlightingtechnologiesandtechniquesinthehistoryofJapanesecinemaillustratesthefollowing:

1.Thestrugglesoverthedefinitionofcinemaforthemasses,withinthecapitalist-industrialmodernizationofShochiku,betweentheclassicalstyleofKabukiandHollywood.

2.Theconflictsinshapingnew(especiallyfemale)spectatorialsubjec-tivitywithinthatcapitalist-industrialmodernity,alongwiththeemer-genceofanewgenreofperioddrama,andanewstar,arguablythemost popular star in Japanese film history, Hayashi Chojiro (laterHasegawaKazuo),whosefilmswereaspecificallysensorial-affectiveform.

3.Theambivalentrelationshipbetweenthenewformsofsocial rela-tions—primacyofvision,tobespecific—andcinemaasanewvisualmedium.

4.Theattemptofconceptualizingculturalauthenticityinthestrugglesbetween the ceaseless fascination with the novel technologies ofHollywoodlightingandthedefenseofculturalspirit(bunka seishin).

Chapter1isahistoricalanalysisoftheformationofthefilmindustryandmodeofproductionfrom1910throughthe1920sfromtheperspectiveoflight.AsaresultofWorldWarI, Japanwastransformed intoan indus-trial power. Especially during the reconstruction from the Great KantoEarthquakeof1923,Tokyobecamealargeindustrialcenter,recruitingitslaborforcefromthecountryside,aswellascenterofmassconsumption.Shochiku,thecompanythatoriginallyownedandoperatedKabukithe-aters,enteredthefilmbusinessin1920andestablisheditselfinthemidstof suchdevelopingmodern life.Theprotagonistof thischapter iscine-matographerHenryKotani,whostartedhiscareerinHollywoodaround1915andreturnedtoJapantojoinShochikuCompany’sKamatastudioin1920butwasfiredafewyearslater.Intheclashoflightingtechniquesbe-tweenKotaniandShochiku,wecanobservethestrugglingexperienceofcapitalist-industrialmodernityandmodernization inJapan. Iargue thatlightingwasconceivedbyJapanesefilmmakersandcritics inrelationtoHollywoodcinemaandJapanesetheatricalconventionsduringtheforma-


tiveyearsofthefilmindustry.Thekeytermsarevisibilityandexpressivity.ComparisonismadebetweenKotani’sstill-extantHollywoodandJapa-neseworks,alongwithcriticismofhisandotherJapanese-madefilmsoftheperiod.ComparisonbetweenSternberg’sDocks of New York(1928)andits Japaneseadaptation,First Step Ashore (Joriku daiippo,ShimazuYasu-jiro,1932)demonstratesthatShochiku’sfilmmakingprioritywasnottheexpressivityof lighting,nomatterhowhighlySternberg’s lighting tech-niqueswereregardedbyJapanesecinematographersatthattime.ShochikuKamatafilms,fromaperspectiveoflighting,achieveddominantstatusinJapanesefilmmakingduringtheperiodofmodernlifenotbecauseoftheimitationofHollywoodbutbecauseofthecapitalisttacticsthateffectivelycombinedrationalizedproductionprocesses,thestarsystem,andconven-tionalizedtheatricalstyle. Chapter 2 historically combines genre studies, star studies, andspectatorshipstudiesbywayofthepracticeoflighting.Themainfocusesareonjidaigeki(perioddrama),theuniquegenreofJapanesecinemathatwasrapidlypopularizedinthelatterhalfofthe1920s,andHayashiChojiro,themostpopularmalestarinJapanfromthelate1920suntilthe1940s.Inthelate1920s,jidaigekichallengedtheprevailingdominanceoftheSho-chikuKamatafilmthroughspectacularsword-fightingscenes.Jidaigekiin-corporatedlightingandtechnologyinadistinctivemanner.Theflashoftheswordwasthedefinitiveelementofthenewgenre.Inordertoachievetheflashinanexpressivemanner,jidaigekimixedHollywoodstylewithan-othertheatricalconventioninJapan,shinkokugeki(newnationaltheater),whichwasnotableforswordfightsthatweremorerealisticthanKabuki.Inotherwords,alocalizedproductofHollywood(ShochikuKamatafilms)was challenged by another localized product of Hollywood (jidaigeki).Makingthingsmorecomplicated,Shochikuchallengedbackatjidaigekiwith its brand new star, Hayashi Chojiro. Shochiku’s counterattack wasachievedbyitsowninnovativelightingtechniques—“movablelight,”ono-bashi (extension), andnagashi- me (sensual sidelongglance)—thatwereexclusively invented for Hayashi by craftily combining the Hollywood-style three-point lightingwithKabuki techniques.With theflashof thestar—hisfaceandeyes,inparticular—ShochikueventuallywonthefightagainsttheflashoftheswordandsucceededinmaintainingitsfinancialandstylisticdominanceintheJapanesefilmindustryatleastuntilthelate1930s.Moreover,withHayashi’sstardom,afilmfanculturethattargeted

10 introDuction

thefemaleaudiencewasborn.Hayashi’sstardomalsomarkedtheemer-genceofamodernviewingsubjectinJapanesecinemawhoactivelypar-ticipated inconsumingproductspreparedandpublicizedbyacapitalistindustry.Hayashifanswerephysicallysusceptibletotheeffectofcinemaasamoderntechnology,buttheyweresimultaneouslyconsciousthattheywereconsumersofthestarimage. Through investigating the social demographics of the American cityand the audiences of melodrama, the film historian Ben Singer showsthat the urban working class and the white-collar lower middle class—bothproductsofmoderncapitalism’sgreatbureaucraticexpansion—werethe main participatory spectators and consumers of the “manufacturedstimulus”offeredbysensationalamusementssuchasmelodramaonstageandscreen.30Both theswordfighting in jidaigekiandthephysicalityofHayashiChojiroofferedsuchamanufacturedstimulus.Specificlightingschemesplayedasignificantroleinbothcasesandenhancedsensationoftheamusements.Whilevisibilitywascrucialtotheconstructionofnarra-tiveclarityandbrightnessinthedominantmodeoffilmmakinginJapanintheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcenturyandwasstandardizedinSho-chikuKamatafilms,jidaigekiemphasizedthespectacularvisualdelightoftheswordinmotion.IftheswordinjidaigekiamplifiedthediscourseoflightinginJapanesecinema,itwasalsothelightingthatdeprivedjidaigekioftheinitialshock.Becauseofanewlightingscheme,jidaigekiwastrans-formedintoaglamorousattractionofastar—adifferenttypeofmanufac-turedstimulus.TheflashoftheswordwasacontestedfieldintheJapanesefilmcultureofthelate1920s. Chapter3 isaclose textualanalysisof twocritically successfulfilms,whichIcall“streetfilms,”andIdiscusstheuseoflightinginthemintermsofsocialcriticismandaestheticmodernism.OneisCrossways(Jujiro,a.k.a.Crossroads and Shadows of the Yoshiwara), a jidaigeki film from 1928 di-rectedbyKinugasaTeinosuke,andtheotherisThat Night’s Wife(Sono yo no tsuma),acontemporarycrimemelodramafrom1930directedbyOzuYasujiro.BurchhighlyratesThat Night’s WifeinhisgroundbreakingworkonJapanesecinema,To the Distant Observer: Form and Meaning in the Japa-nese Cinema(1979),as“fascinatingevidenceoftheimpactwhichAmeri-canfilmsandWesternculturehad,notonlyuponOzubutuponasizableportionoftheJapanesemiddleandlowermiddleclasses.”31CrosswayshasoftenbeenregardedasanimitationofGermanexpressionistfilm.Yetby


closelyexamininglightinginthesetwofilms,thischapterfocuseslessonexplicationoftherelationofinfluenceorimpactbetweenEastandWestandmoreonthedepictionofwhattheliterarycriticThomasLaMarrecallsthe“cinematicmateriality”thatis“dynamic.”32LaMarrehasraisedinsight-fulquestionsregardingthisdichotomybetweenJapanandtheWest:“DoestheuseofaWesternformormedium(cinema)inJapanforceJapanintoWesterndevelopmentandhistory?OrdoJapanesetraditionstransformWesterncinema?Doescinema ‘westernize’Japan,ordoesJapan ‘japan-ify’cinema?”LaMarrearguesthattheproblemwithsuchquestionsisthattheysupposeaninsurmountablecontradictionorincommensurabledif-ference between Westernization and “Japanization.”33 According to La-Marre,though,modernity,“asthecondensationofanumberofdifferentprocessesandhistories,isnotalinearprocesswithintheWestorinrela-tiontotheWest.”34LaMarrearguesthatthedynamicmaterialityofcinemacanopenupnewandconstantlydivergent “unperceived modesof sen-soryperceptionandexperience,therebysuggestingadifferentorganiza-tionofdailylife.”35ThematerialityenhancedbythelightinginCrosswaysandThat Night’s WifedeviatesfromthesimpledichotomyofEast/Westorthegeopoliticalhierarchyandstructuralhegemonyofcenter/peripheryandplacesitselfinthesensorynetworkofglobalfilmculture.Inparticu-lar,thesetwofilmsarerepresentativesofthecoevallymodernphenome-nonofstreetfilms,inwhichthecityistheprotagonistthatcapturestherhythmsandtoneofmodernlife:cinemarevisualizesthemoderntechno-logicalworld.36Mytextualanalysisislessinaninterpretivemannerofanarrativestructureandmoreinacloselyobservatorywaytocapturesubtlenuancesandfunctionsoflightandshadow.Lightinginthesestreetfilmsoffersinsightfulvisionsintothereconfigurationsofurbanspace,theeffectofsociopoliticalandsocioeconomicpowerrelations,andthediscourseonthesenseofvisionfromthelate1920stoearly1930s.Inthismanner,despitebeingproducedwithinShochiku’scommercialstrategy,thesetwofilmsin-ternallychallenged,ordiversified,thedominantmodesoffilmproductionthatcorrespondedtothecompany’sslogan,“BrightandcheerfulShochikucinema.” Chapter4isacomprehensivediscourseanalysisoncinematiclightingfromthelate1930sto1945.A“discursivehistoryofcinema”isproposedbythefilmscholarAaronGerow.37Inhisproposal,Gerowaskstheseques-tions:“Whospoke,andwithwhatauthority?Whereorinwhatsocioeco-

12 introDuction

nomicconditionswascinematicdiscoursebeingspoken,andtowhomwasitdirected?Whatrelationsofpowerwereimbricatedintherelationsbe-tweendiscourses?Whatwerestatementsbeingmadeagainst, andwhatwastheirconcretepolitical import?Whatwasassumedorleftunsaidintheseenunciations?Howweretheyarticulatingnotjustcinemabutalsothosewhomdiscoursewasspeakingofandthemodernculturetheyinhab-ited?”38Dealingwithmostofthesequestions,Ifocusonhowandwhytheaestheticsofshadow,arguablythemostsignificantmanifestationonlight-inginJapanesecinema,emergedinthelate1930sto1940s.Intheseperi-odswecanobserveanobviouschangeintheappearanceofpopularfilms,mostnotablyinthestarvehiclesofHasegawaKazuo(formerlyknownasHayashiChojiro)producedatthenewlyestablishedTohostudioandinthecriticismoncinematiclightinginfilmmagazines. Inthemid-tolate1930s,JapaneseaestheticswaswidelydiscussedinthecontextofJapaneseimperialistwarefforts.Theaestheticsofshadow,whichappreciateddarknessinJapanesearchitectureandlandscapeinoppositiontoelectricityandbrightlightinginWesternculture,emergedwithinthistrend.Filmmakersandcriticsstartedtodiscussashifttorealismandtheintegrationofadocumentarystyleincinematography.However,Iarguethattheemergenceoftheaestheticsofshadowwasinfactanembodimentofanambivalentattitudetowardtechnologiesofcinema.Itwasacompli-catedmixofadorationoftheHollywood-stylelow-keylightinganddespairaboutthelimitedmaterialconditionsinJapan.Itwasanattempttojustifytheconflict inthenameofdocumentaryandJapaneseculturaltraditionundercertainhistoricalandmaterialconditions.Usingthelensoflightingandtechnology,IbringoutanewlightonthehistoricaldiscoursesonJapa-neseaestheticsandtheinventionofJapaneseculturaltradition. ThefilmhistorianAbéMarkNornesdescribesthecontradictorycon-ditionsinJapanesesocietyandcinemaofthisperiod.Ononehand,the“gradualmilitarizationoffilmcultureisundeniable,”giventhatcinemaissuchacapital-intensiveandcollaborativeformofart.39Ontheotherhand,Nornessuggests,“allthewayuptoWorldWarII,onecanfindplentyofjazzy,colorfuladvertisementsforHollywoodfilmsnexttodeadlyseriouscelebrationsofwarheroics[onthepagesoffilmmagazines].Examinedfrom this perspective, this so-called dark valley in Japanese history wasalsoanexcitingtimeforfilmmakingthathadmoretodowiththethrillofmodernitythanwiththewarinChina.”40Thediscursivetendencyofthe


aestheticsofshadowwasmeanttosynthesizetheseapparentlycontradic-torytrends.TheostensiblegoalwastohighlyvaluetheJapanesespiritthatshouldberepresentedinJapaneseaesthetics.Yetthehiddenmotivebehindthatgoalwasadesperatesearchforwaystoovercomematerialandtechno-logicallimitationsandtoaccomplishspectaclesthatwouldequaltheglam-ourofHollywoodcinema—inadifferentbutequallygrippingmanner.IfIuseLaMarre’sterms,thiswas“aformofcolonialambivalence,astructureofdisavowalanddisplacement,whichentailsarepeating,reprising,orre-directingofWesternhierarchiesbasedonwhiteness,sexappeal,andin-dustriousness.”41Suchtermsasthe attraction of blacknessorbeauty of dark-nesswere inventedandconceptualized incloserelationtodocumentaryandrealismtoconcealbutsimultaneouslyimplytheaspirationformoreglamour.Comparedtothekeytermsofchapter1,whicharevisibilityversusexpressivity,thoseinthischapterwouldbeinvisibilityequalsexpressivity. AsacasestudyofsuchanambivalentlydialogicrelationshipbetweenHollywoodandJapan,IcloselyanalyzetheworkofthecinematographerHarryMimura,aformercolleagueofthecinematographerGreggTolandin Hollywood. I conduct comparative analyses of films and discoursesonlighting,notpresupposingthebinarycontrastsbetweenWesternandnon-Western cinema or the Hollywood dominant—because I believeit is impossible todistinguish themclearly inanyway—but toexaminetheconditionsofJapanesecinemathatwererifewithwhatGerowcalls“contradictions”and“crisscrossedbytransnationalvectors.”42 Thisbookconcludeswithanauteuristanalysis,butwithalittletwist.Idonotconcentrateontheworkofagreatdirectorbutthatofacinematog-rapher,onewhoworkedwithsuchfamousdirectorsasKurosawaAkira,MizoguchiKenji,andOzuYasujiro,whohavebeenregardedasauteursbycriticsandhistorians.Thischapterisachallengetotheentrenchedmodelofthecanonizedauteur,ormasterdirector,especiallyprevalentinJapanesefilmstudies.43MostacademicworksonJapanesecinemahavefocusedoneitherahistoricalsurveyofpopularfilmsorcanonizedauteurdirectors.Theassumptionofauteurtheoryisthatfilmsdirectedbyaparticularauteurcanbeanalyzedtouncoverrecurrentthemesandaestheticpatternsthatdemonstratethecohesionofhisorhervisionoftheworld.Thisapproachisinsufficienttoaddressfilmmaking.Whatismostlackinginexistingaca-demicworksonJapanesefilmsisaperspectivethatconsidersfilmstobetheproductsofcollaborationthatexistbeyondauteurdirectors’authority.

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Therearetechniciansbehindthecamerainadditiontothedirectors.Idis-cussthefilmsoffamousdirectorssuchasKurosawa,Mizoguchi,IchikawaKon,andMasumuraYasuzo,butmyemphasisisnotupondiscoveringorreaffirmingthecoherenceoftheirwork;rather,Iindicatethecollaborativenatureofcinemaandtheindustrialstructurethatdefinesit. Thefocusof thisconcludingchapter ison theconflictsandnegotia-tionsbetweenthetrendthatattemptedtonaturalizethediscourseoftheaesthetics of shadowas theessence of Japanese culture to suit the newsociopoliticalandsocioeconomicendsofJapaninthepost–WorldWarIIperiodandthefilmmakerswhochallengedsuchatrendbycriticallyengag-ingwiththepracticeoflighting.TheprotagonististhecinematographerMiyagawaKazuo,whoseworks,suchasRashomon(Kurosawa,1950)andUgetsu(Ugetsu monogatari,Mizoguchi,1953),continuouslyreceivedinter-nationalprizes.Obviously,Miyagawawasanactiveagencyininventingtra-ditionsandreimaginingtheaestheticsofshadowastheJapaneseaestheticinthepostwarperiod.Butatthesametime,Miyagawa’swork,especiallyitshyperbolicfocusonthecontrastsbetweenlightandshadowandtheclarityofimagesindeepfocus,wasnoteasilycontainedwithinsuchadiscourseofJapanesebeauty.BeingattentivetoboththehistoryoflightingtechniquesandtheinnovationoflightingtechnologyinandoutsideJapan,Miyagawa’scinematographydiversifiedthemeaningofrealismincinema.

notes

Introduction

AlltranslationsofJapanesebooks,leaflets,andnewspaperandmagazinearticlesinthisbookarebymeunlessotherwisenoted.IhavepreservedJapanesenameorder,whichplacesthefamilynamefirst(e.g.,OnoShichiro),exceptforfamouspersonsandschol-arsbasedintheUnitedStateswhoarecommonlyreferredtobytheirgivennamesfirst(e.g.,SessueHayakawa).IdonotusemacronsforJapanesetransliteratedtexts. 1.Yoshino,“ ‘Ineiraisan’niyoseteII,”15.Eiga ShomeiisajournalfortheJapanese

AssociationofFilmLightingTechnicians(NihonEigaShomeiGijutsushaKyo-kai).

2.Guerin,A Culture of Light,xiii. 3.Tanizaki,In Praise of Shadows,32–33. 4.Midorikawa,“Kameramannoseikatsutokyoyo,”65. 5.OtaSaburo,“Kuronogaika,”102–3. 6.Shimazaki,“NihonnoeigagijutsuhattennihatashitaTsuburayaEijinoyakuwari,”

38;Watanabe,Eizo o horu,60;Kawatani,Mato o kakenuketa ototko,14–15,38–41.There are different versions of Makino’s words. According to some sources,“story”precedes“clarity.”AccordingtoJoanneBernardi,TakizawaOsamu,whoknewMakinoShozopersonally,supportsthisversion(Bernardi,Writing in Light,301).ThecinematographerMoritaFujioclaimsthatitwasoriginally“clarityfirst”butwaschangedto“storyfirst”later(Morita,“Nihoneiganojidaigekisahodai3kai,”71).Evenifithadbeen“claritysecond,”thefactthatMakinoemphasizedtheimportanceoflightingincinemastaysthesame.

7.Mizuta,“LuminousEnvironment,”342. 8.Ono,“Sutanbaguotsuisekisuru,”44.ForSternberg,thisvoyagetoJapanwasthe

firstlegofalonewestwardcruisetoAsiaafterhisheartbreakingexperiencesinHollywood.TheVienna-bornfilmmaker,whohadmadeastarofMarleneDiet-richinHollywood,hadbeenfiredbyParamountafterbothcriticalandboxofficefailuresofThe Scarlet Empress(1934)andThe Devil Is a Woman(1935).ThelatterbecamethelastfilmthatSternbergandDietrichworkedontogether(Baxter,Von Sternberg, 202–3).Arguably, theexperience in Japan revivedSternberg’s confi-

284 notestointroDuction

denceinhistheoryofcinema.EventhoughSternbergdidnottalkparticularlyaboutJapanandlighting,henotedinoneinterviewhisrealizationafterthetrip:“Myideasaboutthecinemabecamemorepreciseinthelightofmyexperiences.Iwastiredofseeingstudiooppositiontoanycreativeideasofthecinéasteatthedifferentstagesofitsexpression.Whereasapainteruseshisbrushes,canvasandcolors,followingonlythebentofhisimagination,thefilmdirectorhastoconsiderothermenandhumanmaterial.Afteratriparoundtheworld,Iwantedtoworkaccordingtocertainprinciples;forinstance,thatweshouldbeconcernedtocre-ateexpressiveeffectsachievedinliterature—andIhopedtoworkwithmorefree-dom”(Weinberg,Josef von Sternberg,125).

9.Sternberg,Fun in a Chinese Laundry,311–12. 10.MiuraMitsuo,“CameramannoCameramanhihyo,”82;MiuraMitsuo,“Horiuddo

kara,”41. 11.Takii,“MitchellNoiseless,”79. 12.Ibid. 13.Hansen,“VernacularModernism,”305. 14.Theprevalenceofshadowsproducedbythenonmimeticmise-en-scèneandby

artificiallightingwasrecognizedbysuchhistoriansandtheoristsasLotteEisnerandSiegfriedKracauerinadifferenthistoricalcontext(seeEisner,The Haunted Screen;Kracauer,From Caligari to Hitler).BothEisnerandKracauerseeshadowinthefilmsoftheearlyGermanstudiosasavisualmetaphorforevilorforthedarkandthreateningforcesthatallegedlylurkedinthepre-HitlerGermanpsycheorsoul.Mybookalsoregardsthecinematicshadow’ssignificanceas“an‘other’realitythatmustbeperceivedforthesakeofexistentialsecurityorpsychicsta-bility”andthensuggestsanotherfunctionofitasa“modernistnarrativedevice”thatenablesacommunicativerelationshipbetweenfilmmakerandviewerregard-ing “a simultaneity of multiple narrative, a diegetic complexity” (see Franklin,“MetamorphosisofaMetaphor,”178–79).YetthemajorfocusofEisnerandKra-cauerseemedtobethenarrationalfunctionsofthecinematicshadow,whetherasameansofmetaphororofcommunication.Whataboutthelightingtechnologiesandthepeoplewhodealtwithsuchtechnologiesbehindthecinematicshadowonthescreen?Howweresuchtechnologiesdiscussedincontemporarycriticism?

15.Regarding definitions of the terms modernity, modernism, and modernization, IbasicallydrawonthefilmhistorianAaronGerow’susage.Modernityis“thestateofbeingnew”onthemateriallevel;modernismistheheterogeneousbutintercon-nected“setofdiscoursesattemptingtoshapeaparticularvisionofmodernity,”oftencharacterizedbyself-reflexivityandrebellionagainstbourgeoisvalues;andmodernization isaprocess“inafieldofstrugglewheretherearenotonlyothercompetingmodernisms...butalsocomplextraversingforcesofpowerandhis-toricalcontingencies”(Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,34–35).

16.Burch,To the Distant Observer,49;emphasisintheoriginal. 17.Ibid.;emphasisintheoriginal. 18.Ibid.,71–72. 19.Takamura,Satsuei kantoku Takamura Kurataro,386. 20.I trynottosubscribetotechnologicaldeterminism,nomatterhowsignificant

theimpactthatmaterialconditionshadupontheemergenceoftheaestheticsof

notestochapter1 285

shadow.Insteadmyfocusistocarefullydelineatethecompetingdiscoursesandpracticesthatcinematographersandcriticsweresubjecttowhenfacingcertainmaterialconditions.

21.Gijutsu shi Iinkai, “Yunyu dai 1 go no kamera wa bakkusuta ando rei,” 69–72;TanakaJunichiro,Nihon eiga hattatsu shi I,70.

22.Edamasa,“Nazewagakuniniyuryoeigaumarezaruka,”107.EdamasastartedhiscareerasacinematographerwhenYoshizawaShoten,oneoftheoldestfilmcom-paniesinJapan,constructedthefirstglassstageinJapan.

23.Bordwell,“VisualStyleinJapaneseCinema,1925–1945,”7,23. 24.Hansen,“VernacularModernism,”291. 25.Ibid.;emphasisadded. 26.Harootunian,Overcome by Modernity,xvi–vii. 27.Ibid.,xvii,xxi;emphasisintheoriginal. 28.StuartHall,“Encoding/Decoding,”128–38. 29.SeeMayne,Cinema and Spectatorship,92–93. 30.Singer,Melodrama and Modernity,91.SeealsoZhang,An Amorous History of the

Silver Screen,9. 31.Burch,To the Distant Observer,154. 32.LaMarre,Shadows on the Screen,82. 33.Ibid.,80. 34.Ibid.,19. 35.Ibid.,83. 36.Guerin,A Culture of Light,xviii,170. 37.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,3. 38.Ibid.,4. 39.Nornes,Japanese Documentary Film,xvii,xx. 40.Ibid.,xxi. 41.LaMarre,Shadows on the Screen,14. 42.Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,13. 43.Nornes,Japanese Documentary Film,xviii;Gerow,Visions of Japanese Modernity,

3.

1. lighting and modernity

1.Ushihara,“Kamatanokoro,”21. 2.ShiraiShigeru,Kamera to jinsei,25. 3.Miura,“Kiseki,”42. 4.OtaniTakejiro,“Shochikukinemasosetsunitsuite”[OnestablishingShochiku

cinema],Engei Gaho,May1920,quotedinTanakaJunichiro,Shochiku shichijunen shi,239.

5.QuotedinWakiya,Otani Takejiro engeki rokuju nen,208.OtanialsomentionedthenumberofreelsthattheU.S.filmindustryexportedeverymonth(eightmillion)andtheamountofincometaxespaidbythosewhoengagedinthebusinessinLosAngeles(6.4milliondollars).

6.QuotedinHirai,“SokoNihoneigasatsueishi5,”47. 7.Taguchi,“ShochikuKinemasoritsuhiwa(5),”95. 8.Bordwell,Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema,19.

DaisukeMiyaoisassociateprofessorintheDepartmentofEastAsianLanguagesandLiteraturesattheUniversityofOregon.HeistheauthorofSessue Hayakawa: Silent Cinema and Transnational Stardom,alsopublishedbyDukeUniversityPress.

LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataMiyao,Daisuke.Theaestheticsofshadow:lightingandJapanesecinema/DaisukeMiyao.p.cm.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.isbn978-0-8223-5407-9(cloth:alk.paper)isbn978-0-8223-5422-2(pbk.:alk.paper)1.Cinematography—Lighting. 2.Cinematographers—Japan.3.Motionpictureindustry—Japan—History. 4.Cultureinmotionpictures. I.Title.pn1993.5.j3M562013777.092—dc23 2012033713

The Aesthetics of Shadow by Daisuke Miyao

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